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Communications, media and culture personal statement example.

I am hoping to read for a communications, media and culture degree. I find it remarkable, inspiring and a little bit frightening how the media exercise control over our lives, whilst offering rich cultural rewards. I am fascinated by the action and effects of human communications of all kinds and am keen to extend the insight I have gained so far. My interest in the subject began through my GCSE Media Studies and my knowledge of the subject area has expanded at A-level where I am acquiring analytical skills, helping me unpack and contextualise a wider variety of media forms. My other A-levels are English Language, Sociology, Critical Thinking and Philosophy &Ethics, and these are giving me a broad overview of life and human communications and culture. An example of how these subjects support each other would be studying the marxist concept of hegemony and applying it to religion, media ownership, the high culture/low culture debate in sociology and even the bourgeois emphasis on Standard English. I've slowly been gaining practical experience alongside my academic learning. Two years ago, I was lucky enough to get work experience with a television crew on location as a runner. I learnt the value of working as a member of the team in a stressful environment and I gained an understanding of the processes of TV production. I have also been involved in several other media projects, some as coursework and others undertaken independently. Coursework projects have included a magazine for young male teenagers; designing a product and advertising campaign; and producing, directing and presenting a documentary for sixth formers and their parents on the EMA system. As extra-curricular activities, I designed a poster and Internet campaign for one of the school plays and in the absence of any existing school publication, I launched a bimonthly newsletter, aimed at Angley's students. These projects have provided great learning experiences, enabling me to develop print software skills in a creative way. Other school activities have included, the lead male role in 'South Pacific' and significant roles in 'Oliver' and 'West Side Story' as well as assisting the Performing Arts A-level group perform their comedy show. By playing roles on stage, my confidence has increased and I have learnt to appreciate and learn from the talents of others. I am also a school prefect, which I find satisfying and a great privilege. In my leisure time I enjoy making films - mostly parodies of various genres. I then edit the films using a programme called Magix Movie Edit Pro. I have also edited on Final Cut Express, which has made an interesting comparison. My next project is to learn Final Cut Pro, and to develop a more effects-driven style. I also like to read, for example, I was inspired by Naomi Klein's book No Logo on the effects of globalization, the commoditisation of our culture and public spaces and how powerful brands have become. I am currently reading Graeme Burton's Media & Society to gain some additional perspective on my A2 media and to prepare myself for my degree. So far I have enjoyed myself in my studies and hopefully have developed some of the skills and qualities for success in degree-level communications, media and culture studies.

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This personal statement was written by Superboy for application in 2008.

Superboy's Comments

It's okay i guess, it pretty much describes me not trying to sound big headed, i tried to show what i wanted to gain from going to university and what skills i have and how they can become much better by going to the right university. The key was 'Show don't tell'.

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31 Cross-Cultural Communication

What is culture.

Learning Objectives

Upon completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• distinguish between surface and deep culture in the context of the iceberg model,
• describe how cross-cultural communication is shaped by cultural diversity,
• explain how the encoding and decoding process takes shape in cross-cultural communication,
• describe circumstances that require effective cross-cultural communication, and
• describe approaches to enhance interpersonal communication in cross-cultural contexts.

We may be tempted to think of intercultural communication as interaction between two people from different countries. While two distinct national passports communicate a key part of our identity non-verbally, what happens when two people from two different parts of the same country communicate? Indeed, intercultural communication happens between subgroups of the same country. Whether it be the distinctions between high and low Germanic dialects, the differences in perspective between an Eastern Canadian and a Western Canadian, or the rural-versus-urban dynamic, our geographic, linguistic, educational, sociological, and psychological traits influence our communication.

Culture is part of the very fabric of our thought, and we cannot separate ourselves from it, even as we leave home and begin to define ourselves in new ways through work and achievements. Every business or organization has a culture, and within what may be considered a global culture, there are many subcultures or co-cultures. For example, consider the difference between the sales and accounting departments in a corporation. We can quickly see two distinct groups with their own symbols, vocabulary, and values. Within each group there may also be smaller groups, and each member of each department comes from a distinct background that in itself influences behaviour and interaction.

Suppose we have a group of students who are all similar in age and educational level. Do gender and the societal expectations of roles influence interaction? Of course! There will be differences on multiple levels. Among these students not only do the boys and girls communicate in distinct ways, but there will also be differences among the boys as well as differences among the girls. Even within a group of sisters, common characteristics exist, but they will still have differences, and all these differences contribute to intercultural communication. Our upbringing shapes us. It influences our worldview, what we value, and how we interact with each other. We create culture, and it defines us.

Culture involves beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions that are shared by a group of people. More than just the clothes we wear, the movies we watch, or the video games we play, all representations of our environment are part of our culture. Culture also involves the psychological aspects and behaviours that are expected of members of our group. For example, if we are raised in a culture where males speak while females are expected to remain silent, the context of the communication interaction governs behaviour. From the choice of words (message), to how we communicate (in person, or by e-mail), to how we acknowledge understanding with a nod or a glance (non-verbal feedback), to the internal and external interference, all aspects of communication are influenced by culture.

Culture consists of the shared beliefs, values, and assumptions of a group of people who learn from one another and teach to others that their behaviours, attitudes, and perspectives are the correct ways to think, act, and feel.

It is helpful to think about culture in the following five ways:

• Culture is learned.
• Culture is shared.
• Culture is dynamic.
• Culture is systemic.
• Culture is symbolic.

The iceberg, a commonly used metaphor to describe culture, is great for illustrating the tangible and the intangible. When talking about culture, most people focus on the “tip of the iceberg,” which is visible but makes up just 10 percent of the object. The rest of the iceberg, 90 percent of it, is below the waterline. Many business leaders, when addressing intercultural situations, pick up on the things they can see—things on the “tip of the iceberg.” Things like food, clothing, and language difference are easily and immediately obvious, but focusing only on these can mean missing or overlooking deeper cultural aspects such as thought patterns, values, and beliefs that are under the surface. Solutions to any interpersonal miscommunication that results become temporary bandages covering deeply rooted conflicts.

Cultural Membership

How do you become a member of a culture, and how do you know when you are full member? So much of communication relies on shared understanding, that is, shared meanings of words, symbols, gestures, and other communication elements. When we have a shared understanding, communication comes easily, but when we assign different meanings to these elements, we experience communication challenges.

What shared understandings do people from the same culture have? Researchers who study cultures around the world have identified certain characteristics that define a culture. These characteristics are expressed in different ways, but they tend to be present in nearly all cultures:

• rites of initiation
• common history and traditions
• values and principles
• purpose and mission
• symbols, boundaries, and status indicators

Terms to Know

Although they are often used interchangeably, it is important to note the distinctions among multicultural, cross-cultural, and intercultural communication.

Multiculturalism is a rather surface approach to the coexistence and tolerance of different cultures. It takes the perspective of “us and the others” and typically focuses on those tip-of-the-iceberg features of culture, thus highlighting and accepting some differences but maintaining a “safe” distance. If you have a multicultural day at work, for example, it usually will feature some food, dance, dress, or maybe learning about how to say a few words or greetings in a sampling of cultures.

Cross-cultural approaches typically go a bit deeper, the goal being to be more diplomatic or sensitive. They account for some interaction and recognition of difference through trade and cooperation, which builds some limited understanding—such as, for instance, bowing instead of shaking hands, or giving small but meaningful gifts. Even using tools like Hofstede, as you’ll learn about in this chapter, gives us some overarching ideas about helpful things we can learn when we compare those deeper cultural elements across cultures. Sadly, they are not always nuanced comparisons; a common drawback of cross-cultural comparisons is that we can wade into stereotyping and ethnocentric attitudes—judging other cultures by our own cultural standards—if we aren’t mindful.

Lastly, when we look at intercultural approaches, we are well beneath the surface of the iceberg, intentionally making efforts to better understand other cultures as well as ourselves. An intercultural approach is not easy, often messy, but when you get it right, it is usually far more rewarding than the other two approaches. The intercultural approach is difficult and effective for the same reasons; it acknowledges complexity and aims to work through it to a positive, inclusive, and equitable outcome.

Whenever we encounter someone, we notice similarities and differences. While both are important, it is often the differences that contribute to communication troubles. We don’t see similarities and differences only on an individual level. In fact, we also place people into in-groups and out-groups based on the similarities and differences we perceive. Recall what you read about social identity and discrimination in the last chapter—the division of people into in-groups and out-groups is where your social identity can result in prejudice or discrimination if you are not cautious about how you frame this.

We tend to react to someone we perceive as a member of an out-group based on the characteristics we attach to the group rather than the individual (Allen, 2010). In these situations, it is more likely that stereotypes and prejudice will influence our communication. This division of people into opposing groups has been the source of great conflict around the world, as with, for example, the division between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland; between Croats, Serbs, and Bosnian Muslims in the former Yugoslavia; and between males and females during women’s suffrage. Divisions like these can still cause conflict on an individual level. Learning about difference and why it matters will help us be more competent communicators and help to prevent conflict.

Theories of Cross-Cultural Communication

Social psychologist Geert Hofstede (Hofstede, 1982, 2001, 2005) is one of the most well known researchers in cross-cultural communication and management. His website offers useful tools and explanations about a range of cultural dimensions that can be used to compare various dominant national cultures. Hofstede’s theory places cultural dimensions on a continuum that range from high to low and really only make sense when the elements are compared to another culture. Hofstede’s dimensions include the following:

• Power Distance: High-power distance means a culture accepts and expects a great deal of hierarchy; low-power distance means the president and janitor could be on the same level.
• Individualism: High individualism means that a culture tends to put individual needs ahead of group or collective needs.
• Uncertainty Avoidance: High uncertainty avoidance means a culture tends to go to some lengths to be able to predict and control the future. Low uncertainty avoidance means the culture is more relaxed about the future, which sometimes shows in being willing to take risks.
• Masculinity: High masculinity relates to a society valuing traits that were traditionally considered masculine, such as competition, aggressiveness, and achievement. A low masculinity score demonstrates traits that were traditionally considered feminine, such as cooperation, caring, and quality of life.
• Long-term orientation: High long-term orientation means a culture tends to take a long-term, sometimes multigenerational view when making decisions about the present and the future. Low long-term orientation is often demonstrated in cultures that want quick results and that tend to spend instead of save.
• Indulgence: High indulgence means cultures that are OK with people indulging their desires and impulses. Low indulgence or restraint-based cultures value people who control or suppress desires and impulses.

As mentioned previously, these tools can provide wonderful general insight into making sense of understanding differences and similarities across key below-the-surface cross-cultural elements. However, when you are working with people, they may or may not conform to what’s listed in the tools. For example, if you are Canadian but grew up in a tight-knit Amish community, your value system may be far more collective than individualist. Or if you are Aboriginal, your long-term orientation may be far higher than that of mainstream Canada. It’s also important to be mindful that in a Canadian workplace, someone who is non-white or wears clothes or religious symbols based on their ethnicity may be far more “mainstream” under the surface. The only way you know for sure is to communicate interpersonally by using active listening, keeping an open mind, and avoiding jumping to conclusions.

Trompenaars

Fons Trompenaars is another researcher who came up with a different set of cross-cultural measures. A more detailed explanation of his seven dimensions of culture can be found at this website (The Seven Dimensions of Culture, n.d.), but we provide a brief overview below:

• Universalism vs. Particularism: the extent that a culture is more prone to apply rules and laws as a way of ensuring fairness, in contrast to a culture that looks at the specifics of context and looks at who is involved, to ensure fairness. The former puts the task first; the latter puts the relationship first.
• Individualism vs. Communitarianism: the extent that people prioritize individual interests versus the community’s interest.
• Specific vs. Diffuse: the extent that a culture prioritizes a head-down, task-focused approach to doing work, versus an inclusive, overlapping relationship between life and work.
• Neutral vs. Emotional: the extent that a culture works to avoid showing emotion versus a culture that values a display or expression of emotions.
• Achievement vs. Ascription: the degree to which a culture values earned achievement in what you do versus ascribed qualities related to who you are based on elements like title, lineage, or position.
• Sequential Time vs. Synchronous Time: the degree to which a culture prefers doing things one at time in an orderly fashion versus preferring a more flexible approach to time with the ability to do many things at once.
• Internal Direction vs. Outer Direction: the degree to which members of a culture believe they have control over themselves and their environment versus being more conscious of how they need to conform to the external environment.

Like Hofstede’s work, Trompenaars’s dimensions help us understand some of those beneath-the-surface-of-the-iceberg elements of culture. It’s equally important to understand our own cultures as it is to look at others, always being mindful that our cultures, as well as others, are made up of individuals.

Ting-Toomey

Stella Ting-Toomey’s face negotiation theory builds on some of the cross-cultural concepts you’ve already learned, such as, for example, individual versus collective cultures. When discussing face negotiation theory, face means your identity, your image, how you look or come off to yourself and others (communicationtheory.org, n.d.). The theory says that this concern for “face” is something that is common across every culture, but various cultures—especially Eastern versus Western cultures—approach this concern in different ways. Individualist cultures, for example tend to be more concerned with preserving their own face, while collective cultures tend to focus more on preserving others’ faces. Loss of face leads to feelings of embarrassment or identity erosion, whereas gaining or maintaining face can mean improved status, relations, and general positivity. Actions to preserve or reduce face is called facework. Power distance is another concept you’ve already learned that is important to this this theory. Most collective cultures tend to have more hierarchy or a higher power distance when compared to individualist cultures. This means that maintaining the face of others at a higher level than yours is an important part of life. This is contrasted with individualist cultures, where society expects you to express yourself, make your opinion known, and look out for number one. This distinction becomes really important in interpersonal communication between people whose cultural backgrounds have different approaches to facework; it usually leads to conflict. Based on this dynamic, the following conflict styles typically occur:

• Domination: dominating or controlling the conflict (individualist approach)
• Avoiding: dodging the conflict altogether (collectivist approach)
• Obliging: yielding to the other person (collectivist approach)
• Compromising: a give-and-take negotiated approach to solving the conflict (individualist approach)
• Integrating: a collaborative negotiated approach to solving the conflict (individualist approach)

Another important facet of this theory involves high-context versus low-context cultures. High-context cultures are replete with implied meanings beyond the words on the surface and even body language that may not be obvious to people unfamiliar with the context. Low-context cultures are typically more direct and tend to use words to attempt to convey precise meaning. For example, an agreement in a high-context culture might be verbal because the parties know each other’s families, histories, and social position. This knowledge is sufficient for the agreement to be enforced. No one actually has to say, “I know where you live. If you don’t hold up your end of the bargain, …” because the shared understanding is implied and highly contextual. A low-context culture usually requires highly detailed, written agreements that are signed by both parties, sometimes mediated through specialists like lawyers, as a way to enforce the agreement. This is low context because the written agreement spells out all the details so that not much is left to the imagination or “context.”

Verbal and Non-Verbal Differences

Cultures have different ways of verbally expressing themselves. For example, consider the people of the United Kingdom. Though English is spoken throughout the UK, the accents can be vastly different from one city or county to the next. If you were in conversation with people from each of the four countries that make up the UK—England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, you would find that each person pronounces words differently. Even though they all speak English, each has their own accent, slang terms, speaking volume, metaphors, and other differences. You would even find this within the countries themselves. A person who grew up in the south of England has a different accent than someone from the north, for example. This can mean that it is challenging for people to understand one another clearly, even when they are from the same country!

While we may not have such distinctive differences in verbal delivery within Canada, we do have two official languages, as well as many other languages in use within our borders. This inevitably means that you’ll communicate with people who have different accents than you do, or those who use words and phrases that you don’t recognize. For example, if you’re Canadian, you’re probably familiar with slang terms like toque (a knitted hat), double-double (as in, a coffee with two creams and two sugars—preferably from Tim Hortons), parkade (parking garage), and toonie (a two-dollar coin), but your friends from other countries might respond with quizzical looks when you use these words in conversation!

When communicating with someone who has a different native language or accent than you do, avoid using slang terms and be conscious about speaking clearly. Slow down, and choose your words carefully. Ask questions to clarify anything that you don’t understand, and close the conversation by checking that everything is clear to the other person.

Cultures also have different non-verbal ways of delivering and interpreting information. For example, some cultures may treat personal space differently than do people in North America, where we generally tend to stay as far away from one another as possible. For example, if you get on an empty bus or subway car and the next person who comes on sits in the seat right next to you, you might feel discomfort, suspicion, or even fear. In a different part of the world this behaviour might be considered perfectly normal. Consequently, when people from cultures with different approaches to space spend time in North America, they can feel puzzled at why people aim for so much distance. They may tend to stand closer to other people or feel perfectly comfortable in crowds, for example.

This tendency can also come across in the level of acceptable physical contact. For example, kissing someone on the cheek as a greeting is typical in France and Spain—and could even be a method of greeting in a job interview. In North America, however, we typically use a handshake during a formal occasion and apologize if we accidentally touch a stranger’s shoulder as we brush past. In contrast, Japanese culture uses a non-contact form of greeting—the bow—to demonstrate respect and honour.

Meaning and Mistranslation

Culturally influenced differences in language and meaning can lead to some interesting encounters, ranging from awkward to informative to disastrous. In terms of awkwardness, you have likely heard stories of companies that failed to exhibit communication competence in their naming and/or advertising of products in another language. For example, in Taiwan, Pepsi used the slogan “Come Alive With Pepsi,” only to find out later that, when translated, it meant, “Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the dead” (Kwintessential, 2012). Similarly, American Motors introduced a new car called the Matador to the Puerto Rican market, only to learn that Matador means “killer,” which wasn’t very comforting to potential buyers.

At a more informative level, the words we use to give positive reinforcement are culturally relative. In Canada and the United Kingdom, for example, parents commonly reinforce their child’s behaviour by saying, “Good girl” or “Good boy.” There isn’t an equivalent for such a phrase in other European languages, so the usage in only these two countries has been traced back to the puritan influence on beliefs about good and bad behaviour (Wierzbicka, 2004).

One of the most publicized and deadliest cross-cultural business mistakes occurred in India in 1984. Union Carbide, an American company, controlled a plant used to make pesticides. The company underestimated the amount of cross-cultural training that would be needed to allow the local workers, many of whom were not familiar with the technology or language/jargon used in the instructions for plant operations, to do their jobs. This lack of competent communication led to a gas leak that killed more than 2,000 people and, over time, led to more than 500,000 injuries (Varma, 2012).

Language and Culture

Through living and working in five different countries, one of the authors notes that when you learn a language, you learn a culture. In fact, a language can tell you a lot about a culture if you look closely. Here’s one example:

A native English speaker landed in South Korea and tried to learn the basics of saying hello in the Korean language. Well, it turned out that it wasn’t as simple as saying hello! It depended on whom you are saying hello to. The Korean language has many levels and honorifics that dictate not only what you say but also how you say it and to whom. So, even a mere hello is not straightforward; the words change. For example, if you are saying hello to someone younger or in a lower position, you will use (anyeong); but for a peer at the same level, you will use a different term (anyeoung ha seyo); and a different one still for an elder, superior, or dignitary (anyeong ha shim nikka). As a result, the English speaker learned that in Korea people often ask personal questions upon meeting—questions such as, How old are you? Are you married? What do you do for a living? At first, she thought people were very nosy. Then she realized that it was not so much curiosity driving the questions but, rather, the need to understand how to speak to you in the appropriate way.

In Hofstede’s terms, this adherence to hierarchy or accepted “levels” in society speak to the notion of moving from her home country (Canada) with a comparatively low power distance to a country with a higher power distance. These contrasting norms show that what’s considered normal in a culture is also typically reflected to some degree in the language.

What are the implications of this for interpersonal communication? What are the implications of this for body language (bowing) in the South Korean context? What are the ways to be respectful or formal in your verbal and non-verbal language?

Comparing and Contrasting

How can you prepare to work with people from cultures different than your own? Start by doing your homework. Let’s assume that you have a group of Japanese colleagues visiting your office next week. How could you prepare for their visit? If you’re not already familiar with the history and culture of Japan, this is a good time to do some reading or a little bit of research online. If you can find a few English-language publications from Japan (such as newspapers and magazines), you may wish to read through them to become familiar with current events and gain some insight into the written communication style used.

Preparing this way will help you to avoid mentioning sensitive topics and to show correct etiquette to your guests. For example, Japanese culture values modesty, politeness, and punctuality, so with this information, you can make sure you are early for appointments and do not monopolize conversations by talking about yourself and your achievements. You should also find out what faux pas to avoid. For example, in company of Japanese people, it is customary to pour others’ drinks (another person at the table will pour yours). Also, make sure you do not put your chopsticks vertically in a bowl of rice, as this is considered rude. If you have not used chopsticks before and you expect to eat Japanese food with your colleagues, it would be a nice gesture to make an effort to learn. Similarly, learning a few words of the language (e.g., hello, nice to meet you, thank you, and goodbye) will show your guests that you are interested in their culture and are willing to make the effort to communicate.

If you have a colleague who has travelled to Japan or has spent time in the company of Japanese colleagues before, ask them about their experience so that you can prepare. What mistakes should you avoid? How should you address and greet your colleagues? Knowing the answers to these questions will make you feel more confident when the time comes. But most of all, remember that a little goes a long way. Your guests will appreciate your efforts to make them feel welcome and comfortable. People are, for the most part, kind and understanding, so if you make some mistakes along the way, don’t worry too much. Most people are keen to share their culture with others, so your guests will be happy to explain various practices to you.

You might find that, in your line of work, you are expected to travel internationally. When you visit a country that is different from your own, you might experience culture shock. Defined as “the feeling of disorientation experienced by someone when they are suddenly subjected to an unfamiliar culture, way of life, or set of attitudes” (OxfordDictionaries.com, 2015), it can disorient us and make us feel uncertain when we are in an unfamiliar cultural climate. Have you ever visited a new country and felt overwhelmed by the volume of sensory information coming at you? From new sights and smells to a new language and unfamiliarity with the location, the onset of culture shock is not entirely surprising. To mitigate this, it helps to read as much as you can about the new culture before your visit. Learn some of the language and customs, watch media programs from that culture to familiarize yourself, and do what you can to prepare. But remember not to hold the information you gather too closely. In doing so, you risk going in with stereotypes. As shown in the figure above, going in with an open attitude and choosing to respond to difficulties with active listening and non-judgmental observation typically leads to building rapport, understanding, and positive outcomes over time.

Culture Shock

Experiencing culture shock does not require you to leave Canada. Moving from a rural to an urban centre (or vice versa), from an English-speaking to a French-speaking area, or moving to or from an ethnic enclave can challenge your notion of what it is to be a Canadian.

In one example, one of the authors participated in a language-based homestay in rural Quebec the summer before her first year of university. Prior to this, she had attended an urban high school in Toronto where the majority of her classmates were non-white and into urban music. When she went to take the train and saw that all the other kids were white, listening to alternative music, and playing hackey sack, she began to worry.

When she met her house mother upon arrival, the house mom looked displeased. Out of four students to stay in her home, two were non-white. The students discovered quickly that the house dad was a hunter, evident by the glass cabinet full of shotguns and the mounted moose heads on the wall. To add to all these changes, the students were forbidden to speak English as a way to help make the most of the French language immersion program. About two weeks into the program, the student from Toronto, a black girl, overheard the house mom talking with her roommate, a white girl from London, Ontario. She said, “You know, I was really concerned when I saw that we had a black and an Asian student, because we never had any people like that in our house before, so I didn’t know what to expect. But now, you know especially with your roommate from Toronto, I can see that they’re just like normal people!”

The urban to rural transition was stark, the language immersion was a challenge, and the culture of the other students as well as that of the host family was also a big change. With so many changes happening, one outcome that is consistent with what we know about one aspect of culture shock, is that most of the students on this immersion program reported sleeping way longer hours than usual. It’s but one way for your mind and body to cope with the rigours of culture shock!

Despite all the challenges, however, the benefit for the author was a 30 percent improvement in French language skills—skills that later came in handy during bilingual jobs, trips to France, and the ability to communicate with the global French-speaking community.

A Changing Worldview

One helpful way to develop your intercultural communication competence is to develop sensitivity to intercultural communication issues and best practices. From everything we have learned so far, it may feel complex and overwhelming. The Intercultural Development Continuum is a theory created by Mitchell Hammer (2012) that helps demystify the process of moving from monocultural approaches to intercultural approaches. There are five steps in this transition, and we will give a brief overview of each one below.

See if you can deduce the main points of the overview before expanding the selection.

The first two steps out of five reflect monocultural mindsets, which are ethnocentric. As you recall, ethnocentrism means evaluating other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one’s own culture (OxfordDictionaries.com, 2015).

People who belong to dominant cultural groups in a given society or people who have had very little exposure to other cultures may be more likely to have a worldview that’s more monocultural according to Hammer (2009). But how does this cause problems in interpersonal communication? For one, being blind to the cultural differences of the person you want to communicate with (denial) increases the likelihood that you will encode a message that they won’t decode the way you anticipate, or vice versa.

For example, let’s say culture A considers the head a special and sacred part of the body that others should never touch, certainly not strangers or mere acquaintances. But let’s say in your culture people sometimes pat each other on the head as a sign of respect and caring. So you pat your culture A colleague on the head, and this act sets off a huge conflict.

It would take a great deal of careful communication to sort out such a misunderstanding, but if each party keeps judging the other by their own cultural standards, it’s likely that additional misunderstanding, conflict, and poor communication will transpire.

Using this example, polarization can come into play because now there’s a basis of experience for selective perception of the other culture. Culture A might say that your culture is disrespectful, lacks proper morals, and values, and it might support these claims with anecdotal evidence of people from your culture patting one another on the sacred head!

Meanwhile, your culture will say that culture A is bad-tempered, unintelligent, and angry by nature and that there would be no point in even trying to respect or explain things them.

It’s a simple example, but over time and history, situations like this have mounted and thus led to violence, even war and genocide.

According to Hammer (2009) the majority of people who have taken the IDI inventory, a 50-question questionnaire to determine where they are on the monocultural–intercultural continuum, fall in the category of minimization, which is neither monocultural nor intercultural. It’s the middle-of-the-road category that on one hand recognizes cultural difference but on the other hand simultaneously downplays it. While not as extreme as the first two situations, interpersonal communication with someone of a different culture can also be difficult here because of the same encoding/decoding issues that can lead to inaccurate perceptions. On the positive side, the recognition of cultural differences provides a foundation on which to build and a point from which to move toward acceptance, which is an intercultural mindset.

There are fewer people in the acceptance category than there are in the minimization category, and only a small percentage of people fall into the adaptation category. This means most of us have our work cut out for us if we recognize the value—considering our increasingly global societies and economies—of developing an intercultural mindset as a way to improve our interpersonal communication skill.

In this chapter on cross-cultural communication you learned about culture and how it can complicate interpersonal communication. Culture is learned, shared, dynamic, systemic, and symbolic. You uncovered the distinction between multicultural, cross-cultural, and intercultural approaches and discovered several new terms such as diplomatic, ethnocentric, and in-/out-groups.

From there you went on to examine the work three different cross-cultural theorists including Hofstede, Trompenaars, and Ting-Toomey. After reviewing verbal and non-verbal differences, you went on to compare and contrast by doing your homework on what it might be like to communicate interpersonally with members of another culture and taking a deeper look into culture shock.

Finally, you learned about the stages on the intercultural development continuum that move from an ethnocentric, monocultural worldview to a more intercultural worldview.

The ability to communicate well between cultures is an increasingly sought-after skill that takes time, practice, reflection, and a great deal of work and patience. This chapter has introduced you to several concepts and tools that can put you on the path to further developing your interpersonal skills to give you an edge and better insight in cross-cultural situations.

Key Takeaways and Check In

Learning highlights

• The iceberg model helps to show us that a few easily visible elements of culture are above the surface but that below the surface lie the invisible and numerous elements that make up culture.
• Ethnocentrism is an important word to know; it indicates a mindset that your own culture is superior while others are inferior.
• Whether a culture values individualism or the collective community is a recurring dimension in many cross-cultural communication theories, including those developed by Hofstede, Trompenaars, and Ting-Toomey.
• Language can tell you a great deal about a culture.
• The intercultural development model helps demystify the change from monocultural mindsets to intercultural mindsets.

Further Reading, Links, and Attribution

Further reading and links.

• A student’s reflection on experiencing culture shock .
• Stella Ting-Toomey discusses face negotiation theory in this YouTube video.

Allen, B. (2010). Difference matters: Communicating social identity. Waveland Press.

culture shock. (n.d.). In Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/culture-shock

ethnocentric. (n.d.). In Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved from http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ethnocentric .

Face-Negotiation Theory. (n.d.). Communication Theory. Retrieved from http://communicationtheory.org/face-negotiation-theory/ .

Hammer, M.R. (2009). The Intercultural Development Inventory. In M. A. Moodian (Ed.). Contemporary Leadership and Intercultural Competence . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (1982). Culture’s consequences (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (Revised and expanded 2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Lindner, M. (2013). Edward T. Hall’s Cultural Iceberg. Prezi presentation retrieved from https://prezi.com/y4biykjasxhw/edward-t-halls-cultural-iceberg/?utm_source=prezi-view&utm_medium=ending-bar&utm_content=Title-link&utm_campaign=ending-bar-tryout .

Results of Poor Cross Cultural Awareness . (n.d.) Kwintessential Ltd. Retrieved from   http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cultural-services/articles/results-of-poor-cross-cultural-awareness.html .

The Seven Dimensions of Culture: Understanding and managing cultural differences. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/seven-dimensions.htm .

Varma, S. (2010, June 20). Arbitrary? 92% of All Injuries Termed Minor . The Times of India. Retrieved from http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-06-20/india/28309628_1_injuries-gases-cases .

Wierzbicka, A. (2004). The English expressions good boy and good girl and cultural models of child rearing. Culture & Psychology, 10 (3), 251‒278.

Attribution Statement (Cross-Cultural Communication)

This chapter is a remix containing content from a variety of sources published under a variety of open licenses, including the following:

Chapter Content

• Original content contributed by the Olds College OER Development Team, of Olds College to Professional Communications Open Curriculum under a CC-BY 4.0 license
• Content created by Anonymous for Understanding Culture; in Cultural Intelligence for Leaders, previously shared at http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/cultural-intelligence-for-leaders/s04-understanding-culture.html under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license
• Derivative work of content created by Anonymous for Intercultural and International Group Communication; in An Introduction to Group Communication, previously shared at http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-group-communication/s07-intercultural-and-internationa.html under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license
• Content created by Anonymous for Language, Society, and Culture; in A Primer on Communication Studies, previously shared at http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/a-primer-on-communication-studies/s03-04-language-society-and-culture.html under a CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license

Check Your Understandings

• Original assessment items contributed by the Olds College OER Development Team, of Olds College to Professional Communications Open Curriculum under a CC-BY 4.0 license
• Assessment items created by Boundless, for Boundless Managing Diversity Quiz, previously shared at https://www.boundless.com/quizzes/managing-diversity-quiz-2584/ under a CC BY-SA 4.0 license
• Assessment items adapted from The Saylor Foundation for the saylor.org course Comm 311: Intercultural Communication, previously shared at http://saylordotorg.github.io/LegacyExams/COMM/COMM311/COMM311-FinalExam-Answers.html under a CC BY 3.0 US license

Cross-Cultural Communication Copyright © by Olds College. All Rights Reserved.

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Cross-Cultural Communication

Navigating the Ups and Downs of Global Teamwork

In today's globalized business environment, effectively communicating across cultures is not just an asset but a necessity. Multicultural teams are now commonplace, bringing together diverse perspectives that can lead to innovative solutions and growth. However, this amalgamation of different cultures also presents unique challenges, from misunderstandings rooted in cultural nuances to differing approaches to hierarchy and decision-making.

Effective cross-cultural communication fosters an environment where every team member feels valued and understood. The ideal dynamic involves a seamless exchange of ideas, where diversity is leveraged as a strength rather a hurdle, enabling teams to collaborate efficiently and harmoniously toward their common goals.

What is cross-cultural communication? 

Cross-cultural communication is the process of recognizing both differences and similarities among cultural groups to effectively engage within a given context. In other words, cross-cultural communication refers to how people from different cultural backgrounds adjust to improve communication. (1)

Common Causes of Cross-Cultural Communication Failures

Navigating the complex landscape of cross-cultural communication in the workplace reveals several common pitfalls that can lead to misunderstandings and inefficiencies. These factors can significantly hinder a team’s potential, making it crucial to address them with thoughtful strategies and an open mind. The following are a few of the most pervasive of these barriers.

• Linguistic Prejudice: One significant barrier is linguistic prejudice—or prejudice against a person based on how they talk (2). Biases towards certain accents, dialects, or the fluency of a second language can inadvertently undermine the confidence and contributions of team members.
• Cultural Insensitivity: Cultural misunderstandings or insensitivity can fracture team cohesion. For instance, what is considered a polite gesture in one culture might be considered offensive in another, leading to unintended disrespect or conflict.
• Time Differences: Time differences pose a practical challenge, complicating meeting schedules and deadlines, and can strain communication if not managed with flexibility and understanding.
• Judgement: Moreover, the judgment of the "right" and "wrong" way to communicate or execute tasks, rooted in one's cultural background, can create friction. This judgment often stems from a lack of awareness that different cultures may have varying approaches to problem-solving, decision-making, and expressing ideas, leading to a narrow view of efficiency and effectiveness.

What Doesn’t Work

In the attempt to create more inclusive and harmonious work environments, certain approaches have proven to be less effective and in some cases, counterproductive.

“Winging It”

Adopting a hands-off approach to cross-cultural communication in teams often falls short because it overlooks the necessity of deliberate efforts to recognize and respect cultural differences. Such a strategy fails to foster an inclusive environment, as it neglects the importance of educating team members about diverse perspectives and encouraging open dialogue about cultural backgrounds and their impact on work and communication styles. Without intentional communication, teams risk misunderstandings and conflicts due to unrecognized cultural nuances. For example, behaviors viewed as assertive in one culture may be seen as aggressive in another, leading to unnecessary tensions. Simply put, effective cross-cultural teamwork requires more than good intentions; it demands active engagement and education to appreciate the value of diversity and navigate the complexities of cultural differences.

Antiprejudice Campaigns

Efforts to combat prejudice through campaigns that pressure people to alter their thoughts or behavior often backfire, leading to an increase rather than a decrease in prejudicial attitudes (4) . Studies have shown that these well-intentioned initiatives might amplify biases since efforts to root out unconscious biases could make individuals overly sensitive to potential offenses, creating a workplace atmosphere charged with tension and suspicion, and sometimes even unfounded allegations. Additionally, such initiatives have been linked to adverse mental health outcomes, such as heightened levels of stress and depression among staff.

In the middle of these two extremes lies a more balanced and successful approach, one that not only promotes cooperative efforts and seeks beneficial results for everyone involved but also helps in building a foundation where diverse teams can thrive.

So, What Does Work?

Creating a thriving workplace that excels in cross-cultural communication and teamwork requires a strategic approach that focuses on what has been shown to work. Implementing practices that foster understanding, respect, and collaboration among diverse team members can significantly enhance productivity and workplace harmony. Below are key strategies that have been proven effective in navigating the complexities of global teamwork:

• Expectation of Positive Behaviors: People often rise to meet the expectations set for them. Leaders can cultivate an environment where such behaviors become the norm by clearly communicating a standard of positive and respectful behavior within the team. This principle hinges on the belief that when team members are aware of the standards expected of them, they are more inclined to adjust their actions accordingly. 
• Training in Negotiation and Conflict: Providing team members with training in negotiation and conflict resolution equips them with the skills to handle disagreements constructively. This training helps in managing emotions, engaging in positive dialogue, and finding mutually satisfying solutions to conflicts.
• Respecting Differences: It is crucial to acknowledge and respect the differences in how tasks are approached and completed across cultures. Understanding that there is more than one way to achieve a goal fosters an environment of creativity and innovation .
• Recognizing Customs for Religious and National Holidays: Being mindful of and accommodating religious and national holidays in the planning of deadlines and meetings demonstrates respect for the cultural and personal lives of team members, enhancing feelings of inclusion and belonging.
• Establishing Communication Standards: Developing clear standards for communication that take into account language differences and communication preferences helps in minimizing misunderstandings and ensures that all team members feel heard and understood.
• Setting Clear Work Policies: Transparent work policies sensitive to cultural differences provide a framework for fairness and equality. This includes policies on work hours, communication protocols, and conflict resolution procedures.
• Collaboration and Feedback: Encouraging open collaboration and regular feedback supports a dynamic learning environment where team members can grow and improve together. This also helps identify and address any cultural misunderstandings early on.
• Team Building and Camaraderie: Investing in team-building activities that allow team members to share their cultures and customs can significantly enhance camaraderie and understanding within the team. Getting to know each other personally bridges cultural gaps and builds a strong foundation for teamwork.

The journey towards effective cross-cultural collaboration is ongoing and demands continuous effort and adaptation. However, the rewards of a harmonious, inclusive, and productive workplace are well worth the investment. By embracing these principles, teams can overcome the challenges of working across cultures and thrive in the rich opportunities that such diversity brings.

• How to Improve Cross-Cultural Communication in the Workplace , 2019, Northeastern University Graduate Programs
• Advancing Language for Racial Equity and Inclusion , Berkeley Haas Center for Equity, Gender & Leadership
• Managing Cross Cultural Remote Teams | Ricardo Fernandez | TEDxIESEBarcelona
• Are You Ready for Gen Z in the Workplace? 2019, California Management Review
• People Skills for a Multicultural Workplace , 2018, CHRON
• Managing Cross Cultural Remote Teams: Considerations Every Team Should Have, We Work Remotely

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How To Improve Cross-Cultural Communication in the Workplace

Industry Advice Communications & Digital Media

It’s no secret that effective communication is central to the success of any organization, regardless of industry. But in order to truly understand what it takes to communicate effectively, you must first understand the different cultural factors that influence the way people interact with one another.

Our world is more interconnected than ever before, a fact that has given rise to many changes in the ways that businesses and organizations operate. Workplaces are more diverse, remote teams are scattered across the country or around the world, and businesses that once sold products to a single demographic might now sell to a global market. All of these factors have converged to make cross-cultural communication a vital part of organizational success.

Here’s a look at why cross-cultural communication is important in the workplace, and the steps you can take to overcome cultural barriers and improve communication within your organization.

What is cross-cultural communication?

Cross-cultural communication is the process of recognizing both differences and similarities among cultural groups in order to effectively engage within a given context. In other words, cross-cultural communication refers to the ways in which people from different cultural backgrounds adjust to improve communication with one another. 

In today’s rapidly changing professional world, it’s critical to gain an understanding of how cultural elements influence communication between individuals and groups in the workplace. Developing strong cross-cultural communication skills is the first step in creating a successful work environment that brings out the best in all of an organization’s team members. 

Why is cross-cultural communication important?

To be successful in any industry, organizations need to understand the communication patterns of employees, customers, investors, and other audiences. Awareness and willingness to adjust allow for the exchange of information regardless of cultural values, norms, and behaviors that may vary between audiences. 

Given the different backgrounds that each audience comes from, it is critical to understand how culture influences communication, and how this can impact organizational processes.

“Effective cross-cultural communication is essential to preventing and resolving conflict, building networks, and creating a satisfactory work environment for everyone involved,” says Patty Goodman, PhD, associate teaching professor in Northeastern’s Master of Science in Corporate and Organizational Communications program.

Additionally, the Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) reports that culture has a significant impact on productivity. As such, it is important to be cognizant of the fact that “employees from different backgrounds are motivated by different incentives and react differently to various management and communication styles.”

How to improve cross-cultural communication

Here are four tips to help you improve cross-cultural communication in your organization.

1. Embrace agility.

The inability or unwillingness to adapt to change is a common barrier to cross-cultural communication. Often, people are reluctant to accept new things due to an unconscious fear that doing so will change their culture or belief system in some way, Goodman explains. If these assumptions are not questioned, actions can be detrimental to personal and organizational growth. By becoming aware of unconscious barriers or subconscious biases, people can become more open to adapting.

“When an organization becomes too set in its ways, it can halt improvements because they are not open to trying different ways of doing things,” Goodman says.

Instead, organizations need to be focused on continuous improvement, which requires a certain degree of flexibility and willingness to try different ways of doing things. Unfortunately, there is no one-size-fits-all solution to this problem. Rather, the best way to address the issue often involves getting started on an individual level. 

To begin, consider stepping out of your comfort zone and trying new things in the workplace. In terms of cross-cultural communication, one of the best ways to embrace this idea is to try new methods of doing things in ways that can help you better understand the perspectives of others. 

2. Be open-minded.

Similarly, closed-mindedness is another barrier to cross-cultural communication that can hinder the success of an organization. 

“People get caught in the trap of thinking that there is one right way to do things and everything else is wrong,” Goodman points out. 

On a personal level, becoming more open-minded can be as simple as learning more about an idea that you wouldn’t have considered otherwise. Being exposed to new viewpoints and making the effort to understand them can have an impact on how you make decisions moving forward. 

On the other hand, when you’re in a situation where you must work with a closed-minded individual, Goodman suggests you ask questions and look for opportunities to offer a range of thoughts for your audience by providing reliable and valid pieces of data. Leveraging accurate data can be a powerful tool when convincing someone to consider other ideas. By discussing options and listening, you can build trust. 

However, presenting this information in an effective way can be a challenge. If people feel overwhelmed by the information or do not trust its validity, it can have the opposite effect. Be sure to carefully identify and present the information to successfully encourage others to approach new ideas with an open mind. 

3. Facilitate meaningful conversation.

A lack of communication in an organization can exacerbate cultural differences between individuals. In an environment that does not allow for open communication, people tend not to speak up or share comments and feedback with one another.  

So how might members of an organization facilitate open conversation and freely interact with each other? Although the organizational culture is unlikely to change overnight, making the effort to spark conversations on the individual level can be a step in the right direction.

“One of the best ways to get started is to connect with someone who might have a different perspective from your own,” Goodman remarks. “Start a conversation with someone in another department and ask questions, and try to gain a better understanding of their point of view by actively listening.” 

Not only will this allow you to gain an understanding and appreciation for another person’s perspective, but it will also help to build strong relationships in the workplace. Goodman recommends “being curious, asking questions, and being open to different points of view.”

Encouraging meaningful interactions also has a significant impact on the overall environment by creating a comfortable space where team members can openly share their thoughts and ideas. 

4. Become aware.

Another important step to improving cross-cultural communication in the workplace is to become more culturally and self-aware . 

On a personal level, you should make an effort to acknowledge your own implicit biases and assumptions that affect the way you interact with others. Although this may be easier said than done, you can start by making a conscious attempt to empathize with your audience and gain a better understanding of their point of view. 

At the organizational level, Goodman recommends starting with an audit of internal communications. Throughout this process, you should be asking how your mission and company values are defined, whether or not they are inclusive, and whether the team’s various cultures have been taken into account. Performing this analysis will give you a good idea of the state of your corporate culture, including areas in your organizational communication strategy that you can improve to better serve your team members and achieve your goals. 

Improving workplace communication

Cross-cultural communication is just one (albeit important) aspect of an organization’s overall communication strategy, and improving in this area can be a great first step in maximizing employee and business performance overall. 

In addition to the tips listed above, learning the foundations of corporate communications can provide you with the skills needed to understand all of the factors that influence communication in the workplace. Earning a master’s degree in corporate communications can help you do just that. 

Northeastern’s Corporate and Organizational Communication program, in particular, is designed to instill students with the theoretical foundations of communication theory, as well as the practical skills necessary to excel professionally.

“Formal education challenges you to think critically and creates an environment where you can practice your communication skills in order to be effective in the real world,” Goodman says.

By enrolling in such a program, you are met with countless opportunities to interact with experts in the field and practice experiential learning.

Additionally, Northeastern’s program offers several concentrations tailored to students’ career goals, including a concentration in cross-cultural communication. This particular track offers practical tools to successfully navigate cultural fields of interest and gain skills to develop a cultural audit. Learn more about Northeastern’s Master of Science in Corporate and Organizational Communication or our Graduate Certificate in Cross-Cultural Communication to see how you can improve your skills and gain a career advantage. 

Editor’s Note: This post was originally published in November 2019. It has since been updated for relevance and accuracy. 

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• Published: 23 March 2022

Communication competencies, culture and SDGs: effective processes to cross-cultural communication

• Stella Aririguzoh 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  9 , Article number:  96 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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• Cultural and media studies

Globalization has made it necessary for people from different cultures and nations to interact and work together. Effective cross-cultural communication seeks to change how messages are packaged and sent to people from diverse cultural backgrounds. Cross-cultural communication competencies make it crucial to appreciate and respect noticeable cultural differences between senders and receivers of information, especially in line with the United Nations’ (UN) recognition of culture as an agent of sustainable development. Miscommunication and misunderstanding can result from poorly encrypted messages that the receiver may not correctly interpret. A culture-literate communicator can reduce miscommunication arising from a low appreciation of cultural differences so that a clement communication environment is created and sustained. This paper looks at the United Nations’ recognition of culture and how cultural differences shape interpersonal communication. It then proposes strategies to enhance cross-cultural communication at every communication step. It advocates that for the senders and receivers of messages to improve communication efficiency, they must be culture and media literates.

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Public interest.

The United Nations has recognized culture as a causal agent of sustainability and integrated it into the SDG goals. Culture reinforces the economic, social, and communal fabrics that regulate social cohesion. Communication helps to maintain social order. The message’s sender and the receiver’s culture significantly influence how they communicate and relate with other people outside their tribal communities. Globalization has compelled people from widely divergent cultural backgrounds to work together.

People unconsciously carry their cultural peculiarities and biases into their communication processes. Naturally, there have been miscommunications and misunderstandings because people judge others based on their cultural values. Our cultures influence our behaviour and expectations from other people.

Irrespective of our ethnicities, people want to communicate, understand, appreciate, and be respected by others. Culture literate communicators can help clear some of these challenges, create more tolerant communicators, and contribute to achieving global sustainable goals.

Introduction

The United Nations established 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 to transform the world by 2030 through simultaneously promoting prosperity and protecting the earth. The global body recognizes that culture directly influences development. Thus, SDG Goal 4.7 promotes “… a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development.” Culture really matters (Seymour, 2007 ). Significantly, cultural cognition influences how people process information from different sources and suggests policies they may support or oppose (Rachlinski, 2021 ). Culture can drive sustainable development (United Nations, 2015 ; De Beukelaer and Freita, 2015 ; Kangas et al., 2017 ; Heckler, 2014 ; Dessein et al., 2015 ; and Hosagrahar, 2017 ).

UNESCO ( 2013 , p.iii ; 2017 , p.16; 2013a , p. 30) unequivocally states that “culture is a driver of development,” an “enabler of sustainable development and essential for achieving the 2030 Agenda” and as “an essential pillar for sustainable development.” These bold declarations have led to the growth of the cultural sector. The culture industry encourages economic growth through cultural tourism, handicraft production, creative industries, agriculture, food, medicine, and fisheries. Culture is learned social values, beliefs, and customs that some people accept and share collectively. It includes all the broad knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, law, customs, and other experiences and habits acquired by man as a member of a particular society. This seems to support Guiso, Paola and Luigi ( 2006 , p. 23) view of culture as “those customary beliefs and values that ethnic, religious, and social groups transmit fairly unchanged from generation to generation.” They assert that there is a causality between culture and economic outcomes. Bokova ( 2010 ) claims that “the links between culture and development are so strong that development cannot dispense with culture” and “that these links cannot be separated.” Culture includes customs and social behaviour. Causadias ( 2020 ) claims that culture is a structure that connects people, places, and practices. Ruane and Todd ( 2004 ) write that these connections are everyday matters like language, rituals, kingship, economic way of life, general lifestyle, and labour division. Field ( 2008 ) notes that even though all cultural identities are historically constructed, they still undergo changes, transformation, and mutation with time. Although Barth ( 1969 ) affirms that ethnicity is not culture, he points out that it helps define a group and its cultural stuff . The shared cultural stuff provides the basis for ethnic enclosure or exclusion.

The cultural identities of all men will never be the same because they come from distinctive social groups. Cultural identification sorts interactions into two compartments: individual or self-identification and identification with other people. Thus, Jenkins ( 2014 ) sees social identity as the interface between similarities and differences, the classification of others, and self-identification. He argues that people would not relate to each other in meaningful ways without it. People relate both as individuals and as members of society. Ethnicity is the “world of personal identity collectively ratified and publicly expressed” and “socially ratified personal identity‟ (Geertz, 1973 , p. 268, 309). However, the future of ethnicity has been questioned because culture is now seen as a commodity. Many tribal communities are packaging some aspects of their cultural inheritances to sell to other people who are not from their communities (Comaroff and Comaroff, 2009 ).

There is a relationship between culture and communication. People show others their identities through communication. Communication uses symbols, for example, words, to send messages to recipients. According to Kurylo ( 2013 ), symbols allow culture to be represented or constructed through verbal and nonverbal communication. Message receivers may come from different cultural backgrounds. They try to create meaning by interpreting the symbols used in communication. Miscommunication and misunderstanding may arise because symbols may not have the same meaning for both the sender and receiver of messages. If these are not efficiently handled, they may lead to stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. Monaghan ( 2020 ), Zhu ( 2016 ), Holmes ( 2017 ), Merkin ( 2017 ), and Samovar et al. ( 2012 ) observe that inter-cultural communication occurs between people from different cultural groups. It shows how people from different cultural backgrounds can effectively communicate by comparing, contrasting, and examining the consequences of the differences in their communication patterns. However, communicating with others from different cultural backgrounds can be full of challenges, surprises, and re-learning because languages, values, and protocols differ. Barriers, like language and noise, impede communication by distorting, blocking, or altering the meaning.

Communication patterns change from one nation to the next. It is not uncommon, for example, for an American, a Nigerian, a Japanese national, or citizens of other countries to work together on a single project in today’s multi-cultural workplace. These men and women represent different cultural heritages. Martinovski ( 2018 ) remarks that both humans and virtual agents interact in cross-cultural environments and need to correctly behave as demanded by their environment. Possibly too, they may learn how to avoid conflicts and live together. Indeed, García-Carbonell and Rising ( 2006 , p. 2) remark that “as the world becomes more integrated, bridging the gap in cultural conflicts through real communication is increasingly important to people in all realms of society.” Communication is used to co-ordinate the activities in an organization for it to achieve its goals. It is also used to signal and order those involved in the work process.

This paper argues that barriers to cross-cultural communication can be overcome or significantly reduced if the actors in the communication processes become culture literates and competent communicators.

Statement of the problem

The importance of creating and maintaining good communication in human society cannot be overemphasized. Effective communication binds and sustains the community. Cross-cultural communication problems usually arise from confusion caused by misconstruction, misperception, misunderstanding, and misvaluation of messages from different standpoints arising from differences in the cultures of the senders and receivers of messages. Divergences in cultural backgrounds result in miscommunication that negatively limits effective encrypting, transmission, reception, and information decoding. It also hinders effective feedback.

With the rapid spread of communication technologies, no community is completely isolated from the rest of the world. Present-day realities, such as new job opportunities and globalization, compel some people to move far away from their local communities and even their countries of origin to other places where the cultures are different. Globalization minimizes the importance of national borders. The world is no longer seen as a globe of many countries but as a borderless entity (Ohmae, 1999 ) and many markets (Levitt, 1983 ) in different countries with different cultures. As a matter of necessity, people from other countries must communicate.

The United Nations ( 2015 ) recognizes culture’s contribution to sustainable development and promotes local cultures in development programmes to increase local population involvement. Despite the United Nations’ lofty ideals of integrating culture into development, culture has hindered development at different levels. Interventions meant to enhance development are sometimes met with opposition from some people who feel that such programmes are against their own culture.

Gumperz ( 2001 , p. 216) argues that “all communication is intentional and grounded in inferences that depend upon the assumption of mutual good faith. Culturally specific presuppositions play a key role in inferring what is intended.” Cross-border communications reflect the kaleidoscope of the diverse colours of many cultures, meeting, clashing, and fusing. Like Adler ( 1991 , p. 64) observes, “foreigners see, interpret, and evaluate things differently, and consequently act upon them differently.” Diversities in culture shape interpersonal communication. Yet the basic communication process is the same everywhere. It is in these processes that challenges arise. Therefore, this study seeks to examine how each of these steps can be adapted to enhance cross-cultural communication, especially in today’s digitized era of collapsing cultural boundaries. Barriers to cross-cultural communication can be significantly reduced if the actors in the communication processes become culture literates and competent communicators.

Study objectives

The objectives of this study are

To examine United Nations efforts to integrate culture into sustainable development.

To suggest modifications to each communication process step to improve effective cross-cultural communication.

Literature review

Some authors have tried to link culture, communication, and sustainable goals.

The need to know about people’s culture

There are compelling reasons to learn about other people’s cultures.

Cultural literacies: Difficulties in cross-cultural communication can be reduced when senders of messages understand that the world is broader than their ethnocentric circles. It demands that senders of messages know that what they believe may not always be correct when communicating with receivers of these messages who are from different cultures. Logical reasoning will expect increased exposure to different cultures to increase understanding. When people of different groups communicate frequently, it is anticipated that they should understand each other better. This is what Hirsch ( 1987 ) labels as cultural literacy . In the ordinary course of things, common knowledge destroys mutual suspicion and misinterpretation that often generate conflicts.

To protect the earth: It is essential to point out that at “the most global level, the fate of all people, indeed the fate of the earth, depends upon negotiations among representatives of governments with different cultural assumptions and ways of communicating” (Tannen, 1985 , p. 203). If the world is to be protected, it is necessary to understand other peoples’ cultures who live and interact with us at different fronts and in this same world. The world is still our haven. Nevertheless, Vassiliou et al. ( 1972 ) find that increased exposure can increase people’s mutual negative stereotyping. Tannen ( 1985 , p. 211) remarks that stereotypes of ethnic groups partly develop from the poor impressions that people from other cultures have about the natives because they hold different meanings for both parties. Stereotyping is detrimental to cross-cultural communication, and its dismissal is necessary for any successful cross-cultural exchange.

Spin-offs from globalization: Bokova ( 2013 ) observes that globalization transforms all societies and brings culture to the front. She remarks that communities are increasingly growing diverse and yet interconnected. The spin-offs from globalization open great doors for exchanges, mutual enrichment of persons from different cultures, and pictures of new worlds.

The dynamics of cross-cultural communication

Different cultures emphasize different values. The emphasis on one value by one culture may lead to difficulties in cross-cultural communication with another person who does not see that particular value in the same light, for example, timeliness. It is crucial to note Sapir’s ( 1956 , p. 104) insistence that “every cultural pattern and every single act of social behaviour involves communication in either an explicit or implicit sense.” Even though Hofstede ( 2005 , p. 1) comments that “cultural differences are nuisance at best and often a disaster,” UNESCO ( 1998 , 1999 ) recognizes cultural diversity as an “essential factor of development” and an issue that matters. This makes cultural diversity a blessing rather than a disaster. The various shades of cultural values influence how we behave and communicate with others outside our cultural environment. Our ideals and biases also influence communication.

Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner ( 1997 ) developed a culture model with seven dimensions. They are universalism versus particularism (rules versus relationships); individualism versus communitarianism (the individual versus the group); specific versus diffuse (how far people get involved); neutral versus emotional (how people express emotions) ; achievement versus ascription (how people view status); sequential time versus synchronous time (how people manage time); and internal direction versus outer direction (how people relate to their environment). These cultural models signify how people from these areas communicate. People from different backgrounds may have difficulties communicating as their values may be significantly different. A good communicator must take note of this distinctiveness in values because they impact the communication processes. For example, a person who is particular about upholding written rules may not be interested in knowing who the culprit is before administering sanctions. But the other person interested in maintaining a good relationship with others may re-consider this approach.

Hofstede ( 1980 ) identifies five significant values that may influence cross-cultural communication:

Power distance: This is the gap between the most and the least influential members of society. People from different cultures perceive equality in various ways. The social hierarchy or status determines where individuals are placed. Status is conferred by inheritance or by personal achievement. Some cling to societal classification and its hierarchy of power. Others value and cherish the equality of all people. Yet, other cultures see other people as dependents and somehow inferior beings. A king in an African community is seen as far more powerful and important than his servants, who are expected to pay obeisance to him. Most countries in Europe are egalitarian. Arabic and Asian countries are high on the power index.

Individualism versus collectivism: This explains the extent to which members of a particular culture value being seen first, as individuals or as members of a community. As individuals, they are entirely held accountable for their errors. They are also rewarded as individuals for their exploits. However, in some cultures, the wider community is involved. Suppose a person makes an inglorious error. The whole community where that individual comes from shares in it. The same goes if he wins laurels and awards. The individual does not exist primarily for himself. African, Japanese, Indian, and most Asiatic nations follow the collective approach. A Chinese man has his Guanxi or Guanshi. This is his network of influential and significant contacts that smoothen his business and other activities (Yeung and Tung, 1996 ). He succeeds or fails based on his personal relationships. In other words, the basis of business is friendship. This is clear evidence of collectivism. Most people from America and Europe are individualistic. It must be pointed out that personal values mediate both community and individualistic spirit. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s communitarianism vs. individualism appears very similar to this Hofstede’s individualism/collectivism orientation. The information receiver who values his individuality will be offended if he is seen as just a group member or if his negative performance on the job is discussed openly. The message sender who appreciates his subordinates would send personalized messages and expect their feedback.

Uncertainty avoidance: This shows the degree to which a particular culture is uncomfortable with uncertainties and ambiguities. Some cultures avoid or create worries about how much they disclose to other people. A culture with high uncertainty avoidance scores wants to avoid doubts by telling and knowing the absolute truth in everything. For them, everything should be plainly stated. When situations are not like this, they are offended, worried, and intolerant of other people or groups they feel are hiding facts by not being plain enough. Hofstede and Bond ( 1988 ) write that this trait is very peculiar to western Europeans. This means that people from countries like Greece, Turkey, and Spain are very high on uncertainty avoidance. Communication between people with high or low uncertainties may be hindered. Some people may appear rude and uncouth because of their straightforward ways of talking. Some Africans may see some Americans and people from Europe as too wide-mouthed because they feel they do not use discretion in talking. They say things they may prefer to keep silent about and hide from the public’s ears. On the other hand, some Americans may see some Africans as unnecessarily secretive. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s ( 1997 ) universalism/particularism explains why some cultures insist on applying the rule of law no matter who the offender is.

Masculinity/feminity roles : Hofstede ( 2001 ) defines masculinity as society’s preference for success, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Conversely, femininity is seen as the preference for co-operation, diffidence, caring for the weak and quality of life. The male-female contradiction affects communication. Females are expected to be meek homemakers that tend and nurture their family members. Like Sweden and Norway, cultures that favour females do not discriminate between the sexes. Japan and Nigeria have cultures that are predominantly masculine in orientation. Competitive and aggressive females are frowned at and seen as social deviants. In the other cultures where females are more favoured, a man may land in court and face public condemnation for domestic violence. Hofstede ( 1998 ) believes that how different cultures see the male/female roles influence how they treat gender, sexuality, and religion.

Long-time orientations: A particular society accepts some degree of long or short associations. Japanese culture scores high in long-term orientation values, commitments, and loyalty. They respect tradition, and therefore, changes in their society take a longer time to happen. Cultures with low long-term orientation do not value tradition much, nor do they go out of their way to nurture long-standing relationships. Literally, changes occur in rapid succession. There appears to be more attachment to the pursuit of immediate self-satisfaction and simple-minded well-being. Baumeister and Wilson ( 1996 , pp. 322–325) say that meaning comes from a sense of purpose, efficacy, value, and a sense of positive self-worth. Thus, if you communicate with somebody with a short-term orientation, you may think that he is too hasty and intemperate, while he may feel that you are too sluggish and not ready to take immediate action.

Hall ( 1983 ) introduces two other factors:

Time usage: Some cultures are monochronic, while others are polychronic. Monochronic cultures are known for doing one thing at a time. Western Europe is monochronic in time orientation, as illustrated by the familiar adage that says, “There is a time and place for everything!” Persons from this cultural background are very punctual and strictly adhere to plans. They are task-oriented. Polychronic cultures schedule multiple tasks simultaneously, even though there may be distractions and interruptions while completing them. Plans may often change at short notice. Such different time management and usage may constrict effective communication. A London business entrepreneur will find it difficult to understand why his business partner from Nigeria may be thirty minutes late for a scheduled meeting. The answer is in their perception of time. Some Nigerians observe what is referred to as African time , where punctuality is tacitly ignored.

Low and high context: This refers to how much a culture depends on direct or indirect verbal communication. According to Hall ( 1976 ), low context cultures explicitly refer to the topic of discussion. The speaker and his audience know that the words mean exactly what they say. In high context cultures, the meanings of words are drawn from the context of the communication process. The words may never mean what they say. For example, the sentence: I have heard . In the low context culture, it merely means that the listener has used his ears to listen to what the speaker is saying. In the high context culture, the listener knows more than what the speaker is saying and may be planning something unpleasant. Europeans and North Americans have low contexts. African and Asian nations have high contexts.

Vaknin ( 2005 ) brings in another value:

Exogenic and endogenic: This shows how people relate to their environment. Deeply exogenic cultures look outside themselves to make sense of life. Hence, they believe in God and His power to intervene in the affairs of men. Endogenic cultures draw on themselves when searching for the meaning of life. They think they can generate solutions to tackle the problems facing them. While the endogenic person may exert himself to find a solution to a challenge, his exogenic partner may believe that supernatural help will come from somewhere and refuses to do what is needed. Of course, this provides a problematic platform for effective communication.

The United Nations’ sustainable development goals and culture

The United Nations recognizes that culture is implicitly crucial to the achievement of the SDGs. No meaningful development can occur outside any cultural context because every person is born into a culture. To a large extent, our cultural foundations determine what we do and how we see things. Therefore, culture must be integrated into sustainable development strategies. Some specific goals’ targets acknowledge that culture drives development. Sustainable development revolves around economic, social, and environmental objectives for people. These goals are implicitly or explicitly dependent on culture because culture impacts people.

There are 17 Sustainable Development Goals. However, there are four specific ones that refer to culture are:

SDG 4 focuses on quality education

By 2030, ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development

In other words, quality education is most effective if it responds to a place and the community’s cultural context and exactitudes. This target hinges on education promoting peace, non-violence, and cultural diversity as precursors to sustainable development. Encouraging respect for cultural diversity within acceptable standards facilitates cultural understanding and peace.

SDG 8 focuses on decent work and economic growth

By 2030, devise and implement policies to promote sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products

Strengthening trade in cultural goods and services will provide growth impetus for local, national, and international markets. These will create employment opportunities for people whose work revolves around cultural goods. Cultural tourism generates revenues that improve the economy. In this sense, culture facilitates the community’s well-being and sustainability.

SDG 11 focuses on sustainable cities and communities

Target 11.4

Strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage

When our cultural heritage is carefully managed, it attracts sustainable investments in tourism. The local people living where this heritage is domiciled ensure that it is not destroyed and that they themselves will not damage the heritage areas.

SDG 12 focuses on responsible consumption and production

Develop and implement tools to monitor sustainable development impacts for sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products

Several indigenous livelihoods and crafts are built on local knowledge and management of the ecosystem, natural resources, and local materials. If natural resources are depleted, production will be endangered. Local livelihoods that utilize low technology and energy generate less waste and keep their environment free from pollution. In other words, proper management of the ecosystem prevents biodiversity loss, reduces land degradation, and moderates adverse climate change effects. Where there are natural disasters, traditional knowledge already embedded in the people’s culture helps them become resilient.

Theoretical framework

The social construction of reality is hinged on the belief that people make sense of their social world by assembling their knowledge. Scheler ( 1960 ) labels this assemblage the Sociology of Knowledge . Berger and Luckmann ( 1966 , p.15) contend that this “knowledge is concerned with the analysis of the social construction of reality.” Social construction theory builds on peoples’ comprehension of their own life experiences. From there, people make assumptions about what they think life is or should be. Young and Collin ( 2004 ) present that social constructionism pays more attention to society than individuals. Communities determine what they feel is acceptable. What is widely accepted by a particular community may be unacceptable to other people who are not members of this group. Therefore, people see an issue as good or bad based on their group’s description. Thus, what is a reality in Society A may be seen as illegal in Society B . Berger and Luckmann ( 1966 ) claim that people create their own social and cultural worlds and vice versa. According to them, common sense or basic knowledge is sustained through social interactions. These, in turn, reinforce already existing perceptions of reality, leading to routinization and habitualization. Berger and Luckmann ( 1991 ) say that dialogue is the most important means of maintaining, modifying, and reconstructing subjective reality.

Burr ( 2006 ) writes that the four fundamental tenets of social constructionism are: a critical instance towards taken-for-granted knowledge, historical and cultural specificity; knowledge sustained by social processes; and that knowledge and social action go together. This taken-for-granted knowledge is a basic common-sense approach to daily interactions. Historical and cultural specificities look at the peculiar but past monuments that have shaped the particular society. Knowledge is created and sustained by socialization. Good knowledge improves the common good. However, whoever applies the knowledge he has acquired wrongly incurs sanctions. This is why convicted criminals are placed behind bars.

Social constructions exist because people tacitly agree to act as if they do (Pinker, 2002 ). Whatever people see as realities are actually what they have learnt, over long periods, through their interactions with their society’s socialization agents such as the family, schools and churches. Cultural realities are conveyed through a language: the vehicle for communication. Language communicates culture by telling about what is seen, spoken of, or written about. However, groups construct realities based on their cultures. The media construct realities through the production, reproduction, and distribution of messages from which their consumers give meaning to their worlds and model their behaviours.

The method of study

The discourse analysis method of study is adopted for this work. Foucault ( 1971 ) developed the ‘discursive field’ to understand the relationships between language, social institutions, subjectivity, and power. Foucault writes that discourses relate to verbalization at the most basic level. The discursive method explores the construction of meanings in human communication by offering a meaningful interpretation of messages to enhance purposeful communication. Discourse analysis examines how written, or spoken language is used in real-life situations or in the society. Language use affects the creation of meaning; and, therefore, defines the context of communication. Kamalu and Isisanwo ( 2015 ) posit that discourse analysis considers how language is used in social and cultural contexts by examining the relationship between written and spoken words. Discourse analysis aims to understand how and why people use language to achieve the desired effect. The discursive method explores the construction of meanings in human communication by offering a meaningful interpretation of messages to enhance purposeful communication. Gale ( 2010 ) says that meaning is constructed moment by moment. Garfinkel ( 1967 ) explains this construction as the common-sense actions of ordinary people based on their practical considerations and judgments of what they feel are intelligible and accountable to others. According to Keller ( 2011 ), a peoples’ sense of reality combines their routinized interactions and the meanings they attach to objects, actions, and events. It is in this understanding of the natural use of language that some barriers to effective cross-cultural communication can be reduced.

Messages may assume different meanings in different situations for other people. These meanings affect social interactions. They either encourage or discourage further human communication. As Katz ( 1959 ) has written, interpersonal relationships influence communication. To make meaning out of messages and improve human relationships, it is necessary to understand that content and context may not represent the same thing to people in different situations. Waever ( 2004 , p. 198) states that “things do not have meaning in and of themselves, they only become meaningful in discourse.” Since people’s perspectives are different, it becomes extremely difficult to form a rigid basis on specific ideas. Ideas are discussed on their merits. Discursive analysis inspects the ways individuals construct events by evaluating language usage in writing, speech, conversation, or symbolic communication (Edwards, 1997 ; Harre and Gillet, 1994 ). Language is the carrier of culture. According to Van Dijk ( 1995 , p. 12), this approach is used to study descriptive, explanatory, and practical issues in “the attempt to uncover, reveal or disclose what is implicit, hidden or otherwise not immediately obvious in relations of discursively enacted dominance or their underlying ideologies.” The media play fundamental roles in the processes of constructing or reconstructing reality. They can do these because of Aririguzoh’s ( 2004 ) observation that the press impacts the political and socio-cultural sub-systems.

Culture at the international galleries

The affairs of culture came into international prominence at the UNESCO’s World Conference on Cultural Policies held in Mexico in 1982. This conference gave a broad definition of culture to include “the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a society or social group. It includes not only the arts and letters but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value systems, traditions and beliefs” (UNESCO, 1982 , p. 1).

The United Nations World Commission on Culture and Development, led by J. Perez de Cuellar, published our Creative Diversity’s Landmark Report (UNESCO, 1995 ). This report points out the great importance of incorporating culture into development. Although the Commission recognizes cultural diversities, it sees them as the actual vehicles driving creativity and innovation. During the World Decade on Culture and Development (1988–1998), UNESCO stepped up again to campaign for greater recognition of culture’s contribution to national and international development policies. In 1998, Stockholm hosted an Inter-governmental Conference on Cultural Policies for Development. Its Action Plan on Cultural Policies for Development reaffirmed the correlation between culture and development (UNESCO, 1998 ). In 1999, UNESCO and the World Bank held the Inter-governmental Conference, Culture Counts , in Florence. Here, ‘cultural capital’ was emphasized as the tool for sustainable development and economic growth (UNESCO, 1999 ).

The United Nations General Assembly adopted the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document . Here, cultural diversity was explicitly admitted as a contributor to the enrichment of humankind. The United Nations General Assembly Resolutions on Culture and Development adopted in 2010 and 2011 (65/166 and 66/208) recognize culture as an “essential component of human development” and “an important factor in the fight against poverty, providing for economic growth and ownership of the development processes.” These resolutions called for the mainstreaming of culture into development policies at all levels. The UN System Task Team on the Post 2015 Development Agenda issued a report, Realizing the Future We Want for All ( 2012 , p. ii), with a direct charge that culture has a clear role to play in the “transformative change needed for a rights-based, equitable and sustainable process of global development.” Paragraph 71 of the report declares:

It is critical to promote equitable change that ensures people’s ability to choose their value systems in peace, thereby allowing for full participation and empowerment. Communities and individuals must be able to create and practice their own culture and enjoy that of others free from fear. This will require, inter alia, respect for cultural diversity, safeguarding cultural and natural heritage, fostering cultural institutions, strengthening cultural and creative industries, and promoting cultural tourism (p. 33).

In 2005, the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions member states agreed that cultural diversity “increases the range of choices and nurtures human capacities and values. Therefore, it is a mainspring for sustainable development for communities, peoples and nations” (UNESCO, 2005 , p. 1). The Convention reiterated the importance of the link between culture and development. UNESCO also steers an International Fund for Cultural Diversity to promote sustainable development and poverty reduction among the developing and least developed countries that are parties to the Convention.

UN Resolution 2347 of 2017 focuses exclusively on protecting cultural heritage and its necessity for peace and security. This Resolution brings a thorough awareness of culture’s role as a source of stability, inclusion, driver of reconciliation, and resilience. This Resolution reinforces Resolution 2199, adopted in February 2015, partly to fight against international terrorism financing and prohibit the illicit trafficking of cultural goods from Iraq and Syria.

Communication processes for overcoming difficulties in cross-cultural communication

The primary risk in cross-cultural communication is distortion, which creates misunderstanding or even misrepresentation of the conveyed information. Baumgratz ( 1990 , pp. 161–168) shares the opinion that relevant cultural dimensions of what he calls a social communication situation should be mapped out for individuals or groups who are from different nations or cultural origins but who have realized the need to contribute to the achievement of social, institutional, organizational, group, and personal aims. The tactics to overcome difficulties in cross-cultural communication lie in the communication processes. Any of the steps can become a barrier since culture influences the behaviour of both senders and receivers of messages. Barriers impede communication by distorting, blocking, or creating misunderstandings. Hence, it is necessary to create an enabling environment that will make communicating easier. Each of the communication steps can be strategized to enhance communication.

He is the source or initiator of the message. He can be a person or an organization. If the sender is a person, Malec ( 2018 ) refers to him as the carrier of intangible culture and the creator of the tangible ones. Messages are conveyed through spoken or written words. Nevertheless, messages can also be non-verbal. The encoding includes selecting words, symbols, or gestures in composing a message. The sender should encrypt, transfer meaning, or package his messages in ways that the receivers can access them. He should use symbols that the receiver would comprehend. The first thing he should do is use a language that his receiver understands. For example, it is useless to send a message written in English to another person who only understands French. Not only is the effort wasted, but it might also generate hostility. In Nigeria, Mexican soaps are freely watched. However, their producers avoided the obvious language challenge by dubbing in English voice-overs.

Words mean different things in different languages. For example, a British boss would answer yes to a question. However, his American subordinate would answer, yeah . The boss would think that he is disrespectful and impolite. Meanwhile, the American employee would be bewildered by the boss’s apparent coldness. British people use words that have different meanings from their American counterparts. For example, the word, pant , means underwear to a Briton but a pair of trousers to an American. The Englishman may still run into trouble with other nationals because his words have different meanings to these listeners. For example, the English phrase fart means a different thing among the Danish. For them, the word means speed ! The English word gift means poison in German. If an Englishman calls somebody a brat , his Russian friend will conclude that he is calling him his brother , which is what the word means in his language. Igbo children of south-eastern Nigeria call the hawk leke . But for the Yorubas in the southwest, this is the name given to a male child.

The sender, too, must know that even body language may mean different things. He should not assume that non-verbal messages mean the same in every part of the world. In Japan, nodding the head up and down means disagreement. In Nigeria, it means the opposite. Even though his own culture invariably influences the message’s sender, he should understand that his message is intended for a cross-cultural audience. He must also realize that the contents are no longer meant for ethnic communities defined by geographical locations but for an audience connected by frequent interactions that are not necessarily in the same physical place. A message sender that values esprit de corps will incorporate this into his messages by telling them that the laurel does not go to any person in particular but to the winning team. He thus encourages everybody to join in to win, not as individuals but as members of a group. If he is high on doubt avoidance, he makes his messages very direct and unambiguous and leaves no room for misinterpretation. However, a male sender who wants to assert his masculinity may wish to sound harsh. The sender who regularly attends church services may unconsciously put some words of Scripture in his messages because of his exogenic roots. The sender with monochronic orientation will send one message and expect the task to be completed as scheduled. His linear cultural background will be offended if the result is the contrary. Similarly, the sender who places a high value on rules and regulations would send messages of punishment to those who break them but reward those who keep them without minding his relationships with them. An effective sender of messages to a cross-cultural society should state his ideas clearly, offer explanations when needed, or even repeat the whole communication process if he does not get the appropriate feedback.

This is the information content the sender wants to share with his receivers. These include stories, pictures, or advertisements. He should carefully avoid lurid and offensive content. A French man may see nothing wrong in his wife wearing a very skimpy bikini and other men ogling at her at a public beach. His counterpart from Saudi Arabia will be upset if other men leer at his wife. In addition, the wife would be sanctioned for dressing improperly and appearing in public. If a person has a message to share with others from a different cultural background, he should be careful. His listeners may not isolate his statement as being distinct from his personality.

Societies with high context culture usually consider the messages they send or receive before interpreting them. Messages are hardly delivered straightforwardly. The message is in the associated meanings attached to the pictures and symbols. Thus, those outside that community find it very difficult to understand the meaning of the messages. In low-context communication, the message is the information in words. The words mean what they say. However, a corporate sender of messages, for example, the head of the Human Resources Department of a multi-cultural company interested in building team spirit, may organize informal chit-chats and get-togethers to break the proverbial ice as well as create a convivial atmosphere where people can relate. The message he is passing across is simple: let colleagues relax, relate, and work together as team members irrespective of where they come from. All of these are communicative actions.

The channel’s work is to provide a passage for the sender to guide his message to the receiver. While face-to-face communication is ideal for intimate and close group conversations, it is impossible to talk to everybody simultaneously. Different channels of passing across the same message may be used. For example, the same message may be passed through radio, adapted for television, put online, or printed in newsletters, newspapers, and magazines. The hope is that people who missed the message on one channel may see it on another somewhere else. A pronounced media culture will hasten cross-cultural communication. Many people consume media content. However, these consumers are expected to be media literates. Aririguzoh ( 2007 , p. 144) writes that:

media literacy is the systematic study of the media and their operations in our socio-political systems as well as their contributions to the development and maintenance of culture. It is the information and communication skill that is needed to make citizens more competent. It is the ability to read what the print media offer, see what the visual media present, and hear what the aural media announce. It is a response to the changing nature of information in our modern society.

Official messages should be passed through defined routes and are best written. This would close avenues of possible denials by others if the same message were passed across verbally. It could be difficult to misinterpret the contents of a written document. Written documents have archival values. As much as possible, rumours should be stamped out. A good manager should single out regular gossips in a multi-cultural organization for special attention. Equally, an effective manager heading widely dispersed employees can co-ordinate their activities using communication technologies with teleconferencing features. Aririguzoh ( 2007 , p. 45) notes, “information and communication technologies have transformed the range and speed of dispersing information and of communicating. Today, the whole world lies a click away!”

The media of communication are shaped by the culture of the people who produce them. What they carry as contents and the form they assume are defined by the culture of the sender. In low-context societies, it is common for messages to be written. In high context societies, it is common for statements to be verbal. Importantly, Aririguzoh ( 2013 , pp. 119–120) points out that “… the mass media can effectively be deployed to provide pieces of information that enhance communication, build understanding and strengthen relationships in our rapidly changing environment dictated by the current pace of globalization. The mass media assiduously homogenize tastes, styles, and points of view among many consumers of its products across the globe. They have effectively helped in fading away national distinctions and growing mass uniformity as they create, distribute and transmit the same entertainment, news, and information to millions of people in different nations.”

The receiver is the person the sender directs his message to. In a workplace, the receiver needs the message or information to do his job. The receiver decodes or tries to understand the meaning of the sender’s message by breaking it down into symbols to give the proper feedback. If the message is verbal, the receiver has to listen actively. The message receiver must understand a message based on his existing orientations shaped by his own culture. Even the messages that he picks are selected to conform to his existing preconceptions.

Oyserman et al. ( 2002 ) make an interesting discovery: that receivers from different cultures interpret the message senders’ mannerisms. For an American, a speaker talking very quickly is seen as telling the uncensored truth. In other words, the speaker who talks too slowly implicates himself as a liar! However, for the Koreans, slow speech denotes careful consideration of others. In some cultures, particularly in Asia, the receiver is responsible for effective communication. Kobayashi and Noguchi ( 2001 ) claim that he must become an expert at “understanding without words.” Miyahara ( 2004 , p. 286) emphasizes that even children literarily learn to read other people’s minds by evaluating the subtle cues in their messages and then improvising to display the expected and appropriate social behaviour and communication. Gestures involve the movements of the hands and head of the sender. The receiver clearly understands these body movements. As painted by Sapir ( 1927 , p. 556), “we respond to gestures with an extreme alertness and, one might almost say, in accordance with an elaborate and secret code that is written nowhere, known by none, and understood by all.”

Receivers who value individualism appreciate personal freedom, believe that they can make their own decisions, and respect their performance. Those who prefer communitarianism would prefer group applause and loyalty. A monochromatic receiver would start and finish a task before starting another one. He would be offended when colleagues do not meet deadlines, are late to appointments, and do not keep rigid schedules. His co-worker, who synchronizes his time, develops a flexible working schedule to work at two or more tasks.

This is the final process. Ordinarily, the sender wants a response to determine if the message he sent out has been received and understood. Acknowledging a message does not indicate a clear understanding of its contents. Feedback can be positive or negative. Positive feedback arises when the receiver interprets the message correctly and does what the sender wants. Negative feedback comes when messages are incorrectly interpreted, and the receiver does not do what the sender of the information has intended him to do. Cross-cultural communication recognizes that people come from different backgrounds. Therefore, feedback on diverse messages would be different. A sensitive communicator would be careful how he designs his messages for a heterogeneous audience so that he can elicit the desired feedback.

It must be emphasized that no culture is superior to another as each culture meets the needs of those who subscribe to it. To a large extent, our culture influences our behaviours and expectations from other people. Although there are noticeable similarities and differences, what separates one culture from another is its emphasis on specific values. As the United Nations has affirmed, there is diversity in cultures. These diversities add colour and meaning to human existence. This suggests that particular policies should be carved out to attend to specific locations and supports Satterthwaite’s ( 2014 ) proposition that local actors should be empowered to help achieve the SDGs. What the local populace in one community may appreciate may be frowned upon and even be fought against by residents in another place. As Hossain and Ali ( 2014 ) point out, individuals constitute the societies where they live and work. While Bevir ( 1996 ) describes this relationship as that of mutual dependence, he recognizes that people are influenced by their particular social structures and therefore do not go against them. Bevir believes that social systems exist for individuals.

Societies are built on shared values, norms and beliefs. These, in turn, have profound effects on individuals. Society’s culture affects individuals while the individuals create and shape the society, including initiating sustainable development. Development rests on the shoulders of men. Thus, culture influences the ways individuals behave and communicate. The effective communicator must actively recognize these elements and work them into communication practices. As Renn et al. ( 1997 , p. 218) point out, “sustainable practices can be initiated or encouraged by governmental regulation and economic incentives. A major element to promote sustainability will be, however, the exploration and organization of discursive processes between and among different actors.”

To achieve the United Nations sustainable goals, the competent communicator has to recognize that the culture of the actors in a communication process is the basic foundation for effective communication. For example, while one individual may discuss issues face-to-face and is not afraid to express his feelings candidly, another person may not be so direct. He may even involve third parties to mediate in solving a problem. Either way, their approaches are defined by their cultural backgrounds. It may be counterproductive to assume that either of these approaches is the best. This assertion is supported by the study of Stanton ( 2020 ), who explored intercultural communication between African American managers and Hispanic workers who speak English as a second language. He finds managers that follow culturally sensitive communication strategies getting more work done. Cartwright ( 2020 ) also observes that intercultural competence and recognition of cultural differences in East and Central Europe are foundation pillars for business success. This lends credence to Ruben and Gigliotti ( 2016 ) observation that communication with people from different cultures reduces the barriers associated with intercultural communication and enhances the communication process.

Irrespective of our ethnicities, people want to communicate, understand, appreciate, and be respected by others. Effective communication is the foundation of good human relationships among team members, whether their cultural backgrounds differ or not. Good feedback is achieved when both the sender and receiver of messages create common meanings. This is what discourse is all about. Messages must be meaningful, meaningfully constructed and meaningfully interpreted. Georgiou ( 2011 ) labels this the communicative competence : acknowledgement of the intercultural dimension of foreign language education and successful intercultural interactions that assume non-prejudiced attitudes, tolerance and understanding of other cultures, and cultural self-awareness of the person communicating. An efficient communicator must understand that culture shapes people, and the people then shape society. In other words, communication shapes the world. Therefore, appropriately chosen communication strategies help blend the different cultures.

According to Bokova ( 2013 ), there is “renewed aspirations for equality and respect, for tolerance and mutual understanding, especially between peoples of different cultures.” This means that if all parties respect other team members’ cultures, a clement work environment is inevitable. Cultural literacy creates more tolerant and peaceful work environments. Achieving this starts with a re-examination of the whole communication process. The crux of cross-cultural communication is developing effective ways to appreciate the culture of others involved in the acts of communication. Understanding these differences provides the context for an enhanced understanding of the values and behaviours of others. Reconciling these differences confers competitive advantages to those who communicate effectively. The media must provide the links between senders and receivers of messages in the context of their socio-cultural environments.

The United Nations appreciates the distinctiveness in cultures and has incorporated it as a significant factor in achieving sustainable development goals. This global body has produced different documents championing this. Every development takes place in an environment of culture. The heart of sustainable development is the man. The SDGs will be more meaningful and easily achievable by recognizing that actions should be both locally and culturally relevant. Cultural differences can be effectively managed if senders and receivers of messages understand that culture shapes how people communicate and, by extension, the relationship with other people who may not necessarily be from their tribal communities. Breaking down the barriers to cross-cultural communication lies in understanding these distinct differences and consciously incorporating them into the communication processes to enhance communication competencies.

Data availability

All data analysed are contained in the paper.

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Acknowledgements

I acknowledge: Dr. Emmanuel Mogaji of Greenwich University for reading and pointing out helpful corrections; Professors Innocent Chiluwa, Abiodun Gesinde, David Imhonopi and Dr Evaristus Adesina of Covenant University, who went through the manuscript, suggested corrections and encouraged me not to give upe and my daughter, Victoria-Grace Onyekachi Miracle Aririguzoh, who proofread this manuscript and brought in sunshine when the clouds were grey.

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Aririguzoh, S. Communication competencies, culture and SDGs: effective processes to cross-cultural communication. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 9 , 96 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01109-4

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Effective Cross-Cultural Communication

06 sep effective cross-cultural communication.

Gerardo Soula , Global Human Resources Leader with extensive international experience, joins host Solveig Brown to discuss effective cross-cultural communication, leading global teams, and mentoring across borders. Gerardo shares insights on how to influence effectively in a global context, roll out successful mergers and acquisitions, and bridge cultural differences to build stronger teams.

Key Takeaways on Cross-Cultural Communication

Gerardo emphasizes the importance of understanding the cultural context of the people you work with, especially in mentorship and leadership roles. He suggests that leaders take the following steps:

• Do your research: Understand the social, political, and economic conditions of your mentee or team member’s country.
• Acknowledge language differences: Be aware of how words can have different meanings in different countries, even if the language is the same.
• Build trust through empathy: Demonstrate that you respect and value diversity by taking the time to learn about the cultural norms of the people you are leading or mentoring.

Strategies for Leading Global Teams

Gerardo’s experience in leading teams across 20 countries given him valuable insights into the challenges of managing cross-cultural teams. His advice includes:

• Clarify expectations: Different cultures have different perceptions of time and communication styles. Be clear about deadlines and ensure that both sides understand key terms.
• Adapt your style: Flexibility is key when managing a diverse team. For example, some cultures prioritize socializing before diving into business discussions, while others prefer to get straight to the point.
• Facilitate open communication: In some cultures, junior team members may not feel comfortable speaking up in front of a leader. Creating smaller, one-on-one meetings can foster more open dialogue.

Mergers and Acquisitions: Melding Organizational Cultures

Gerardo also offers guidance on how to ensure successful mergers and acquisitions. This is especially important when it comes to blending two distinct organizational cultures.

• Conduct cultural due diligence: During the early stages of the merger, learn as much as possible about the target company’s culture, values, and practices.
• Change management: Establish a dedicated change management team to ensure seamless communication throughout the merger.
• Coach leaders: Leaders need to model the new culture that both organizations aim to create post-merger.

Building Trust in Remote Teams

Working remotely with teams in different countries can make it harder to build trust, but Gerardo suggests a few key tactics:

• Be consistent: Honoring commitments and following through on promises are essential to building trust.
• Lead by example: Show your team that you “walk the talk” by being a role model in your actions.
• Go above and beyond: Demonstrating that you’re willing to put in the extra effort, even without direct oversight, helps build credibility and influence.

Gerardo Soula’s insights on effective cross-cultural communication and leadership provide valuable lessons for anyone leading global teams or mentoring individuals from different cultural backgrounds. His emphasis on preparation, trust-building, and adaptability are key to creating effective and harmonious working relationships across borders.

About Gerardo Soula

Gerardo Soula is a global HR leader with experience across Latin America, North America, and Europe. He has led teams in over 20 countries and pioneered the first global people strategy for one of the world’s largest private companies. Gerardo has a proven track record of creating strategic HR programs that drive employee engagement and support business transformation. He is a recognized talent developer, diversity advocate, and has served on the board of one of Argentina’s largest companies. Gerardo is an experienced mentor with Menttium .

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• Volume 14, Issue 11
• Feasibility and cross-cultural validation of an adapted social skills group training programme (KONTAKTTM CHILD) for Chinese autistic children: a waitlist RCT protocol
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• http://orcid.org/0000-0001-8658-880X Uchong Lao 1 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1052-708X Huilin Zhu 1 ,
• Fengjing Liang 1 ,
• Wuxia Bai 1 , 2 ,
• Peipei Yin 1 ,
• Xiaoqian Huang 1 ,
• Sonya Girdler 2 , 3 ,
• Sven Bölte 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Xiaobing Zou 1
• 1 Child Development and Behavior Center , Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University , Guangzhou , Guangdong , China
• 2 Curtin Autism Research Group , School of Allied Health, Curtin University , Kent Street, Bentley, Perth , Western Australia , Australia
• 3 Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders (KIND), Centre for Psychiatry Research, Division of Neuropsychiatry , Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm Health Care Services , Region Stockholm , Stockholm , Sweden
• 4 Child and Adolescent Psychiatry , Stockholm Health Care Services , Region Stockholm , Stockholm , Sweden
• Correspondence to Huilin Zhu; zhuhlin6{at}mail.sysu.edu.cn ; Professor Xiaobing Zou; zouxb{at}mail.sysu.edu.cn

Introduction School-age autistic children commonly experience social communication and interaction challenges in their everyday lives. While international evidence suggests that social skills group training (SSGT) programmes can support autistic children, improving their psychosocial functioning, to date there is no standardised evidence-based SSGT tailored towards the needs of autistic children aged 8–12 years living in the Chinese Mainland. Therefore, the primary objective of this study will be to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of a culturally adapted 16-session version of the social skills programme KONTAKT in Chinese autistic children. Additionally, preliminary efficacy and cost-effectiveness will be assessed to inform a future definitive trial.

Methods and analysis This study will employ a randomised, single-blinded, waitlist-controlled feasibility design with 36 Chinese autistic children aged 8–12 years with IQ over 70 referred to the Child Development and Behavior Center in Guangzhou, China. Participants will be randomly assigned to either the immediate training group or the delayed training group stratified by sex. Feasibility will be assessed using quantitative and qualitative data obtained from the KONTAKT CHILD participants, their parents and facilitators of the programme. Preliminary efficacy and cost-effectiveness are assessed via quantitative data obtained at five time points. The primary efficacy outcome is participants’ improvement in social skills as measured by the Contextual Assessment of Social Skills. Other outcomes include parents and teachers’ reports of participants’ autistic traits and adaptive functioning, participants’ self-report and projective tests for self-assertiveness and psychosocial functioning, and parent reports on parental reflective functioning and perceived school support. Common process factors and their effects on outcomes will also be explored. Cost-effectiveness will consider from both societal and healthcare perspectives.

Ethics and dissemination The current study protocol has been reviewed and ethics approval has been obtained from the Ethical Board Committee at the Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University (II2023-119-01). The trial was pre-registered in Chinese Clinical Trials (ChiCTR2300072136) on 5 June 2023. The results of this trial will be actively disseminated through peer-reviewed publications and conference presentations. Any identifiable personal information will be anonymised to protect confidentiality.

Protocol version 2.0, 31 July 2024.

Trial registration number ChiCTR2300072136.

• Child & adolescent psychiatry
• Developmental neurology and neurodisability
• Feasibility studies
• Randomized controlled trial
• Social interaction

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See:  http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2023-081827

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Strengths and limitations of this study

Comprehensive assessment of diverse outcomes via multiple informants.

Systematic cultural adaptation using the integrative cultural adaptation framework ensuring the appropriateness of the Chinese version of KONTAKT.

Collection of data on readiness for change, providing insights into ‘help-seeker’ effects.

Limited generalisability due to a single study site, location-specific inclusion and absence of an active comparator.

Given the absence of previous research examining the efficacy of social skills group training programmes in autistic children in the Chinese Mainland, this study is appropriately a feasibility study. As such, only the preliminary efficacy of KONTAKT with this population in a small sample will be examined. The small sample size will limit the power of the study in examining the effect of moderators on the study outcomes.

Introduction

Background and rationale.

Autism is a neurodevelopmental condition characterised by persistent challenges in reciprocal social interaction and communication. 1 Autistic children often struggle to comply with social expectations and norms of communication and interaction, impacting their functioning in everyday contexts. 2 The estimated prevalence of autism among children aged 6–12 in the Chinese Mainland is 0.7% (~1 in 143 children), and nearly half of all autistic children attend mainstream schools. 3 While there is limited research investigating the experiences of these children, their families and teachers, there is a clear and urgent need for evidence-based interventions aiming to support the social competence and well-being of Chinese autistic children in their everyday lives.

Internationally, social skills group training (SSGT) programmes are demonstrating efficacy in supporting verbal and cognitively able school-age autistic children in developing their social skills. 4–6 SSGTs facilitate socioemotional development and promote well-being in autistic children by explicitly and implicitly supporting autistic children in interacting with peers and participating in society more broadly. 7 SSGTs also leverage the benefits of learning in a group, with opportunities for peer learning and support. Multiple meta-analyses of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating the efficacy of these programmes in autistic youth report moderate to large effect sizes (ES) in achieving personally meaningful social goals, enhancing social skills, social skills knowledge, social participation and social functioning. 4 8–10

While there has been considerable investigation on the proximal intervention outcomes of SSGT programmes in autistic children and adolescents and post-test and short-term follow-up periods, there has been limited focus on longer term outcomes and the generalisation of learnt skills to everyday contexts such as schools. Further, with few exceptions, the outcomes of these programmes have been largely assessed by parents. This is of particular concern given that most study designs have not employed single-blinded observation of outcome measures. 4 8 Results from previous meta-analyses 4 8 11 12 infer that improvements observed in parent and clinical ratings were primarily related to increased social skills knowledge or specific task-related skills, rather than assessments of the generalisation of skills to everyday contexts. 8

SSGT programmes have also been criticised for failing to consider the view of autistic youth themselves in the design and delivery of the programmes. 13 While capturing and accounting for the views of autistic young people may require effort, given their communication challenges, 14 increasingly autistic advocates and the autistic community are calling for researchers and clinicians to consider and incorporate their views in clinical interventions. 15 It is also likely that coproducing SSGT with individuals with lived experience will enhance the efficacy of these programmes in relation to the intended target group. 16 Further, given the inherent challenges experienced by autistic children in understanding social interactions and emotional content, questions have been raised regarding the validity and accuracy of self-report questionnaires aiming to evaluate the impact of SSGT programmes on these children. 17 Despite these cautions, findings from a recent meta-analysis suggest that the emotional self-awareness of school-age autistic children is comparable to their non-autistic peers. 18 It seems plausible that approaches tailored to the communication needs and preferences of autistic children will be more successful in gathering their perspectives. 19 Further, while unusual in SSGT or autism research context, validated non-verbal psychometric assessments, such as the Draw-A-Person Test, 20 21 may be a worthwhile tool for understanding children’s psychosocial functioning. 22–24

Methodological limitations of previous SSGT efficacy studies include a failure to consider common process factors. 25 Process factors are elements that are inherently present in receiving and delivering a health intervention, that unfold progressively throughout its delivery and include participants’ expectations, willingness to participate and the alliance between participants and facilitators. While a significant proportion of SSGT studies have reported programme adherence and satisfaction, 8 the data obtained by these studies were largely descriptive and failed to systematically examine the impact of process factors in relation to intervention outcomes. 25

The KONTAKT programme is a well-established SSGT designed for autistic children and adolescents with and without co-occurring conditions. 26 Originating in Germany, 27 it has now been further developed, standardised, culturally adapted and evaluated in Sweden 28 29 and Australia. 30 Three session-length variants (24, 16 and 12 sessions) have been standardised and evaluated through RCTs, demonstrating efficacy and effectiveness in improving participants’ social functioning, adaptive functioning, emotional well-being, emotion recognition and regulation, as well as accomplishment of personally meaningful social goals. 28–30 Findings across these studies suggest that KONTAKT may be particularly beneficial to autistic teenagers and girls. Moreover, both quantitative and qualitative data support the conclusion that KONTAKT is effective, safe and well received by autistic youth. 28–32

To our knowledge, while a standardised SSGT programme PEERS has been tailored for use with Chinese autistic adolescents, 33 there is no culturally standardised SSGT programme specifically tailored towards the needs of autistic children years in the Chinese Mainland (See supplemental table 1 ( online supplemental file 1 ) for a comparison between the KONTAKT CHILD and the Mandarin PEERS; see also Afsharnejad et al , 6 pp 1286–1287, and Table 4). 6 With its diverse, individualised and naturalistic session design, 26 it is anticipated that KONTAKT will effectively support the social functioning and well-being of Chinese autistic children, provided the context of Chinese culture and its associated social norms are incorporated. 34

Supplemental material

Cultural adaptation involves systematically modifying an evidence-based intervention to align with the target population’s needs, values, languages, conditions and customs. 35–37 However, only a few cultural adaptation studies on SSGT have well-documented and theoretically based methodologies. Moreover, previous SSGT efficacy studies generally lacked input from the target population, despite language translation and the inclusion of culturally relevant content. 6

Ignoring cultural differences can significantly hamper the effectiveness of evidence-based SSGTs for autistic individuals. 34 Given the core characteristics of autism involve social interaction and communication, social-ecological differences across cultures will undoubtedly influence interpretations of ‘functioning’ and ‘disorder’ in autism. 38 Cultural factors also impact established expectations and interactions between families and service providers, and between service providers in various sectors including healthcare, education and the broader community. 39–41

For example, Chinese parents are unlikely to disclose their child’s autism diagnosis to school, reflecting the limited collaboration between family and school, prevailing autism stereotypes and fears regarding stigma. 42 Moreover, Chinese autistic children are commonly not informed of their autism diagnosis, with the majority of parents choosing not to disclose the diagnosis to them. 43 There are also clear differences in the prevailing service delivery paradigms relevant to supporting autistic children in the Chinese Mainland compared with many Western countries. Service delivery in the Chinese Mainland is significantly impacted by a large population and limited health professionals and public health services. 44 45 Unlike many Western countries, where funding and child health services for autistic children are commonly provided by governmental departments, the Chinese Mainland relies primarily on parents to cover these costs. 46

While there are various cultural adaptation frameworks guiding the alignment of health interventions with the needs of a target population, 35 36 47 48 despite some methodological distinctions, they share many similarities. In aligning the KONTAKT SSGT programme with the needs of autistic children living in the Chinese Mainland, this study adopts the integrative cultural adaptation framework (ICAF). 35 The ICAF involves five stages: information gathering, preliminary design, preliminary efficacy testing, refinement and final trial. This study focuses on the first four stages of the ICAF in preparing for final evaluation trial (the last stage).

Objectives and hypotheses

The overarching purpose of the present study is to assess the feasibility and cross-cultural validity of the adapted 16-session version of the KONTAKT CHILD programme for Chinese autistic children in preparation for a larger RCT trial. The specific objectives are:

Evaluate the integration of KONTAKT CHILD programme into a tertiary hospital’s routine activity.

Assess the acceptability and feasibility of the data collection framework.

Examine the preliminary efficacy and quantitative and qualitative effects of KONTAKT to inform a future, definitive RCT.

Explore the impact of common process factors on intervention outcomes.

Examine the cost-effectiveness of KONTAKT CHILD compared with standard care.

Our primary hypothesis is that the Chinese 16-session KONTAKT CHILD programme will be feasible and culturally appropriate for Chinese autistic children with minor revisions and can be successfully implemented in a tertiary clinic. We also hypothesise that participants in the immediate training group (ITG), in comparison to the delayed training group (DTG) (waitlist), will experience greater improvements in outcomes from time 1 to time 3 (waiting period of DTG). We expect that participants and their parents with higher readiness for change and a stronger alliance in the ITG will benefit more from KONTAKT CHILD. Moreover, we anticipate that the training effects in the ITG will persist at follow-up, and significant improvements in children’s outcomes will occur in the DTG from time 3 to time 5 (training endpoint of the DTG). For cost-effective analysis, we hypothesise that the additional costs for KONTAKT will be offset by participants’ improvement in health-related quality of life and out-of-pocket savings in the use of other mental health and psychiatric services.

Trial design

This study was approved by the Ethical Board Committee at the Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University (II2023-119-01) and pre-registered in Chinese Clinical Trials (ChiCTR2300072136).

Any modification to this protocol will be reported to the ethical board and updated in Chinese Clinical Trials. Following Thabane and Lancaster’s guidelines in 2019, 49 this Chinese KONTAKT CHILD protocol is planned and reported following the Standard Protocol Items: Recommendations for Interventional Trials. 50 The findings of this study will be reported adherent to the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials for Social and Psychological Interventions (CONSORT-SPI). 51

The Chinese KONTAKT CHILD feasibility study has a prospective, waitlist-controlled, single-site, stratified randomised design. Blinding will apply to the data collected, outcome adjudicators and data analysis. All electronic files, including coding videos and scanned drawings, will be named without identifying personal information and group allocation or time point information. Three major assessment time points (ITG: pretraining (T1), post-training (T3), follow-up (T5); DTG: pretraining (T1), pretraining (T3), post-training (T5)), with additional midpoint cost and processing factors data collection for each group, are included. Additional midpoint cost data collection follows the 2-month follow-up intervals recommended by the Treatment Inventory of Costs in Patients with Psychiatric Disorders-Child version (TiC-PC) manual. 52 Measurements will be taken during face-to-face meetings, with the exception of data from teachers and the prescreening process. Further, this study will employ a mixed-methods design, with both between-group and within-participant comparisons, to explore the feasibility, acceptability of implementing a large-scale RCT and the preliminary efficacy of the Chinese KONTAKT CHILD programme. Randomisation is performed at a 1:1 allocation ratio, with variable block length and stratification by sex. Participant recruitment and training are ongoing between 5 June 2023 and 1 March 2025.

Methods: participants, interventions and outcomes

Study setting.

All in-person assessments and interventions, except for the excursion session, will take place at the outpatient department of the Child Development and Behavior Center (CDBC) of the tertiary academic hospital, the Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University in Guangzhou, China. The CDBC is one of China’s first established and leading developmental behavioural paediatric units, with over 20 years of experience in diagnosing and promoting the well-being of autistic individuals and their families. The CDBC provides over 10 000 clinic appointments annually to neurodivergent children and their families across China seeking diagnostic and intervention services.

Online assessments will be designed using the SurveyStar online survey platform ( https://wjx.cn/ ). The SurveyStar is one of the most popular electronic survey platforms in Chinese contexts, with its services covering more than 3 million enterprises and 90% of universities in China.

Due to limited email use in the Chinese Mainland, WeChat, the dominant instant messaging and media app, will be the primary channel for participant recruitment, communication with families and online survey distribution. Additionally, the SurveyStar conveniently integrates with WeChat through a Mini Program, 53 allowing WeChat users to seamlessly complete questionnaires directly on the platform.

The certified KONTAKT(TM) trainers are experienced CDBC clinicians (clinical psychologists, developmental behavioural paediatricians and therapists) working with Chinese autistic children (with 3–10 years of working experience). They have completed standardised online KONTAKT methodological training provided by experienced trainers from the Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders at Karolinska Institutet (KIND), including self-directed training and videoconference seminars, followed by a 13-session enhanced in-person training. The enhanced training course mainly included trainers role-playing the child sessions and more in-depth discussion on the principles of KONTAKT.

All KONTAKT CHILD sessions, except for the excursion session, will be delivered in a spacious, well-lit room at CDBC, with participants and trainers sitting in a circle. As suggested in the KONTAKT manual, delivery of the programme content will be supported by a flip chart, used to record notes during each session, and a board displaying the group rules, session agenda and points assigned to participants in recognition of their participation in the sessions. The excursion session (session 9) will be in a café, a bubble tea shop or a convenience store, accessible from CDBC. Parent sessions will take place in a separate room, with parents sitting together in a circle without their children present. A projector will be used to present information on the principles and the content of KONTAKT, and information pertaining to their role, such as completing assignments and providing constructive feedback, in supporting their children during the intervention period.

Recruitment

Figure 1 displays the flow of participants throughout the study. Thirty-six autistic children will be recruited through the outpatient department of the CDBC in two rounds of recruitment. Multiple recruitment avenues will be used including word of mouth, referrals from clinicians, posters displaying information about the study at the CDBC clinic and flyers published on the WeChat account of CDBC ( https://www.wechat.com/ ).

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Chinese KONTAKT CHILD feasibility study flow chart.

Parents will express their interest in the study by completing a brief online registration form (taking approximately 10–15 min to complete) obtaining their contact information, their children’s demographic information, diagnostic statuses, previous evaluations on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV Chinese version (WISC-IV), 54 the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Generic (ADOS-G) 55 and screening for problem behaviours which may impact on their ability to engage positively in a group setting using the Childhood Behavior Checklist-Parent version (CBCL). 56 Obtaining parents’ expression of interest in this way enables estimation of the demand for KONTAKT from families engaging with CDBC.

Following the submission of their expression of interest, a research coordinator will assess candidates’ eligibility to participate in the study. Parents of children meeting the inclusion criteria for the study will subsequently participate in a 10 to 20 min prescreening phone interview, discussing with the research team their child’s school lives (eg, how their child is getting along with their classmates and teachers), academic performances and special needs, and addressing any study-related questions. This brief interview with parents will also ascertain potential participants’ suitability to cope with the cognitive and verbal demands of KONTAKT.

If fulfilling the prescreening criteria, candidate participants and their parents will attend CDBC for a 50 min. face-to-face intake interview with the research coordinator. During the intake interview, both children and parents will participate in a 20 min. individual interview with the research coordinator. Families meeting the inclusion criteria of the study will be provided with detailed oral and written information about their participation in the study, including the requirements. Written informed consent will be obtained from parents and children.

Eligibility criteria

Inclusion criteria.

Aged 8 to 12 years.

A clinical diagnosis of autism (confirmed by ADOS-G, module 3).

A full-scale IQ>70 on the WISC-IV.

Resided in Guangzhou city for the past 12 months.

Exclusion criteria

Significant physical disabilities or severe metabolic disease(s).

Significant rule-breaking or aggressive behaviours within the last 6 months, as confirmed by CBCL.

Low intrinsic motivation to participate as confirmed by the intake interview.

Significant difficulties with Chinese characters reading comprehension or Mandarin expression and comprehension.

Prior or current behaviour or psychiatric conditions that could disrupt participation or necessitate other treatment(s).

Participants with common co-occurring neurodevelopmental or psychiatric conditions in autistic individuals, such as attention deficiency hyperactivity disorder, depression, anxiety and tic disorder, are eligible if these conditions do not significantly interfere with their ability to engage in a group setting. Participants will continue with their prescribed pharmacological treatments, psychological therapies or other interventions while participating in KONTAKT CHILD. Written informed consent will be obtained from participants and parents after a thorough explanation of the study during the intake interview.

Intervention

Kontakt child intervention.

Prior to the development of this study protocol, a preliminary adaptation of KONTAKT (the first step of the ICAF—information gathering) has been completed. The KONTAKT programme includes workbooks for trainers, children and parents, supporting intervention fidelity. In adapting the 16-session variant of KONTAKT from the Australian English version to Mandarin Chinese, a rigorous process was employed. First, an initial translation was made and verified for accuracy by bilingual authors (UL, HZ and WB). Then, a working group of KONTAKT Chinese trainers, who are also CDBC clinicians, provided feedback on the initial programme materials. This step resulted in significant modifications to the discussion topics, particularly regarding those addressing autism diagnosis, making them more general and implicit (most notably in session 3). In addition, to encourage parents to discuss the autism diagnosis with their child, information relating to ‘how to talk about the diagnosis with your child’ was added to the first parent session. This adaptation was made given that research has highlighted that over 60% of Chinese autistic children are unaware of their autism diagnosis, with 40% of parents of Chinese autistic children preferring not to disclose an autism diagnosis to their children. 43

The current adaptation of the KONTAKT programme also emphasises enhanced parent education and support. Parents will receive information and resources to support their children with the KONTAKT homework activities. This includes parents role-playing parent–child interactions during homework completion contexts and demonstration videos. Throughout the programme, KONTAKT trainers will also provide session-by-session feedback, interim and final report to parents on their child’s progress. Additionally, they will offer ongoing coaching and encouragement to parents. This enhanced parent support directly addresses a need identified in previous research 33 —Chinese parents expressed a desire for additional coaching skills education to facilitate their autistic children’s participation in SSGTs.

Moreover, members of the Chinese research team further modified and added questions, games, activities and scenarios aligned with Chinese cultural norms. A Chinese name was also created for KONTAKT, emphasising the training’s focus on meaningful socialisation (交得益 TM ). Finally, a family with an autistic adolescent proofread the manual and made edits to enhance language fluency and readability, and the inclusion of culturally appropriate terminology. Additionally, a logo for the Chinese version of KONTAKT was designed and used on customised stationary and course materials to foster a sense of group cohesion among participants.

KONTAKT integrates cognitive–behavioural therapy principles and learning principles tailored towards the needs of autistic youth (see figure 2 ). 26 These include principles of psychoeducation, observational learning, modelling, behavioural activation, homework, computerised cognitive training, opportunities for rehearsal, a structured agenda and parental involvement. KONTAKT employs mandatory, recurring and variable activities to support participants in achieving their personally meaningful social goals. Sessions aim to enhance understanding of social norms, develop adaptive socioemotional skills and promote practical applications. The first 11 sessions of KONTAKT consistently present weekly themes and assignments, while later sessions are led by the participants and tailored towards topics of interest to each group. In this way, KONTAKT accommodates for cultural context and for the subtle differences and preferences of each KONTAKT group.

Elements, structures and goals of KONTAKT. 7 26

A group of four to six participants will attend 16 consecutive sessions of KONTAKT led by two to three trainers on weekends, with each session lasting approximately 60 min. Three parent sessions will take place at the beginning, middle and end of the training, offering parents individual feedback on their child’s progress, presenting educational information on autism and approaches to discussing an autism diagnosis with their child and encouraging parents in socially coaching their children. During the parent sessions, opportunities will be provided encouraging parents to ask questions, provide feedback and engage with other parents of autistic children. Parents will be encouraged to assist their children with homework, with trainers providing feedback to parents after each session. Refer to supplemental table 2 ( online supplemental file 1 ) for the structure and content of the Chinese KONTAKT CHILD version.

To ensure fidelity to the KONTAKT training protocol, trainers will complete session-by-session fidelity checklists and receive supervision from certified KONTAKT trainers.

Description of the rationale for adopting the Chinese 16-session KONTAKT

While KONTAKT has been previously standardised and published in 12 and 24-session variants, the reasons underpinning the choice to tailor the 16-session variant to the Chinese Mainland were threefold. First, previous research found that the 12-session variant did not significantly outperform standard care in Sweden in children, 28 and the 24-session variant had a higher attrition rate than the 16-session variant and 12-session variant (26% vs 11%/14%). 28–30 Moreover, aligning with the Chinese academic year structure, which consists of two terms with approximately 5 months each, the 16-session version is more practical. Lastly, evaluating the 16-session variant will result in the DTG waiting for a period of 4 to 5 months, which would be extended by evaluating the 24-session variant and negatively impact on adherence and the timelines of access to the intervention. 57

Explanation for the choice of comparators

The waiting period of the DTG is limited to 4 to 5 months, roughly equivalent to one round of KONTAKT training. While an active comparator in an RCT is typically the most robust, due to limited clinical resources in the Chinese Mainland, a waitlist control group is considered more practical. Moreover, given that ‘nonspecific’ care is common in the Chinese Mainland, a waitlist control group allows for assessing the additional impact of KONTAKT CHILD in addition to standard care.

Intervention adherence

We will use a participant attendance sheet to track compliance, aiming for at least 80% attendance (13 out of 16 sessions) as acceptable. Homework completion will also be recorded, with a target of over 60% considered tolerable.

We will further adopt several approaches as recommended by Robiner to enhance the waitlist group’s adherence 58 :

Provide detailed study information to families during intake interviews.

Emphasise to families the importance of adherence.

Establish a collaborative working relationship with families during intake interviews to develop trust and rapport.

Offer face-to-face assessments for regular clinical visits during the waiting periods.

Limit the waiting time for the DTG to 4 to 5 months with a single-round intervention.

Schedule appointments at times convenient to families, for example, on weekends.

Randomisation

After the initial visit to the clinic, participants will be randomised to either ITG or DTG. Randomisation will be conducted by a third party not involved in the Chinese KONTAKT CHILD trial using computer-generated sequentially random numbers. The permuted block numbers 4 to 6 will be used to restrict randomisation within the strata (birth-assigned sex). Each participant will be assigned a unique code.

Assessments/measures

Outcomes will be assessed from the perspective of multiple informants (children, parents, teachers, clinical ratings) via multiple data collection methods (questionnaires, interviews, observations, projective tests). The data collection timeline is presented in supplemental table 3 ( online supplemental file 2 ).

All online questionnaire fields are mandatory, requiring completion to progress, eliminating the expectation of missing data. QR codes will be used for distributing the registration and teacher questionnaires, completed via the WeChat app. All teacher questionnaires will be assigned a unique participant identification number.

Primary outcome measures will inform the feasibility of conducting a full RCT. Feasibility outcomes include acceptability and appropriateness of intervention, and negative effects assessed via quantitative data (fidelity checklists, recruitment rates, attendance rates, homework completion rates, Group Session Rating Scale, 59 Theoretical Framework of Acceptability Questionnaire 60 and Negative Effects Questionnaire 61 ) and qualitative data from focus groups with both participants and providers conducted after intervention (ITG: post-training (T3) and follow-up (T5); DTG: post-training (T5)). The relationship between the focus areas of feasibility studies, as outlined by Bowen et al 62 and those addressed in this study, is summarised in table 1 . Table 2 provides a detailed description of the quantitative feasibility parameters and criteria for success.

• View inline

Feasibility methodology based on the focus areas outlined by Bowen et al 62

Feasibility parameters and criteria for success

Secondary outcomes will focus on the preliminary efficacy of the Chinese 16-session KONTAKT, which will inform the future full-scale RCT. Outcomes include the following measures.

The primary efficacy outcome of the KONTAKT CHILD study is improvement in social communication and interaction skills. This is assessed using the Contextual Assessment of Social Skills (CASS), an ecologically valid observational measure. 63 The CASS involves two videotaped role-play assessments where participants engage in reciprocal conversation and interaction. These assessments take place in contexts that are manipulated to be either interesting or boring. This manipulation is achieved by changing how the confederate responds and interacts with the participant. During each role-play, participants and an unknown adult confederate of an opposite birth-assigned sex pretend that they have just joined a new club and are waiting for the first session to begin. During this 3 min waiting period, participants and the adult confederate can talk to each other.

Secondary efficacy outcomes include autistic characteristics (Social Responsiveness Scale-2 (SRS-2)), 64 generalised social skills (Snack Time Assessment of Relationships and Social Skills), 63 65 adaptive functioning (Adaptive Behavior Assessment System-II), 66 67 self-esteem and self-concept (Self-Concept Scale Draw-A-Person (SCS-DAP) 68 and Child Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (CRSES)), 69 cognitive development and psychosocial well-being (Koppitz Draw-A-Person Test 70 71 and Child Outcome Rating Scale), 72 73 perceived school support school level 33 and parental reflective functioning. 74 Common process factor measurements include alliance (Therapeutic Alliance Scales for Children) 75 76 and readiness for change (Preparedness for Participating in KONTAKT Scale). 77 Cost-effectiveness outcomes include healthcare consumption and productivity loss (the tailored version of the TiC-PC) 78 79 and health-related quality of life (Child Health Utility 9D (CHU9D) 80 and EQ-5D-Y). 81

For details of these measures, see online supplemental file 2 .

Families will be requested to attend data collection appointments at a time convenient to them with reminders from research assistants. Paper-pencil questionnaires will be mailed to families unable to attend appointments in person and provided with a prepaid envelope to return these via post. The reasons for participant withdrawal, adverse events and other unintended effects will be documented and reported, and dropouts will not be replaced.

Data management

In the Chinese KONTAKT CHILD feasibility study, all paper data will be converted to electronic format. Trained research assistants will input the data within 2 weeks after each assessment. Both paper and electronic data will be stored in EpiData 82 with double-entry for data integrity. Checks for referenced range values, valid values and regular data consistency will be applied. Non-numerical data, including open-ended questions and notes, will be entered as originally written.

Video and audio recordings will be labelled with unique identifiers, with details recorded in the EpiData repository. Paper documents will be securely stored in locked filing cabinets at CDBC. Electronic textual data will be password protected. Video and audio files will have dual backups on encrypted hard disks. Only the principal investigator will have full data access.

Incremental data and recording files will be backed up daily.

Sample size

The primary efficacy outcome of this present study is the CASS. Previous SSGT studies applying the CASS suggested a medium ES of 0.42. 83 Additionally, a rough average ES of 0.40, as measured by the SRS-2, is derived from the three prior RCT studies evaluating KONTAKT, 28–30 and informs the expected ES for the future Chinese KONTAKT CHILD main trial. According to Whitehead et al , 84 a feasibility study with a sample size of 15 per treatment arm allows for detecting a medium ES (0.30 to 0.70) with 90% power and two-sided 5% significance in the main trial. Accounting for a 15% attrition rate from previous KONTAKT evaluation studies, we require a sample size of n=18 per arm (n=36 in total).

Statistical analysis

Statistical methods for primary and secondary outcomes.

Feasibility measures will be reported descriptively. Additionally, qualitative data will be transcribed verbatim, deidentified and then imported into NVivo V.12 for theme-based analysis. If all or some feasibility parameters for success are not met ( tables 1 and 2 ), or if salient themes of unacceptability or unfeasibility emerged within the qualitative analysis, investigators will further examine the potential contributing factors, including participant baseline characteristics and session-composition characteristics. This analysis will inform necessary modifications to the KONTAKT CHILD training and its delivery in the Chinese Mainland.

For preliminary efficacy analysis, the primary efficacy outcome for this study is social communication skills improvement as measured by the CASS, with the follow-up being the primary endpoint. The analysis will follow the intention-to-treat (ITT) principles, 85 and all data from every participant will be analysed. Missing data will be handled based on established guidelines for each measure or CONSORT-SPI statement. No interim analysis will occur.

Data will be checked for normality and variance heterogeneity. Baseline demographics will be compared between ITG and DTG using t-tests or Wilcoxon rank test (continuous variables) and χ 2 tests (categorical variables) to verify group comparability. Random mixed-effects regression models, which have the advantage of handling missing data, will compare ITG and DTG for primary and secondary analyses, considering time (baseline, endpoint, follow-up), group (ITG, DTG) and their interaction variable (time×group). Participants’ ID will be regarded as a random effect accounting for intraindividual correlations. Intervention effects will be reported as least squares mean differences. ES will be reported by dividing the groups’ mean difference (baseline to endpoint and baseline to follow-up) by the pooled SDs, with positive values favouring the intervention. Potential moderators, including age, sex, IQ, co-occurring conditions and the common process factors at baseline between participants with high training responses (defined as ≥30% improvement on CASS scores at follow-up), medium training responses (defined as 10 to 30% improvement) and low training responses (defined as ≤10% improvement or worsened), will be compared using either one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) (continuous variables) or χ 2 tests (categorical variables). 31–33 Post hoc Dunn test or χ 2 test will be conducted if the ANOVA tests or multiple χ 2 tests demonstrate significant group differences. ES will be presented as either Hedge’s g or Cramer’s V .

Health economic analyses

Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) will follow an ITT basis, considering societal and healthcare perspectives. Cost differences will be statistically tested, while resource usage differences will not be compared to prevent false positives. Quality-adjusted life-years (QALY) will be calculated from EQ-5D-Y and CHU9D scores using validated algorithms for Chinese children and adolescents. 86 87 Given potential non-normality in cost data, a non-parametric random forest permutation model will handle missing data. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio will be calculated as Δcost/ΔQALYs. Cost differences between ITG and DTG at different time points will be analysed via linear regression with bootstrapping for 5000 repetitions to generate non-parametric CIs (see online supplemental file 3 for CEA details).

Community and public involvement

The first author, UL, is self-identified as autistic. During the adaptation stage, the training manual for KONTAKT was proofread by a family with an autistic adolescent. To assess training burden and programme acceptability, participants will provide feedback through a combination of questionnaires and focus group interviews (mixed methods). Advocating for outcomes focused on well-being and mental health, autistic people continue to emphasise the importance of listening to their voices. Thus, this trial will also capture both quantitative and qualitative data examining participants’ experiences of receiving KONTAKT CHILD and the impact of the programme on children’s well-being. We will further engage the autism community, involving both parents with autistic children and clinicians, in recruiting potential participants. Finally, participants will be invited to share their lived experiences of participating in KONTAKT with the autism community through community events and social media in China when the trial has ended.

The study commenced recruitment on 5 June 2023. This article presents the design of the Chinese KONTAKT CHILD trial, a feasibility waitlist RCT featuring the Chinese 16-session KONTAKT variant for autistic children. This design incorporates multiple data sources and diverse outcome assessment methods, facilitating a comprehensive exploration of the feasibility of this programme from different perspectives. Furthermore, a systematic cultural adaptation process ensures the suitability, acceptability and comprehensiveness of the Chinese KONTAKT version. Adhering to the ICAF, this study will guide the refinement of the Chinese KONTAKT version and future larger scale evaluations, addressing the question of whether SSGT can be effectively implemented for Chinese school-age autistic children.

While there are several strengths in the study design mentioned earlier, it is important to acknowledge some limitations. First, conducted in Guangzhou, one of China’s most advanced cities, the study’s single-site nature may limit the generalisability of the findings to other clinical settings in the Chinese Mainland, especially to regions with more limited resources. Additionally, certain measures planned for use in the study, such as the CRSES and the SCS-DAP, may have uncertain psychometric properties due to the lack of Chinese population data. However, this feasibility study aims to provide empirical data on the psychometrics of these measures with Chinese autistic children. Another limitation is the absence of an active comparator, as the waitlist control could potentially overestimate treatment effects. 88 Nevertheless, this aligns with the prevailing situation in China. Furthermore, the study will collect data on parents and children’s readiness for change, allowing for an exploration of the ‘help-seeker’ effects, following the recommendation by Cunningham and colleagues in 2013. 88

As mentioned above, the final stage of the ICAF involves running a full-scale RCT trial to evaluate the efficacy of the Chinese version of KONTAKT. Therefore, upon completing this feasibility study, the investigators will integrate all quantitative and qualitative results to decide whether a full-scale RCT trial will progress or redesigning another KONTAKT feasibility study will be needed. The following aspects will be considered: (1) participants and parents’ acceptability and adherence rates, (2) participants and parents’ feedback on demand and training burden for KONTAKT, (3) trainers’ feedback on implementing KONTAKT in Chinese clinical setting, (4) trainers’ fidelity on implementing KONTAKT, (5) the feasibility results of the processes for data collecting and (6) considering the potential capacity of the intervention setting (human resources, materials and equipment) on implementing a full-scale RCT regarding the sample size calculation for the primary outcome.

Plans for dissemination of finding

The findings of the Chinese KONTAKT CHILD trial will be submitted to peer-reviewed journals for consideration. Abstracts will also be submitted to both local and international conferences, and community-based lay abstracts will be written and disseminated to provide feedback to autism stakeholders in China.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the generous support from the Swedish team at Karolinska Institutet/Stockholm Health Services and the Australian team at Curtin University. They facilitated the training and provided precious experiences and materials for the CDBC KONTAKT trainers. We thank the CDBC KONTAKT team for facilitating the process of this trial. We sincerely thank the autistic individual, Yihan Liu, and her families for validating the translation and contents of the Chinese KONTAKT manual. Additionally, we appreciate Yan Li for designing the tools for the KONTAKT CHILD programmes.

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UL and HZ contributed equally.

Presented at Part of this protocol was presented as a poster at the International Society of Autism Research Annual Meeting, 16 May 2024.

Contributors UL, HZ, XZ, SB and SG undertook the conceptualisation and design of the study. UL, HZ and WB translated the manuals and workbooks. UL, HZ, SB, SG and XZ selected the measures used. WB, FL, PY, XH, HZ, UL and XZ improved the content of the manual. FL, PY, HZ and XZ assisted with the administration of groups and offered clinical support. UL drafted the manuscript, with inputs from HZ, SB, SG and XZ. XZ is the guarantor. All authors contributed to, read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding This research now receives funding from Guangdong Science and Technology Program (2023A1111120012) and Guangzhou Science and Technology Program (2024B03J0529).

Disclaimer The funding organisations do not influence the study design, data collection/analysis/interpretation, manuscript review/approval, or publication decision.

Competing interests XZ received funding from the Guangdong Science and Technology Department and HZ received funding from the Guangzhou Municipal Science and Technology Bureau. SB receives royalties for the German, Swedish and Australian KONTAKT materials from Hogrefe Publishers.

Community and public involvement Autism community was involved in the design, or conduct, or reporting, or dissemination plans of this research. Refer to the Methods section for further details.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Supplemental material This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

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