new research on the big bang theory

Time to Rethink the Big Bang? New Research Suggests Universal Expansion May Not Be What It Seems

A recent observational study is challenging one of modern science’s most widely accepted theories: the Big Bang . 

The findings, published in the scientific journal Particles , suggest that the universe’s expansion may not have been driven by a massive explosion billions of years ago but rather by an alternative, “fringe” explanation that’s been around for nearly a century—the “Tired Light” theory.

“The tired light theory was largely neglected, as astronomers adopted the Big Bang theory as the consensus model of the universe,” Dr. Lior Shamir, study author and associate professor of computer science at Kansas State University, said in a release . “But the confidence of some astronomers in the Big Bang theory started to weaken when the powerful James Webb Space Telescope saw first light.”

“The JWST provided deep images of the very early universe, but instead of showing an infant early universe as astronomers expected, it showed large and mature galaxies. If the Big Bang happened as scientists initially believed, these galaxies are older than the universe itself.”

The Big Bang theory has long been the prevailing explanation for the universe’s origin. According to this theory, the universe began around 13.8 billion years ago from an extremely hot and dense singularity, expanding rapidly and cooling over time. 

This event is believed to have set the foundation for the cosmos, leading to the formation of galaxies, stars, and planets. The Big Bang theory is supported by several lines of evidence, such as the cosmic microwave background radiation, the distribution of galaxies, and the observed redshift of light from distant galaxies, which implies that the universe is expanding.

However, in this new study, Dr. Shamir suggests that redshift—a phenomenon where light from distant objects shifts toward the red end of the spectrum, indicating they are moving away—might not necessarily prove that the universe is expanding in the way the Big Bang theory suggests. Instead, evidence could support an alternative: the “Tired Light” theory.

First proposed in 1929 by Swiss astronomer Dr. Fritz Zwicky, the “ Tired Light ” theory offers a different explanation for the redshift observed in light from distant galaxies. 

According to this theory, as light travels through space, it loses energy over vast distances due to interactions with particles or fields, causing it to “tire” and shift to longer wavelengths, such as red. 

This process would give the appearance of an expanding universe without requiring an actual outward movement of galaxies from a central point, as proposed by the Big Bang theory.

The “Tired Light” theory was initially sidelined by the scientific community in favor of the Big Bang theory, primarily because it could not fully account for certain observations, such as the cosmic microwave background radiation and surface brightness of galaxies evolving with time.

However, recent observations and analyses, like those presented in this new study, could prompt a re-evaluation of Dr. Zwicky’s hypothesis.

In the newly published paper, Dr. Shamir argues that recent observational data challenges the standard interpretation of redshift as evidence of universal expansion. The study suggests that the tired light model might better explain certain cosmological phenomena, particularly how light behaves over enormous cosmic distances.

The study focuses on discrepancies between observed data and predictions made by the Big Bang model, including the rate of expansion inferred from the redshift data. Dr. Shamir points out that while the Big Bang theory predicts a uniform expansion rate, the observational data shows a more complex picture that could be interpreted through the tired light framework.

Moreover, the study introduces a series of calculations and simulations to demonstrate how the tired light model might align with current data on the universe’s structure and behavior. It suggests that the tired light model could potentially explain phenomena like the Hubble constant ‘s inconsistencies — a number that represents the universe’s rate of expansion — which has been a subject of intense debate in the scientific community.

“The results showed that galaxies that rotate in the opposite direction relative to the Milky Way have lower redshift compared to galaxies that rotate in the same direction relative to the Milky Way,” Dr. Shamir said. “That difference reflects the motion of the Earth as it rotates with the Milky Way. But the results also showed that the difference in the redshift increased when the galaxies were more distant from Earth.

“Because the rotational velocity of the Earth relative to the galaxies is constant, the reason for the difference can be the distance of the galaxies from Earth. That shows that the redshift of galaxies changes with the distance, which is what Zwicky predicted in his Tired Light theory.”

The study’s findings do not outright reject the Big Bang theory but call for a broader consideration of alternative explanations that could also fit the available data. Dr. Shamir suggests that the tired light theory deserves renewed attention, particularly given recent advancements in observational technologies that provide a clearer view of cosmic phenomena.

While this new study offers intriguing evidence supporting the “Tired Light” theory, the scientific community will likely approach such claims with caution. 

The Big Bang theory has been the dominant cosmological model for nearly a century. It is backed by extensive observational data, including the distribution of galaxies across the universe. 

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These pillars of evidence have withstood decades of scrutiny, making it unlikely that the scientific community will readily discard the Big Bang theory in favor of an alternative hypothesis without compelling and comprehensive proof. 

Similarly, critics have long argued that the tired light theory does not account for all the observed evidence supporting the Big Bang model, such as the cosmic microwave background radiation—the “afterglow” of the Big Bang—and the abundance of light elements like hydrogen and helium.

Nevertheless, the Big Bang theory has its own challenges and unresolved mysteries. For instance, it grapples with issues such as the horizon problem, the flatness problem, and the question of baryon asymmetry in matter. Additionally, critical elements like “dark energy” and “dark matter,” which are necessary to make the Big Bang theory work, remain unexplained.

Dr. Shamir’s recent observational study could prompt scientists to reevaluate the fundamental assumptions behind their understanding of the cosmos. At the very least, it suggests that aspects of cosmic history remain unclear, inviting consideration of alternative ideas about the universe’s origins and expansion.

It remains uncertain whether the tired light theory will gain broader acceptance or be further refined to account for the phenomena that the Big Bang model explains. 

What is clear, however, is that this debate is far from over. The universe may still hold surprises that challenge even our most cherished scientific theories.

“The unprecedented imaging power of JWST has revealed new information about the Universe that is not aligned with some of the current fundamental cosmological assumptions,” Dr. Shamir writes. “These puzzling observations introduce a challenge to cosmology: if the distance indicators are accurate, the standard cosmological model is incomplete. If the current standard cosmological theories are complete, then the distance indicators may not be fully accurate.” 

“That is, either the standard cosmological theories need to be revised, or the redshift as a distance indicator needs to be revised, but the two may not be able to coexist without modifications.” 

Tim McMillan is a retired law enforcement executive, investigative reporter and co-founder of The Debrief. His writing typically focuses on defense, national security, the Intelligence Community and topics related to psychology. You can follow Tim on Twitter:   @LtTimMcMillan.   Tim can be reached by email:  [email protected]  or through encrypted email:   [email protected]  

No, the Big Bang theory is not 'broken.' Here's how we know.

The James Webb Space Telescope, not even finished with its first full year of observations, has delivered some real stunners. But amid the breathtaking images and unprecedented findings, there was a puzzling claim: that the telescope had detected galaxies in the incredibly young universe. Those galaxies were so massive and appeared so early that they, the headlines claimed, "broke" the Big Bang model of cosmology. 

The claim went viral, but as with many things on the internet, it's simply not true.

Now, there's more research to back up the Big Bang. Recently, researchers took a more careful look at the data and determined that the distant galaxies discovered by the James Webb Space Telescope are, indeed, perfectly compatible with our modern understanding of cosmology .

Related : The James Webb Space Telescope never disproved the Big Bang. Here's how that falsehood spread.

The potential problem with distant galaxies isn't that they exist. In fact, the modern formulation of the Big Bang theory, called ΛCDM cosmology (the Λ stands for dark energy, and CDM is short for "cold dark matter"), predicts galaxies to appear in the very young universe. That's because billions of years ago, there were no galaxies , or even stars , at all. When our universe was much smaller and much denser than it is today, everything was much more uniform, with only tiny density differences appearing here and there randomly.

But over time, those density differences grew, with the slightly denser pockets pulling more material onto them. Over hundreds of millions of years, those pockets formed into the first stars, and eventually grew to become the first galaxies .

In fact, one of the main goals of the Webb telescope was to discover and characterize those first galaxies , so finding galaxies in the incredibly young universe is a point in favor of the Big Bang theory, not against it.

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So what's the conflict, then? The apparent tension came about because of the estimated masses of those galaxies. Several were quite large — well over 10^10 solar masses . That is still much smaller than the Milky Way , but for the early universe, they are quite gigantic. 

The researchers who discovered these galaxies estimated that their large masses put them in tension with many models of galactic formation and evolution. At the extreme end, the researchers claimed that it might even be possible for no galaxy formation model within the ΛCDM framework to create such large galaxies so quickly.

A matter of some debate

But those claims hinged on measuring a precise distance to those galaxies — an incredibly difficult task at these extreme distances. For the record-breaking galaxies that could be tension with cosmological models, the researchers relied on something called a photometric redshift, which fits a rough light spectrum of a galaxy to a model to estimate a distance.

That method is notoriously unreliable, with simple effects — like excess dust surrounding the galaxies — making them appear more distant than they really are.

To accurately judge if the Big Bang is in trouble, a new team of researchers used Webb to identify galaxies with a much more precise and reliable method of determining distance, known as spectroscopic redshift. This technique identifies the spectral lines of known elements emitted by the galaxies and uses them to measure the redshift , and thereby the distance, to the galaxies. 

Using this more accurate technique, the team found a sample of four galaxies. All those galaxies were just as distant as the previously identified galaxies, but they had confirmed, reliable distances. However, these galaxies had much smaller masses: around 10^8 and 10^9 solar masses.

So the question then became, does ΛCDM allow for these smaller galaxies to exist at such a young age in the history of the universe, or does the tension remain?

In come the simulations 

Building galaxies is no easy task. While pen-and-paper mathematics can allow cosmologists to chart the overall history and evolution of the cosmos within the ΛCDM model, galaxy formation involves the complex interplay of many kinds of physics: gravity , star formation and supernova explosions, dust distribution, cosmic rays , magnetic fields and more.

Accounting for all these interactions requires the use of supercomputer simulations that take the raw, primal state of the universe as it was billions of years ago and follow the laws of physics to build artificial galaxies. That's the only way to connect what we see in the real world (galaxies) with the fundamental parameters of the ΛCDM model (like the amount of normal and dark matter in the cosmos).

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The simulations allowed the researchers to play around with many kinds of models. If no models could generate galaxies of that mass at that age, then ΛCDM would be in trouble.

Thankfully, there were no such problems. The appearance of galaxies with 10^8 solar masses in the early universe was no sweat for ΛCDM, the team explained in their research paper, which has been submitted to The Astrophysical Journal Letters and is available as a preprint via arXiv .

As usual, this isn't the final answer. Astronomers may yet confirm the distance to a very large galaxy in the early universe that may force us to rethink our understanding of galaxy formation, and maybe even the ΛCDM cosmological model. In science, it's always important to keep an open mind. But the exaggerated claims made from the early Webb data aren't enough to worry about yet.

Follow us on Twitter @Spacedotcom or Facebook .

Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: [email protected].

Paul M. Sutter is an astrophysicist at SUNY Stony Brook and the Flatiron Institute in New York City. Paul received his PhD in Physics from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 2011, and spent three years at the Paris Institute of Astrophysics, followed by a research fellowship in Trieste, Italy, His research focuses on many diverse topics, from the emptiest regions of the universe to the earliest moments of the Big Bang to the hunt for the first stars. As an "Agent to the Stars," Paul has passionately engaged the public in science outreach for several years. He is the host of the popular "Ask a Spaceman!" podcast, author of "Your Place in the Universe" and "How to Die in Space" and he frequently appears on TV — including on The Weather Channel, for which he serves as Official Space Specialist.

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• Helio “... finding galaxies in the incredibly young universe is a point in favor of the Big Bang theory, not against it.” BBT gets a little stronger, not weaker. I’m curious about many things about these galaxies now that we can observe thes young galaxies. Here are just two: 1) Are the stars mostly Pop II or Pop I stars? 2) Even though their number of stars are fewer, should we not be seeing a much greater number of SN (Type II)? This might help determine distance better, though their absolute brightness may be hard to determine. Reply
• rod The source cited in the space.com report is https://arxiv.org/abs/2212.12804, "with four galaxies found with redshifts between z=10.38 and z=13.2." Interesting. What happens to galaxy morphology and size at z = 20? :) Here is another view on these galaxies JWST is finding at large redshifts. Astronomers suggest more galaxies were formed in the early universe than previously thought, https://phys.org/news/2023-01-astronomers-galaxies-early-universe-previously.html Edit: One report apparently used 4 galaxies. the phys.org report indicates 87 were used :) "In a new study, a team of astronomers led by Haojing Yan at the University of Missouri used data from NASA's James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) Early Release Observations and discovered 87 galaxies that could be the earliest known galaxies in the universe." Reply
• rod I note here the conclusion of the arxiv.org paper. "In general, we find that each of these simulations produces galaxies with comparable stellar masses to the JADES galaxies by z ~ 10. The most massive JADES galaxies have somewhat lower SFRs than simulated galaxies at z ~ 10, but lie within the scatter of the simulations. The galaxy number density implied by the JADES galaxies at z ~ 10 is consistent with both the simulations and past observations. At higher redshift, only Simba and OBELISK produce galaxies as massive as are found in JADES. The number density of galaxies inferred from JADES is slightly larger than what is predicted by Simba at z = 11 and z = 12, but at a low level of significance. Overall, there appears to be no strong tension between models for galaxy formation in cosmological hydrodynamic simulations and the most distant spectroscopically confirmed galaxies." Okay, the conclusion paints a rosy picture for the BB model and early galaxy formation, using simulations. Time will tell here. Reply

Helio said: “... finding galaxies in the incredibly young universe is a point in favor of the Big Bang theory, not against it.” BBT gets a little stronger, not weaker. I’m curious about many things about these galaxies now that we can observe thes young galaxies. Here are just two: 1) Are the stars mostly Pop II or Pop I stars? 2) Even though their number of stars are fewer, should we not be seeing a much greater number of SN (Type II)? This might help determine distance better, though their absolute brightness may be hard to determine.

• Pentcho Valev Sabine Hossenfelder: "The solution of general relativity that describes the expanding universe is a solution on average; it is good only on very large distances. But the solutions that describe galaxies are different - and just don't expand. It's not that galaxies expand unnoticeably, they just don't. The full solution, then, is both stitched together: Expanding space between non-expanding galaxies...It is only somewhere beyond the scales of galaxy clusters that expansion takes over." So cosmologists apply the expansion solutions only to voids deprived of galaxies; to galaxies and galactic clusters they apply nonexpansion solutions. Why do cosmologists resort to this trick? Because, if they applied expansion solutions to galaxies and galactic clusters, observations would immediately disprove the expansion theory. Here is why: If expansion is actual inside galaxies and galactic clusters, the competition between expansion and gravitational attraction would distort those cosmic structures - e.g. fringes only weakly bound by gravity would succumb to expansion and fly away. And the theory, if it takes into account the intragalactic expansion, will have to predict the distortions. But no distortions are observed - there is really no expansion inside galaxies and galactic clusters. And cosmologists, without much publicity, have simply made the theory consistent with this fact. Since there is no expansion inside galaxies and galactic clusters, there is no expansion anywhere else. Reply

Pentcho Valev said: Sabine Hossenfelder: "The solution of general relativity that describes the expanding universe is a solution on average; it is good only on very large distances. But the solutions that describe galaxies are different - and just don't expand. It's not that galaxies expand unnoticeably, they just don't. The full solution, then, is both stitched together: Expanding space between non-expanding galaxies...It is only somewhere beyond the scales of galaxy clusters that expansion takes over." So cosmologists apply the expansion solutions only to voids deprived of galaxies; to galaxies and galactic clusters they apply nonexpansion solutions. Why do cosmologists resort to this trick? Because, if they applied expansion solutions to galaxies and galactic clusters, observations would immediately disprove the expansion theory. Here is why: If expansion is actual inside galaxies and galactic clusters, the competition between expansion and gravitational attraction would distort those cosmic structures - e.g. fringes only weakly bound by gravity would succumb to expansion and fly away. And the theory, if it takes into account the intragalactic expansion, will have to predict the distortions. But no distortions are observed - there is really no expansion inside galaxies and galactic clusters. And cosmologists, without much publicity, have simply made the theory consistent with this fact. Since there is no expansion inside galaxies and galactic clusters, there is no expansion anywhere else.

• rod FYI. This looks like the full quote with context from Sabine Hossenfelder. http://backreaction.blogspot.com/2017/08/you-dont-expand-just-because-universe.html, Tuesday, August 15, 2017, "This is a key point and missing it is origin of much confusion about the expansion of the universe: The solution of general relativity that describes the expanding universe is a solution on average; it is good only on very large distances. But the solutions that describe galaxies are different – and just don’t expand. It’s not that galaxies expand unnoticeably, they just don’t. The full solution, then, is both stitched together: Expanding space between non-expanding galaxies. (Though these solutions are usually only dealt with by computer simulations due to their mathematical complexity.)" Reply

rod said: Okay, the conclusion paints a rosy picture for the BB model and early galaxy formation, using simulations. Time will tell here.

rod said: Helio, interesting questions. You and I have discussed already that to see the original, pristine gas clouds said to be created during BBN, we would need to look back to z~1100. This report seems focused on galaxies in the z~10 or so range, perhaps a small number a bit larger redshift. Running a simulation from original gas clouds at z=1100 and evolve the universe to z=10, could prove intriguing :)

rod said: Time will tell here.

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New research puts age of universe at 26.7 billion years, nearly twice as old as previously believed

by Bernard Rizk, University of Ottawa

Our universe could be twice as old as current estimates, according to a new study that challenges the dominant cosmological model and sheds new light on the so-called "impossible early galaxy problem."

The work is published in the journal Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society .

"Our newly-devised model stretches the galaxy formation time by a several billion years, making the universe 26.7 billion years old, and not 13.7 as previously estimated," says author Rajendra Gupta, adjunct professor of physics in the Faculty of Science at the University of Ottawa.

For years, astronomers and physicists have calculated the age of our universe by measuring the time elapsed since the Big Bang and by studying the oldest stars based on the redshift of light coming from distant galaxies. In 2021, thanks to new techniques and advances in technology, the age of our universe was thus estimated at 13.797 billion years using the Lambda-CDM concordance model.

However, many scientists have been puzzled by the existence of stars like the Methuselah that appear to be older than the estimated age of our universe and by the discovery of early galaxies in an advanced state of evolution made possible by the James Webb Space Telescope. These galaxies, existing a mere 300 million years or so after the Big Bang, appear to have a level of maturity and mass typically associated with billions of years of cosmic evolution. Furthermore, they're surprisingly small in size, adding another layer of mystery to the equation.

Zwicky's tired light theory proposes that the redshift of light from distant galaxies is due to the gradual loss of energy by photons over vast cosmic distances. However, it was seen to conflict with observations. Yet Gupta found that "by allowing this theory to coexist with the expanding universe , it becomes possible to reinterpret the redshift as a hybrid phenomenon, rather than purely due to expansion."

In addition to Zwicky's tired light theory, Gupta introduces the idea of evolving "coupling constants," as hypothesized by Paul Dirac. Coupling constants are fundamental physical constants that govern the interactions between particles. According to Dirac, these constants might have varied over time. By allowing them to evolve, the timeframe for the formation of early galaxies observed by the Webb telescope at high redshifts can be extended from a few hundred million years to several billion years. This provides a more feasible explanation for the advanced level of development and mass observed in these ancient galaxies.

Moreover, Gupta suggests that the traditional interpretation of the "cosmological constant," which represents dark energy responsible for the accelerating expansion of the universe, needs revision. Instead, he proposes a constant that accounts for the evolution of the coupling constants. This modification in the cosmological model helps address the puzzle of small galaxy sizes observed in the early universe , allowing for more accurate observations.

Journal information: Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society

Provided by University of Ottawa

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Nasa’s james webb space telescope and the big bang: a short q&a with nobel laureate dr. john mather, nasa webb telescope team.

The concept of the Big Bang is easy to misunderstand. In this Q&A, Dr. John Mather, a Nobel laureate and the senior project scientist for NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, answers some commonly asked questions about this expanding universe story, and about Webb’s role in understanding the early history of the universe.

Q:  What is the Big Bang?

A:  The Big Bang is a really misleading name for the expanding universe that we see. We see an infinite universe with distant galaxies all rushing away from each other. The name Big Bang conveys the idea of a firecracker exploding at a time and a place — with a center. The universe doesn’t have a center, at least not one we can find. The Big Bang happened everywhere at once and was a process happening in time, not a point in time. We know this because 1) we see galaxies rushing away from each other, not from a central point; 2) we see the heat that was left over from early times, and that heat uniformly fills the universe; and 3) we can calculate and imagine what the universe was like when the parts were much closer together, and the calculations match everything we can see. 

Q:  Can we see the Big Bang?

A:  No, the Big Bang itself is not something we can see.

Q:  What can we see?

A:  We can see the heat radiation that was there when the universe was young.  We see this heat as it was about 380,000 years after the expansion of the universe began 13.8 billion years ago (which is what we refer to as the Big Bang). This heat covers the entire sky and fills the universe. (In fact it still does.)  We were able to map it with satellites we (NASA and ESA) built called the Cosmic Background Explorer ( COBE ), the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe ( WMAP ), and Planck . The universe at this point was extremely smooth, with only tiny ripples in temperature.

Q:  I heard the James Webb Space Telescope will see back further than ever before. What will Webb see?

A:  COBE, WMAP, and Planck all saw further back than Webb, though it’s true that Webb will see farther back than Hubble . Webb was designed not to see the beginnings of the universe, but to see a period of the universe’s history that we have not seen yet . Specifically, we want to see the first objects that formed as the universe cooled down after the Big Bang. That time period is perhaps hundreds of millions of years later than the one COBE, WMAP, and Planck were built to see. We think that the tiny ripples of temperature they observed were the seeds that eventually grew into galaxies. We don’t know exactly when the universe made the first stars and galaxies — or how for that matter. That is what we are building Webb to help answer.

Q:  Why can’t Hubble see the first stars and galaxies forming?

A:  The only way we can see back to the time when these objects were forming is to look very far away. Hubble isn’t big enough or cold enough to see the faint heat signals of these objects that are so far away.

Q:  Why do we want to see the first stars and galaxies forming?

A:  The chemical elements of life were first produced in the first generation of stars after the Big Bang. We are here today because of them — and we want to better understand how that came to be! We have ideas, we have predictions, but we don’t know. One way or another the first stars must have influenced our own history, beginning with stirring up everything and producing the other chemical elements besides hydrogen and helium. So if we really want to know where our atoms came from, and how the little planet Earth came to be capable of supporting life, we need to measure what happened at the beginning.

Dr. John Mather is the senior project scientist for the James Webb Space Telescope. Dr. Mather shares the 2006 Nobel Prize for Physics with George F. Smoot of the University of California for their work using the COBE satellite to measure the heat radiation from the Big Bang.

The James Webb Space Telescope, the scientific complement to NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope, will be the premier space observatory of the next decade. Webb is an international project led by NASA with its partners, ESA (European Space Agency) and CSA (Canadian Space Agency).

For more information about the Webb telescope, visit: www.webb.nasa.gov or www.nasa.gov/webb

By Maggie Masetti NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center

AT THE SMITHSONIAN

What astronomers are still discovering about the big bang theory.

A half-century after it was confirmed, the theory still yields new secrets

Claudia Dreifus

On a bright spring morning 50 years ago, two young astronomers at Bell Laboratories were tuning a 20-foot, horn-shaped antenna pointed toward the sky over New Jersey. Their goal was to measure the Milky Way galaxy, home to planet Earth.

To their puzzlement, Robert W. Wilson and Arno A. Penzias heard the insistent hiss of radio signals coming from every direction—and from beyond the Milky Way. It took a full year of testing, experimenting and calculating for them and another group of researchers at Princeton to explain the phenomenon: It was cosmic microwave background radiation, a residue of the primordial explosion of energy and matter that suddenly gave rise to the universe some 13.8 billion years ago. The scientists had found evidence that would confirm the Big Bang theory, first proposed by Georges Lemaître in 1931.

“Until then, some cosmologists believed that the universe was in a steady state without a singular beginning,” says Wilson, now 78 and a senior scientist at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics in Cambridge, Massachusetts. “The finding helped rule that out.”

That assessment seems a bit modest for a discovery that received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1978 and is now, on its semicentennial, celebrated as the Rosetta stone of modern cosmology, the key that has allowed generations of scientists to parse the origins of the universe.

Avi Loeb was a toddler on a farm in Israel when Wilson and Penzias began investigating those mysterious signals. Today, he’s a colleague of Wilson’s at the Center for Astrophysics and chair of Harvard’s astronomy department, and one of the world’s foremost researchers on what has been called the “cosmic dawn.” The theoretical physicist, now 52, has published more than 450 papers on aspects of the early universe, including the formation of stars and galaxies and the origins of the first black holes. He has done pioneering work on the three-dimensional mapping of the universe, and he has explored the implications of the impending collision between the Milky Way and the Andromeda galaxy (which will not happen, he adds, for several billion years).

Loeb recently made headlines with a paper submitted to the journal Astrobiology suggesting that just 15 million years after the Big Bang, the temperature from the cosmic background microwave radiation was 0 to 30 degrees Celsius—warm enough, he says, to allow “liquid water to exist on the surface of planets, if any existed,” without the warmth of a star. “So life in the universe could have started then.” By contrast, the earliest evidence of life on Earth is only 3.5 billion years old. Loeb’s proposition would add about ten billion years to the timeline of life in the universe.

“I’ve been trying to understand the beginning of the process before the Milky Way and its stars were formed,” he says. “It turns out that the first stars were more massive than the Sun and the first galaxies were smaller than the Milky Way.” This period is compelling, he says, because “it is the scientific version of the story of Genesis. I don’t want to offend religious people, but the first chapter of the Bible needs revising—the sequence of events needs to be modified. It is true that there was a beginning in time. As in the biblical story, ‘Let there be light.’ This light can be thought of as the cosmic microwave background.”

Loeb’s cherubic demeanor and puckish sense of humor play well on his YouTube videos , and Time and Popular Mechanics have cited his influence among space scientists. The title of his paper “How to Nurture Scientific Discoveries Despite Their Unpredictable Nature” reflects his appreciation of the accidental, such as the story behind the Wilson-Penzias discovery.

Recently, Wilson and Loeb have been working together on efforts to map the black hole at the center of the Milky Way. “I think Avi is a theorist who is very good at picking problems to work on that have testable results,” Wilson says.

As for the rigors of exploring deep time and places where no humans are likely ever to tread, Loeb says, “It’s kind of thrilling, like finding a trail in the woods that nobody has thought about. There’s a lot of loneliness. You have to get used to thinking about ideas.”

On Thursday, February 20 at 7:30, Wilson and Loeb will be joined in a panel discussion by cosmologist Alan Guth and astronomer Robert Kirshner at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics , in celebration of the 50th anniversary of the confirmation of the Big Bang Theory. Watch the discussion live on YouTube .

Get the latest on what's happening At the Smithsonian in your inbox.

Claudia Dreifus | | READ MORE

Author and educator Claudia Dreifus produces the feature "Conversation With. . ." in the New York Times . @claudiadreifus

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Study how the universe evolved, learn about the fundamental forces , and discover what the cosmos is made of.

The origin, evolution, and nature of the universe have fascinated and confounded humankind for centuries. New ideas and major discoveries made during the 20th century transformed cosmology – the term for the way we conceptualize and study the universe – although much remains unknown.

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Cosmologists are preparing to cast their sharpest-ever eyes on the early Universe. From an altitude of 5,300 metres on Cerro Toco, in northern Chile’s Atacama Desert, the Simons Observatory will map the cosmic microwave background (CMB) — sometimes called the afterglow of the Big Bang — with a sensitivity up to ten times greater than that of the previous gold standard, Europe’s Planck space probe .

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