human development essay introduction

Essay on Human Development

Students are often asked to write an essay on Human Development in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Human Development

The concept of human development.

Human development is a process of enlarging people’s freedoms and improving their well-being. It involves increasing the choices and opportunities for all people.

Dimensions of Human Development

The importance of human development.

Human development is crucial. It helps societies to progress, reduces poverty, and promotes equality. It’s a way to help everyone live a productive and fulfilling life.

Challenges in Human Development

Despite its importance, many challenges exist, like inequality, environmental degradation, and political instability. Overcoming these challenges is vital for sustainable human development.

250 Words Essay on Human Development

Introduction, theoretical framework.

The Human Development Index (HDI), introduced by the United Nations Development Programme, quantifies human development. It emphasizes three fundamental dimensions: knowledge, longevity, and decent standard of living. However, human development is not merely a function of these quantifiable elements; it also involves intangible aspects such as freedom, dignity, and autonomy.

Role of Education

Education plays a central role in human development. It equips individuals with knowledge and skills, empowering them to contribute to societal progress. Education fosters creativity and innovation, driving technological advancements and economic growth.

Health and Living Standards

Health is another crucial component. A healthy population is more productive, contributing to economic growth and societal development. Additionally, a decent standard of living, characterized by access to basic needs and services, is vital for human development.

Societal Participation

Active societal participation promotes inclusivity and equality, essential elements of human development. It enables individuals to contribute to and benefit from societal progress, fostering a sense of belonging and mutual respect.

In conclusion, human development is a comprehensive and nuanced concept. It encompasses not only economic growth but also aspects such as education, health, living standards, and societal participation. It is about creating an environment where individuals can develop their full potential and lead productive, creative lives in accord with their needs and interests.

500 Words Essay on Human Development

The biological perspective.

From the biological standpoint, human development begins with genetics. Our genetic makeup, coupled with environmental influences, guides our physical growth and maturation. This includes the development of the brain, motor skills, and health. Understanding the biological aspects of human development allows us to grasp why we are the way we are, and how our physical attributes and health conditions may influence our life experiences.

The Psychological Perspective

The psychological perspective focuses on the development of mental processes, behaviors, and emotions. Cognitive development theory, proposed by Jean Piaget, suggests that individuals pass through different stages of cognitive growth as they mature. This theory underscores the importance of experiences and interactions in shaping our cognitive abilities, personality, and emotional well-being.

The Sociocultural Perspective

Interplay of factors, human development index.

To measure human development, the United Nations uses the Human Development Index (HDI). The HDI is a summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions of human development: a long and healthy life, being knowledgeable, and having a decent standard of living. It is a standard means of measuring well-being, especially child welfare.

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Human Development Essay: Topics, Examples, & How-to Guide

A human development essay is a piece of writing that explores how a person or group of people can grow and thrive. Several disciplines study these processes and might require you to get ready with this kind of assignment:

• Biology analyzes human body development issues throughout our lifespan;
• Psychology views human development as gaining or abandoning certain behavioral trends;
• Sociology explains the cause-and-effect relationships between an individual and a group;
• Economics studies the growth of human freedoms through the improvement of their well-being.

This article systematizes the available bulk of knowledge on the importance of human development. We have collected the essential concepts and approaches you can explore through our human development essay topics and samples.

💵 Human Development in Economics

🤯 human development in psychology.

• 🧒 Human Growth Essay Topics
• 📑 Outlining Your Essay
• 1️⃣ HD Theories: Essay Example
• 2️⃣ HD & Economic Growth: Essay Example

The first Human Development Report introduced this notion back in 1990 . But the discussion of the relationship between economic growth and human development started in the middle of the 20 th century.

Now we believe that GDP is not the only indicator of our well-being . Human life is more than just selling, buying, and consuming.

Human development in economics focuses on the creation of equal rights and opportunities for everyone . This approach states that the entire society would prosper from the happiness of each of its members.

In these terms, human development has two dimensions:

• enhancement of human abilities;
• provision of prerequisites for our growth.

The former explores how we could ensure that everyone has access to education, healthcare, and decent living conditions. The latter involves achieving environmental sustainability and equality of rights and opportunities for people of all genders, ages, and ethnic backgrounds.

Human Development Index

The Human Development Index (HDI) emphasizes that people and their well-being are the criteria for a country’s prosperity, not only its economic growth.

Today, we use HDI to question the efficiency of national policy. It also allows us to compare different countries with the same GDP but different human development levels. Analyzing this data, governments can refocus their priorities and correct past mistakes.

HDI is calculated as the geometric mean of the following normalized indices:

• Life expectancy at birth is used to calculate the life expectancy index, where 85 years is the maximum.
• The education index is the sum of the expected and mean years of schooling divided by 2.
• This index is determined as GNI per capita.

Meanwhile, HDI is not as comprehensive as one might expect. HDRO (the Human Development Report Office) claims that it does not consider human inequalities, the empowerment of minorities, poverty levels, and gender disparity.

Psychology views human development from an individual’s perspective. This discipline distinguishes between three directions of human development.

• Physical changes occur in our bodies. How do we grow from a baby into an adult and from an adult into an older person? How do we acquire new motor skills, and what is the biology of our senses? What do our brains consist of, and how do they change with age? Correct answers to these questions help us explain the next direction.
• Cognitive changes cause the development of human behavior. What goes on in our brain that defines what kind of people we are? This domain focuses on logical thinking, learning, understanding, moral reasoning, and practical intelligence. It searches for the ways we could learn faster and become better versions of ourselves.
• Psychosocial changes track the growth of our social skills and preferences. It all starts with the principal caregiver. Gradually, we begin to interact with more people, such as friends, distant relatives, educators, and colleagues. It is all about our self-image, self-esteem, emotions, and relationships. The psychosocial domain also studies our ways to cope with losses or death.

Human Development Theories

The history of psychology knows many human development theories, many of which are still trusted. We will focus on the two fundamental approaches. They divide childhood into several critical stages that define our character, habits, likes, relationships, and even success in life.

Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget’s theory is the most widely accepted approach to child development. He believed that children construct knowledge while they manipulate and explore the objects around them. Jean Piaget marked four stages of cognitive development.

• Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years). A child learns that objects do not disappear. Their activity is all about experimenting with things to see what happens. This stage should culminate with developing the deferred imitation skill. It involves the ability to reproduce an action or sound made by another person later.
• Preoperational stage (2-6 years). Children use symbols to represent words and ideas. They develop the language and make-believe play but still lack logical reasoning. They are egocentric and cannot imagine that other people may feel or think differently.
• Concrete operational stage (6-12 years). Thinking becomes logical and focused. Children develop inductive reasoning: they observe to make generalizations about the world around them. But they still struggle with deductive thinking.
• Formal operational stage (12 years – adulthood). Abstract thinking emerges. They learn to develop theoretical ideas to explain the world.

Freud’s 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development

The Father of Psychoanalysis believed that human personality consisted of ego, superego, and id. They become unified and inseparable once the child passes the five stages of psychosexual development.

• Oral stage (0-1 year). The mouth is the pleasure center for the infant. That is why everyone is born with a sucking reflex. If the oral needs are not met during the first year of life, the child can start biting their nails or suck a thumb.
• Anal stage (1-3 years). Children gain control over their bodily functions. They experiment with feces. But early toilet training can make a child too obsessed with order.
• Phallic stage (3-6 years). Children find out the pleasure they can get from their genitals. According to Freud, this is when the sexual desire to the parent of the opposite sex emerges. Boys go through the Oedipus complex. They want to replace their father and see him as a rival in the mother’s love. Later, Carl Jung spoke of the Electra Complex, a similar mechanism in girls.
• Latency stage (6-12 years). Sexual instincts give way to the superego. During this period, children adopt the moral principles and values of their parents.
• Genital stage (12+ years). Sexual instincts reemerge. If all the above steps passed successfully, adolescents would show appropriate sexual behavior.

But this theory is too controversial to be taken for granted. Do parents define their child’s sexual and aggressive drives? Nobody knows for sure.

💡 232 Human Development Essay Topics

Since human development is a debatable and scarcely studied area of knowledge, it offers a whole lot of topics to discuss. For your convenience, we have divided them into two categories:

• The first can be used for essays on human development psychology.
• The second includes human growth and development essay topics in economics and sociology.

155 Human Development Topics (Psychology)

Psychology focuses on the emotional, intellectual, and social development of an individual. Scientists traditionally divide this growth into stages, according to the respective age. That is why the topics here can be about early childhood, parent-child relationships, school years, adolescence, marriage, and divorce.

• Child psychology: Theories of development by J. Piaget.
• How can parents facilitate their child’s relationships with peers?
• Divorce: Psychological effects on children.
• Which purposes does attachment play in infants?
• Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development.
• Which ideas of Freud’s psychosexual development theory do you think are valid?
• Find the common features between Freud’s psychosexual theory and Erikson’s psychosocial theory.
• Child development and education.
• Explore the causes of inferiority complex in adolescents.
• Children’s play: An ingredient needed in children’s learning.
• How does one’s sense of self influence their future relationships?
• Corporal punishment and its effects on children.
• Why do we need to reward the feeling of gratitude in adolescents?
• What is the role of the family in shaping our social well-being?
• Developmental psychology in adolescence.
• Describe the principles of caregiving you consider as healthy and beneficial.
• Personal development plan.
• What is social knowledge, and where do we gain it?
• Write a human development theories essay.
• Emotional development in children and adults.
• What do the preferred leisure activities of adolescents tell us about their development?
• Early childhood classroom environment plan.
• Does the gender of the main caregiver matter?
• Study the effect of orphanage education on a child’s psychology.
• The introduction to early childhood education.
• Is a child’s family or school more defining for their development?
• Second life : Professional development and communication.
• How does patriarchal prejudice undermine the intellectual growth in girls?
• Does the lack of college-level education make a person less smart?
• Sigmund Freud’s personality and psychoanalysis.
• How did dr. Maria Montessori use human tendencies for child development?
• Adult learning theories.
• How does a father’s toxic masculinity impact a boy’s emotional well-being?
• Early childhood cognitive-based philosophy.
• Make a research summary of the role of IQ in human development.
• Explore the causes of the “terrible threes.”
• Lifespan human development: perspective and theories.
• Write a reflection about risk-taking behaviors in teenagers.
• Linking human development to the human condition.
• Is poverty the worst factor for a child’s development?
• Early childhood education activities and trends.
• Analyze the consequences of substance abuse in adolescence.
• Cognitive behavioural therapy for depression in adults.
• Do children adopt their same-sex parent’s gender roles in adulthood?
• Child abuse and neglect effects on adult survivors.
• What is the role of creativity in a preschooler’s development?
• Tools of the mind in the early childhood development.
• Do you agree that all psychological disorders of children under 12 are caused by an unhealthy family atmosphere?
• The theories of child development.
• How do we learn to control our emotions?
• How autistic children develop and learn?
• Analyze the major results of gender-neutral education.
• Early childhood education and skills development.
• When is the due time to start sex education of children and why?
• Erik Erikson’s theory of development.
• What is the tole of symbolic function and make-believe play in a child’s development?
• Family structure and its effects on children.
• Why is egocentrism in children normal?
• Infant development.
• Establish the relationship between language development and intellectual growth.
• Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional development.
• Sexism in human development theories.
• How an operant conditioning influences child development.
• Awareness of age-related change helps to live a healthy life.
• Middle childhood and adolescence development.
• The adverse effect of malnutrition in a child’s development.
• Assessment in early childhood: Special education.
• When is stress positive and negative for the psychological development of an individual?
• How video games affect children.
• Analyze human development in multigenerational families.
• Erickson’s psychosocial development and its stages.
• Compare and contrast the American and Japanese approaches to education and their results.
• Theoretical perspectives on human development: Freud, Piaget, and Skinner.
• The role of controlled independence in childhood.
• Technology impacts on the new generation of children.
• Why is periodical boredom necessary for a child to develop?
• Learning and student development theories and factors.
• Why is human development the basic need of any society?
• The development of secure and insecure attachments in children.
• Why is intellectual growth so pleasurable for us?
• Moral and personality development.
• If the human development mechanism is equal for all, why are we so different?
• 21 st century skills development.
• Why do modern sociologists think we should work less?
• Peer pressure on children in high school.
• What could we learn from the indigenous African tribes in terms of the psychological development of children?
• Interaction for child’s development and learning.
• Schools: an unknown war where we miss our childhood?
• Effects of media on children.
• To which degree do genes determine our development?
• Jean Piaget – cognitive theorist.
• Why are foster children less prepared for adult life than their adopted peers?
• When should children start school?
• When do children stop learning through play?
• Managing stress better: Personal development.
• Which socio-emotional factors make aging less depressing?
• Preschool play role in the cognitive development.
• The benefits and drawbacks of grandparents’ raising children.
• Autism as the most prevalent developmental mental disorder.
• How does lifelong learning benefit human brain?
• Teaching and supporting adult learners.
• How does lifestyle influence our cognition?
• Parent-child relationships and parental authority.
• Should adults develop an awareness of their aging?
• Early intervention for young children with autism.
• Why do scientists no longer view aging as a negative process?
• Development and improvement of communication skills.
• Which factors define our ability for emotional regulation?
• Child’s play observation and parent interview.
• Compare the Christian and Muslim cultural differences in human development.
• The early abuse’ impacts on teenagers emotional development.
• Are private nurseries and schools better for children’s development?
• Behavior change in learning processes.
• Why is generation alpha more emotionally intelligent than any earlier-born children?
• Videogame addiction and its impact on children.
• Shout less and explain more: the effect of the modern approach to caregiving.
• Adult education, its objectives and approaches.
• Why should we tell our daughters they are smart rather than beautiful?
• Personal development: Career management.
• How does social change impact the life of an individual? Give examples.
• Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s child development theories.
• Suggest mentoring interventions for at-risk adolescents.
• Adult learning and effective instruction.
• To which extent should we normalize children with developmental disorders?
• Negative impacts of adult cartoon television programs on children.
• Do developmental differences make us more human?
• Social psychology in people’s life.
• Do all families need psychotherapy, like they need a family doctor?
• Childhood sexual abuse and adolescents’ self-esteem.
• Which barriers do LGBT adolescents meet in their development?
• Life-span development and personal life experiences.
• Outline a positive youth development program.
• Understanding learning: theories’ impacts.
• Explain eating disorders as the result of incorrect upbringing.
• The influence of online games on children and adults.
• Describe the changes our brain suffers under continuous stress.
• The psychological effect of 9-11 on young adults.
• Typical vs. Atypical development in children.
• Social psychology: group influence on the self.
• Why is mindfulness important for human development?
• Importance of a teacher in child development.
• We learn behavioral health from our parents.
• Divorce influence on childrens’ mental health.
• How do behavioral phenotypes emerge during early development?
• Child development theories: Comparative analysis.
• Why do many children function differently in home, school, or community settings?
• Communication role in the children’ development.
• Suggest ways to identify co-occurring conditions in developmental disorders.
• Psychological child development theories.
• Describe the existing approaches to establishing healthy schools.
• Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
• Parental autonomy vs. Monitoring: which is better for an adolescent?
• Postpartum depression effect on children’s development.
• How do parents’ beliefs and values determine their parenting strategies?
• Childhood and optimal development analysis.

77 Human Development Topics (Economics)

• How entrepreneurship in the energy sector can pave the way for sustainable development in Africa.
• What are the parties involved in human development, and why don’t they share the same interests?
• Should we care about income inequality?
• Why does totalitarianism entail stagnation?
• Democratic and Economic Development in Asian Countries.
• Do migrant incomes spur economic development in their native countries?
• International human resource development.
• How does the growth of female entrepreneurship favor economics?
• A development of American society.
• How can equal rights and possibilities of all people make governments more efficient?
• Resolving the problems of poverty and income inequality.
• How does the availability of loans benefit human development?
• Development Theory and Human Rights.
• Should towns transform into cities to become more prosperous?
• Resource availability for low to moderate income families in New York City.
• Is feminism a sign of human evolution?
• Rapid urbanization in the developing world is increasing.
• What is the impact of literacy campaigns in socially disadvantaged rural areas?
• Poverty reduction in developing countries.
• Find the relationship between water resources and the level of farming development in a given region.
• Human Rights for Development.
• Explore the growing urban-rural interactions in large cities.
• Employment opportunity for people with learning disabilities in the UK.
• Give examples of win-win scenarios in human evolution.
• Analysing a community development: Case study.
• Why do societies often ignore or resist the advantages of human development?
• How innovation and growth strategy will develop Abu Dhabi economy through Abu Dhabi Economic Vision 2030.
• Study the role of recreational possibilities for the local population.
• Values of innovation and entrepreneurship in economic development.
• The effect of food availability on human development.
• Millennium Development and Well-Being of Families.
• Do you support transnational social movements, and why?
• Compensation and benefits in an area of human resources development.
• Do religions favor economic development?
• Influence of religion on the development of colonial American society.
• Analyze the impact of socioeconomic context on human development.
• Is nationalism beneficial for a country’s well-being?
• The development of the industrial work environment.
• Which factors impede poor people from growing their capital?
• Crime prevention through social development.
• Is leisure more critical for economic growth than production?
• Alternative Fuels and the US Nation Development.
• Should the government regulate human development, or is it unpredictable?
• Development traps and failure: The negative consequences of disasters on the economy.
• What are the external factors of human development in emerging countries?
• Fiscal decentralisation and local economic development in Ghana.
• Human Development Index (HDI) Vs. Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
• National human resource development in Asian states.
• Which aspects would you include in the HDI formula?
• Is late retirement beneficial for a country’s economic development?
• Environment: Sustainable Development in Abu Dhabi.
• Which material conditions affect human evolution?
• The critical points of equal employment opportunity.
• The role of sustainable development in a country’s well-being.
• Globalization drives inequality: Liberalist and structuralist perspectives.
• What is the primary goal of human development for economics?
• The income gap in the US economy.
• Are elevated birth rates a positive or negative factor for economic growth?
• Human resources development in the UK and Australia.
• What is the relationship between foreign capital penetration and human life expectancy in third-world countries?
• Economic and Social Development of the UAE.
• How does ethnic homogeneity influence human development in a given area?
• Gender wage gap and inequality.
• Why is the majority of wealthy countries democratic?
• Human resource development practices to achieve economic growth: The case of Singapore.
• Analyze the role of free medicine in social well-being.
• How can the employment of the disabled favor a country’s economy?
• Assessing why Nigeria LNG has been restricted in development.
• How is the work/family balance of employees important for a company’s prosperity?
• Workforce development and modern trends.
• Explore the effect of an individual’s well-being on a country’s development.
• Small business and development in South Africa.
• How does democratization improve a country’s productivity?
• Regional inequality of Yogyakarta.
• How does English training in third-world countries influence their development?
• Post-disaster development of Haiti.
• New conceptions of adulthood among the youth in the developing countries.

🧒 Human Growth and Development Essay Topics

• The impact of aging on human development.
• How do role models promote moral and behavioral development in the 21st century?
• Socioeconomic factors and their value in growth and development.
• The development of moral predispositions at an early age.
• The value of professional development of a person.
• Genetic regulation of growth in height and weight in teenagers.
• The role of initiative and guilt in the preschool age group.
• What are the main red flags in growth and development?
• Child health and human development over the lifespan.
• Emotional development of a person from birth to old age.
• Regulation of early human growth: the main peculiarities.
• COVID-19 and its role in children’s social development.
• How does environmental pollution affect human growth and development?
• The language development in humans and its key stages.
• How does maternal physical activity influence fetal growth?

Haven’t found the perfect topic in the lists above? Use our essay topic generator !

📑 Human Development Essay Outline

1. Introduction. By the end of your essay, your readers will surely forget what you wrote here. But do not underestimate the effect of a well-composed introduction on your audience’s expectations! Do your best to sound inspiring and upbeat in your human development essay introduction. Tell yourself, why did you select this topic? If it is an exciting issue for you, the readers will also get interested. So, the introduction speaks about the topicality and urgency of a problem. The thesis statement culminates your introduction. You should explain your position in a single sentence. Here are some good and bad examples:

Need to formulate a thesis statement? Use our thesis-making tool !

2. Main body. The primary rule here is structure. It is hard to read one long paragraph with many ideas. Introduce each argument from the new line. Give a topic sentence at the beginning of each section and then elaborate on it with examples and reflections.

3. Conclusion. In the field of human development, the conclusion of an essay should provide the prospects of the tendency you analyzed. Imagine yourself an analyst consulting an international company. What will happen if they continue doing the same? How can they reach different results? Once again, try to sound inspiring.

1️⃣ Human Development Essay Example #1 (Psychology)

Below you will find a sample of human development essays for a psychology-related discipline. It illustrates the outline we have mentioned above based on the topic Why Is Freud’s Developmental Theory considered outdated?

Human Development Theories Essay

1. Introduction. In the XXI century, we are all obsessed with development. We would like to become a better version of ourselves, develop our country, and humanity as a whole. Unfortunately, there is no axiom confirming the mechanism of human development.

Thesis statement. This essay explores the pitfalls of Freud’s developmental theory and questions its applicability.

2. Main Body.

Argument 1. Freud drew his theory from memories of his patients. But certain experiences people believe are true often turn out to be inaccurate. Sometimes, we fabricate our memories due to how we felt back then or would like to feel now. Thus, Freud used unreliable sources of information about child development.

Argument 2. Freud’s theory revolves around sexuality. But as Jung and Adler noticed, human life is more complicated than that. Oversimplification reduces us to instincts, which is not true. People have their subconscious fears and desires, but sexual energy is only one of their aspects.

Argument 3. Sigmund Freud only worked with adults. All adults are former children, but the researcher never studied children in their games, education, or frustrations. Freud had six kids, but his career never allowed him to spend much time with family. It is questionable how someone could draw conclusions about a child’s mental processes without actually speaking to a child.

3. Conclusion. Sigmund Freud largely contributed to modern psychology. He was the first to question our rational thinking and intellectual sobriety. But his five stages of psychosexual development are far from reality. First, they are constructed based on inaccurate and unreliable reports of mentally disturbed people. Second, sexuality is only one of the many things that make us who we are. Third, the scientist never did live research on children. That is why his theory is outdated now.

2️⃣ Human Development Essay Example #2 (Economics)

If you need to write an essay on human development while studying economics, you may use the following sample. It illustrates how to write an essay on the relationship between human development and economic growth.

Human Development and Economic Growth

1. Introduction. What happened first, human development or economic growth? The early signs of economic growth appeared when the first people started exchanging their goods with the neighboring tribes. They had to develop a new skill and change their picture of the world to catalyze economic growth.

Thesis statement. This essay aims to confirm the two-way linkage between the development of individuals and economic growth.

Argument 1. If that first exchange of crops and cattle did not work out, we would have never got as developed as we are now. The economic growth that happened once we had mastered “business negotiations” gave us the necessary resources to develop other skills.

Argument 2. Human development is hardly predictable. The most significant improvements in technology, medicine, construction, and science happened during the most challenging times for humanity. The two world wars showed that we could develop when the economy is in decay. But the new production methods and scientific achievements give us an opportunity to grow the economy when things get better.

Argument 3. Economic growth without human development is limited. For example, when a third-world country receives an external capital inflow, its economy stabilizes or even grows. But if its population does not acquire new models of doing business, the money will end. Such a country will return to its previous poor condition.

3. Conclusion. It would be wrong to say that human development caused economic growth or vice versa. None of the two are possible without the other. Human development happened first, but further knowledge acquisition required economic growth. Improvement of the economy does not guarantee human intellectual growth. Meanwhile, it is an indispensable prerequisite for our development.

❓ Human Development Questions & Answers

What does the science of human development seek to understand.

This science tries to find the reasons why people tend to change over time or why they remain at the same level. It establishes the mechanisms through which we become more educated, moral, organized, and civilized. The science also describes the benefits and drawbacks of human development for the economy, sociology, psychology, and ecology.

What is Human Development and Family Studies?

Human Development and Family Studies focuses on the health and psychology of individuals throughout their lifespan. This area of knowledge discusses human life in the context of their family relationships and social roles. It is an interdisciplinary science that involves psychology, economy, and sociology.

How does culture affect human development?

Culture defines the way we perceive society and the world as a whole. It affects our vision of reality from early childhood. Culture influences our beliefs, values, and purposes. Moreover, it is a decisive factor for our self-image as an individual and a member of society.

What makes the study of human development a science?

The study of human development explores how we learn, mature, and adapt to changes and adverse conditions. It is largely related to psychology but also involves sociology, economics, anthropology, and biology. It is a science because it aims to describe, predict, and understand the changes in human behavior that bring us to development.

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Human Development Essay

The Theories Of Human Development

Theories of Human development are relevant and matter in the “real world”. In my clinical practice as a psychologist-in-training, I have found human development theories to be very useful in conceptualizing and understanding my client’s distress. I used theoretical frameworks that are based on theories of human development to guide my interventions in therapy. For example, as a brief psychodynamic clinician, I look to Freud’s theory of anxiety to understand how distress was developed for my clients

Human Development Paper

Developmental Paper The purpose of this paper is to discuss two concepts of human development and how each of them relates specifically to one individual’s life experiences. I chose to interview and discuss specific experiences that shaped my father, R. Schein (R.S.). Additionally, I will explain the impact that risk factors and protective factors had on his development. Summary of relevant biographical information R.S. was born in 1953 in Bronxville, NY, described as an acquisitive area of

The Biological Forces Of Development : The Basic Forces In Human Development

The Basic Forces in Human Development: The Biopsychosocial Framework is a critical framework that truly affects our growth. From the interaction of these four forces, scientists use this model as an indication to help explain the development of each individual. Specific interactions between each of these forces makes each individual special and unlike anyone else. The Biopsychosocial Framework consists of four forces including biological forces, psychological forces, sociocultural forces, and life-cycle

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The critical difference between most development models and the human development index is that most development models only focus on income while the human development index includes the enlargement of all human choices – economic, political, social and cultural which all affect income. Comparing countries’ Gross National Product/Gross Domestic Product per capita is the most common way of measuring the level of development today. This model of economic growth assessment is based on a weak foundation

Introduction: The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic used to rank countries by level of "human development" and separate "very high human development", "high human development", "medium human development", and "low human development" countries. The Human Development Index (HDI) is a comparative measure of life expectancy, literacy, education and standards of living for countries worldwide. It is a standard means of measuring well-being, especially child welfare. It is used to

Human Development Report

• 8 Works Cited

According to the interactive map corresponding to the latest human development report, more developed areas in the world are Europe, North America, most countries in South America, North part of Asia, North part of Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea and Malaysia. Most countries in Africa and South part of Asia are considered as less developed areas. On the line graph we can see an upward trend in development for most of the countries. Moreover, some countries have been developing

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Human Development Essay Examples

Evolution of psychological theories in human development.

The study of human development has been an intriguing subject for psychologists throughout history. Over the years, various psychological theories have emerged to explain the complex processes of growth and change in individuals from birth to old age. This essay will delve into the evolution...

Human Development Across the Lifespan: Cognitive Developmental Theory

Cognitive developmental theory was first proposed by Jean Piaget which clarifies how a child builds a psychological model of the world. He couldn't help contradicting the possibility that knowledge was a settled characteristic and viewed cognitive development as a procedure which happens because of natural...

The Concept of Common Pool Resource by Elinor Ostrom

Elinor Ostrom invented the 8 design principles for sustainable community development. She made a discovery when she saw that users of natural resources came together and make their own rules to ensure that these resources are economically and environmentally sustainable. She was especially intrigued when...

Ways of Supporting Individuals with Additional Needs

Rebecca Brown is an 8 year old child who was involved in a road traffic accident when she was 5. Due to the accident Rebecca suffered a spinal cord injury and damaged her cervical spine. This means that Rebecca is disabled from the neck down,...

The Construction of the Punk Subculture

A problematic yet misunderstood label of the punk subculture, began as early in the 1940s however did not get its recognition until the 1970s when punk rock started booming in the music industry. Those who did not understand what punk was seen it as being...

What Are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Using a Glass Desk in the Office?

The materials that are used for the essential elements of office , as are the desks, have not changed much with the passage of time. Generally, the star is the wood that can vary for its different finishes and for the shapes it acquires in...

Report on Personality Research Using Different Models

Self-discovery is a difficult process for most people. Understanding to use strengths and overcome the shortcomings is even more difficult. In this article I would like to present some specific methods for self-analysis and self-understanding. So it is easy to realize where is your strengths,...

Human Development Index: Success of Human Development in Countries

The measurement of a country’s economic and social status is often considered one of the most critical and highly debated issues in regard to global and regional economic research. After reviewing the first few chapters of the required reading and learning the factors that compose...

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For some, parents placed them in athletic or music training programs since they could walk or even taught us how to speak several different languages since we started to talk. Others spent their childhood doing simpler things, avoiding true focus on one specific activity. Now...

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A few years back, PV technologies were uncommon and still considered a breakthrough innovation that could be connected yet in strict cases and at a very high cost. At that point, they began being utilized for space applications and on account of the advancement in...

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Human Development Essay

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American Psychological Association. (2002). Developing Adolescents: A Reference for Professionals. Retrieved April 27, 2017, from American Psychological Association: http://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/develop.pdf Caskey, M. & Anfara, J. V. (1999-2017). Developmental Characteristics of Young Adolescents. Retrieved April 27, 2017, from Association for Middle Level Education: https://www.amle.org/ ArticleID/455/Developmental-Characteristics-of-Young-Adolescents.aspx Curtis, A. C. (2015). Defining Adolescence. Journal of Adolescent and Family Health, 7 (2), 1-40. Retrieved from: http://scholar.utc.edu/jafh/vol7/iss2/2 Sanders, R. A. (2013). Adolescent Psychosocial, Social, and Cognitive Development. Pediatrics in Review, 34 (8). Retrieved from: http://pedsinreview.aappublications.org/content/34/8/354 Sokol, J. T. (2009). Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of Eriksonian Theory. Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1 (2), 1-11. Retrieved from: http://epublications.marquette.edu/gjcp/vol1/iss2/14

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• Adolescent Development

last of those. To be complete with this analysis, adolescence is not the end of human development given that many suggest that development extends into the 20's and 30's. Even so, the adolescent years of development are hailed by many as being the most pivotal, at least in some regards. While many would debate the above, it is clear that the adolescent years are among the most important. Analysis Regardless of the development or life stage that is in question, there are many developments and changes that occur during the adolescent years and they come in many forms. These forms include physical, cognitive, emotional, social… Continue Reading...

• Cognitive Development in Early Childhood

Early childhood is one of the most important stages of human development . It is the period which all components of human nature and abilities are formed, and, therefore, has a direct influence on personality formation. The intricacies of this crucial stage of human development have been a major interest to scientists and psychologists in different fields of human studies. There have been many studies conducted to help proffer clear understanding of children’s cognitive development. Some of the most prominent amongst the theories in this regard are by the two psychologists whose findings have been center of reference in academic discourses… Continue Reading...

The Stages of Childhood Development Physical Cognitive

144). Research in biology and human development shows that infants are developing their sensorimotor skills by engaging with objects, particularly by reaching and grabbing (Rochat, 2003). Also evident at the sensorimotor stage is the infant’s ability to learn via both classical and operant conditioning, such as with the introduction of stimuli to induce specific behavioral responses (Lightfoot, Cole & Cole, 2009). Infants demonstrate the ability to form social attachments and exhibit individualized emotional responses, too, with differences depending on environmental factors like parental behavior and culture (Lightfoot, Cole & Cole, 2009. While their ability to… Continue Reading...

• Issues in Developmental Psychology

.....theoretical perspectives to understand human development is stage theories, which postulate that human development takes place in different stages and change throughout the life span (Lerner et al., 2013, p.466). Erikson's Psychosocial Theory is an example of a theory under this perspective, which state that there are eight stages of psychosocial development that are biologically developed to manifest in a pre-determined, sequential way. Through this theory, Erikson effectively demonstrates that lifelong development involves integration of internal forces and external situations that influence development of ego. Borzumato-Gainey et al. (2009) conducted a study on life… Continue Reading...

• Classroom Observation

further instruction. That is what the teacher did in the end. 4. Theories and principles of human development ; motivation and learning as shown by learners and teachers Teaching as an Intellectual Engagement It is apparent that the most conspicuous and significant points about these ideas is that influence knowledge acquisition and the learning process is that teachers are thoughtful professionals who have both the learner and the content matter on their mind. The teacher seeks to construct a formidable link between content and the learner. It was observed many years back by reformers that curriculum is not immune to manipulation by the teacher. Teachers shape and… Continue Reading...

Intelligence Learning Memory Cognition

and conditions. Built on the premises of both cognitive psychology and the study of human development , these findings have tremendous implications for creating new pedagogies of diversity. In terms of how these findings influence my past or current beliefs about knowledge development, I believe that the study simply substantiates what I already intuited. There are a number of different variables that impact learning, among them the social environment and norms in the classroom, the methods used by the teacher to communicate not just knowledge but modes of thinking and approaching problem solving, and also self-directed learning, motivation, and interest. References Zhang, L.F. & Sternberg,… Continue Reading...

• Parent and Child Communication Article Review

in the article that has been that of a professional development psychologist. The professional studies human development of an individual, which encompasses the mental, social and physiological development that comes about at every stage of life. The professional developmental psychologist has studied the genetic effects experienced by the adolescent in such a phase, in addition to different environmental aspects like parental methods, which fashion how such adolescents evolve. The article does not refer to the interaction between psychology professional and professionals in other fields. Instead, the article explores the phenomenon of adolescent behavior in this phase in terms of hiding information from their parents and… Continue Reading...

Nature Vs Nurture Essay

human development such as intelligence and personality are determined by genetic make-up. Empiricists however, believe that there are acquired.” (Conkbayir 186) Notable Empiricists like John Lock made popular the Latin phrase: tabula rasa. This phrase means ‘black slate’. The child’s mind serves as a blank slate from which learned experiences and interactions can form a child’s personality later and into adulthood. When Empiricists examine child development, they aim to look for how the child was raised, who they interacted with, what traumatic experiences they endured. They then base their conclusions… Continue Reading...

• Nature Vs Nurture Vs Free Will

nature is responsible for human development . Whatever skills and attributes people acquire over time is done so because of a need to adapt in order to survive. Individual human beings receive genetic coding from their parents that enables them to carry on these adaptive skills throughout their lifetime and pass them on to the next generation. Galton viewed this idea as the most likely explanation for human behavior. This concept was popular in the late 19th and early 20th century, as the eugenics movement got underway. Scientists and researchers were interested in controlling the… Continue Reading...

Dreams the Unconscious Mind and Defense Mechanisms

Psychodynamic and Psychoanalytic theory suggest that early stages of human development have a significant impact on our relationships and our ego throughout the life span. According to Freudian theories, manifested behavior is based on latent problems of the past. The therapeutic process of psychoanalysis is designed to help the client become aware of past problems or latent desires that have been suppressed during the process of psychological development. Key themes that emerge in the literature on psychoanalytic theory include the role of the unconscious mind in shaping self-concept and behavior, dreams as the language of the unconscious mind, and… Continue Reading...

• Domestic Violence and the Effect on Children

devoid of the most basic human elements needed for proper human development to transpire. Maslow defined this development based upon the Hierarchy of Needs. Before an individual can grow to be self-actualizing, he must first obtain the basic necessities of life—food, shelter, and love. In a family where domestic violence is a quality of life, children are the unnoticed victims, whose lives are shaped and sometimes altered for the worse. This paper will discuss how domestic violence impacts children and what effects that has on the criminal justice system. Freeman (2015) shows through case study what can happen to a… Continue Reading...

Annotated Bibliography on Neo Freudianism

these theorists capitalized on Freud’s research on the subconscious and unconscious, as well as human development . Instead of focusing on psychosexual stages or sexual hang-ups, these theorists stressed other psychological issues including interpersonal relationships, attachment styles, and coping mechanisms. Jung added to the discussion a deeper investigation of dreams, focusing on the concept of the collective consciousness as a repository of cultural symbols. However, Hall & Lindzey (1957) also stress Jung’s contributions to personality theory. Not an experimental study, Hall & Lindzey’s (1957) work is meaningful in that it encapsulates the major issues that emerged in the post-Freudian era. This source acknowledges Freud’s contributions… Continue Reading...

• Psy600 Week 2 Assignment

main role in the article that has been that of a professional development psychologist. The professional studies human development of an individual, which encompasses the mental, social and physiological development that comes about at every stage of life. The professional developmental psychologist has studied the genetic effects experienced by the adolescent in such a phase, in addition to different environmental aspects like parental methods, which fashion how such adolescents become. The article does not refer to the interaction between psychology professional and professionals in other fields. Instead, the article explores the phenomenon of adolescent behavior in this phase in terms of hiding information from their parents; and… Continue Reading...

• The Impact of Social Media on Teenage Girls

a social constructivism stance. This type of design refers to a sociological theory of understanding and perspective where human development is based and connected via engagement with other humans, as noted by Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann. The specific research design will be an interview format, with each participant being interviewed on camera in a one-on-one format. This method of data collection will go hand in hand with the grounded theory that the research is centered in. Grounded theory will ensure that all interpretations emerge from the exact data collected. The interview process will help refine the data, and hopefully a common theme will emerge from the data… Continue Reading...

• Supreme Court Sodomy Cases Rulings

for others. This stunted mentality of human development , justice and tolerance, poisoned Hardwick’s case when it was brought before the Supreme Court, were it was not presented in terms of privacy or other indelible civil rights. Justice Byron White asserted, “The issue presented is whether the Federal Constitution confers a fundamental right upon homosexuals to engage in sodomy” (Bazelon, 2012). The answer turned out to be one of the Supreme Court’s most shameful decisions, and a clear representation that justice had not been served. The Court essentially ruled that homosexuals did not have a fundamental right… Continue Reading...

Infancy and Toddlerhood S Developmental Stage Age Group

Developmental Stages Developmental Stage/Age Group: Infancy and toddlerhood (0 - 3 years) Erickson maintains that the first human development al stage involves an individual’s interactions with his/her surroundings, normally the baby’s immediate social and physical environment, which is made up of home and family (Levinson, 1986). Especially important at this point (i.e. infancy) is the mother- baby relationship – the very first social bond one forms. Receptive mothers sensitive to the distinctive requirements of their baby will help cultivate a sound sense of self- worth within the baby, facilitating the development of a sound, all- round physical, emotional and psychological constitution, which happens between 0 and 18 months… Continue Reading...

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• What is Human development?

What is Human Development?

While the expression “human development” is widely used, it is understood in different ways around..

HDRO Outreach

2015 marks 25 years since the first Human Development Report introduced a new approach for advancing human flourishing. And while the expression “human development” is widely used, it is understood in different ways around the world. So on the occasion of the 25th anniversary year of human development reporting, we’d like to highlight how the Human Development Report Office (HDRO) presents human development.

Credit: UNDP Kosovo’s animation "What is Human Development?" explains and promotes sustainable human development.

Human development grew out of global discussions on the links between economic growth and development during the second half of the 20th Century. By the early 1960s there were increasingly loud calls to “dethrone” GDP: economic growth had emerged as both a leading objective, and indicator, of national progress in many countries i , even though GDP was never intended to be used as a measure of wellbeing ii . In the 1970s and 80s development debate considered using alternative focuses to go beyond GDP, including putting greater emphasis on employment, followed by redistribution with growth, and then whether people had their basic needs met.

These ideas helped pave the way for the human development approach, which is about expanding the richness of human life, rather than simply the richness of the economy in which human beings live. It is an approach that is focused on creating fair opportunities and choices for all people. So how do these ideas come together in the human development approach?

• People: the human development approach focuses on improving the lives people lead rather than assuming that economic growth will lead, automatically, to greater opportunities for all. Income growth is an important means to development, rather than an end in itself.

• Choices: human development is, fundamentally, about more choice. It is about providing people with opportunities, not insisting that they make use of them. No one can guarantee human happiness, and the choices people make are their own concern. The process of development – human development - should at least create an environment for people, individually and collectively, to develop to their full potential and to have a reasonable chance of leading productive and creative lives that they value.

The human development approach, developed by the economist Mahbub Ul Haq, is anchored in Amartya Sen’s work on human capabilities, often framed in terms of whether people are able to “be” and “do” desirable things in life iii . Examples include

Beings: well fed, sheltered, healthy

Doings: work, education, voting, participating in community life.

Freedom of choice is central: someone choosing to be hungry (during a religious fast say) is quite different to someone who is hungry because they cannot afford to buy food.

As the international community seeks to define a new development agenda post-2015, the human development approach remains useful to articulating the objectives of development and improving people’s well-being by ensuring an equitable, sustainable and stable planet.

i Kennedy, Robert. (1968). Address to the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas on March 18, 1968. www.informationclearinghouse.info/article27718.htm ii Simon Kuznets, who created GDP, warned expressly against using it as a measure of wellbeing. Kuznets, Simon. “National Income, 1929–1932.” U.S. Congress, Senate Doc. No. 124–73, at 7 (1934) iii Professor Sen was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998 for his work in welfare economics.

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The Lifespan Development Perspective Essay

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Introduction

The lifespan perspective of development, conclusions, reference list.

Lifespan development is a progressive process of development in a human being involving an increase in age, which begins at conception and ends with death (Sugarman, 2000, p. 56). In addition, lifespan development can be divided into four levels depicting advanced functionality and character changes as an individual moves from one level to another.

These levels include childhood and adolescence; early adulthood; middle adulthood; and late adulthood (Sugarman, 2000, p. 56). This paper presents discussions on the lifespan perspective of development and two major theories of lifespan development. In addition, the impact of the interaction between genes and the environment on the process of human development is also discussed.

The lifespan perspective examines the changes that take place at each level of human development relative to the environmental (Society and culture) factors that influence these changes (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 84). Moreover, the lifespan perspective can be defined in many ways.

For instance, the lifespan perspective can be a progressive and lifelong process of development that is not limited to any single level in human development. On the other hand, there are three major aspects of the lifespan perspective of development, which include the cognitive, social, physical dimensions of change (Sugarman, 2000, p. 59).

Furthermore, other studies claim that the perspective is plastic in nature because some domains of lifespan development increase while others decrease. This plasticity of the lifespan perspective occurs in response to various environmental factors that influence human development.

In addition, the perspective is embedded in the lifelong events that occur in the life of an individual. Thus, this perspective is studied by scientists, anthropologists, and psychologists, which brings out its multidisciplinary nature (Sugarman, 2000, p. 63). On the other hand, the perspective has different contextual implications. Therefore, human development is determined by biological, cultural, social, and physical environmental factors.

The three aspects of the lifespan perspective are also implicated in different developmental changes. The physical aspect of development involves changes in weight, height, shape, and the changes in individual experiences with the external environment (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 86).

On the other hand, the social aspect of development involves changes in different phases of human development, which are directly influenced by the social environment such as social skills and relationships. Lastly, the cognitive domain of human development entails change in an individual’s thinking capacity, memory, and decision-making (Sugarman, 2000, p. 64).

The changes characterizing the lifespan perspective of development can also be divided into eight stages of human development. The first stage also known as the Trust vs. Mistrust stage occurs during the period between birth and one year.

Here, development of trust depends on the relationship between the toddler and the care-giver (Sugarman, 2000, p. 66). The second stage also known as Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt period occurs during the early childhood stage. During this stage, the child is capable of making choices relative to the individualized willingness.

The Initiative vs. Guilt is the third stage in development, which occurs during the middle childhood stage. During this stage, children develop a sense of purpose through engaging in goal-oriented activities (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 88). The fourth stage also called the Industry vs. Inferiority period occurs at the late childhood period. Here, children develop competence through learning social norms, basic education, and culture.

Additionally, the adolescence stage signifies the Identity vs. Role Confusion period. Here, individual values and choices develop because individuals are able to account for their actions. The Intimacy vs. Isolation period occurs during early adulthood and it is characterized by development of intimate relationships, marriage, and families (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 90).

The Generativity vs. Stagnation period occurs during the middle adulthood stage. Here, individuals are committed with providing for their families and developing their careers. Lastly, the Integrity vs. Despair stage occurs during the late adulthood stage. The elderly individuals are self-contented and they are full of life experiences and advice.

Theories of Lifespan Development

There are many theories that attempt to explain the process of human development from different perspectives such as Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and Erikson’s theory on psychosocial development. Erikson’s theory posits that an individual encounters several conflicts during the development process, which depend on the type of relationship existing between this individual and the society.

Therefore, as an individual moves through the eight stages of development discussed above, he/she must solve the conflicts involved in one stage before moving to another. This ensures that one develops a sound personality; otherwise one may encounter difficulties in addressing conflicts in subsequent stages if the previous ones were not sufficiently resolved (Sugarman, 2000).

On the other hand, Freud’s theory states that the process of personality development occurs at the early childhood stage. Subsequently, the behavioral changes observed in developing individuals are influenced by the childhood events. Here, personality development occurs through several stages during the early childhood stage.

During this stage, the pleasure-oriented capabilities of an individual become focused on specific areas in one’s body. These capabilities also known as sexual libido or psychosexual energy play a major role in the subsequent behavioral changes in an individual (Sigelman & Rider, 2008).

Thus, if all the issues involved in the psychosexual stages of development are adequately resolved, then an individual develops a sound personality. However, if the psychosexual issues remain unresolved, the person involved is trapped in a particular stage until all the issues are resolved.

The Interaction of Genes and the Environment in Lifespan Development

A child inherits the genetic information of both parents through the information carriers known as genes. The genes are made up of DNA, which is found on chromosomes. On the other hand, the environment in the context of lifespan development refers to the total social and cultural factors surrounding a developing human being (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 86). Therefore, lifespan development in children depends on two major factors; the genetic make-up of a child and the environmental factors.

However, the two factors can play a mutual role in influencing the development of different individuals in the society. Here, the epigenetic framework of development posits that the genetic make-up can be turned on and off relative to the internal and external environmental feedback (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 89).

This gives the process of lifespan development the flexibility and plasticity described in the discussions above. For instance, the learning process in children follows a specific pattern of adaptability, which depends on the internal and external factors.

Therefore, during the early childhood stage, individuals use the environmental experiences in reasoning and acting. However, as the environmental factors and experiences change along the period of lifespan development, so does the emotional, reasoning, and social attributes in an individual (Sigelman & Rider, 2008, p. 91).

The paper presents discussions on the lifespan perspective of development, the theories of lifespan development and the interaction of heredity and environment to produce individual differences in development.

From the discussions above, the lifespan perspective of development examines the changes that occur in different individuals, which occur due to the interaction of the genetic make-up and the total circumstances surrounding an individual. On the other hand, this perspective is also reinforced by Freud’s theory of psychosexual development and Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, which are summarized in the discussions above.

Sigelman, C. K. & Rider, E. A. (2008). Lifespan human development. New York: Cengage Learning Publishers, Inc.

Sugarman, L. (2000). Lifespan development: Frameworks, accounts and strategies (2 nd ed.). New York: Routledge.

• The role of genetics in development
• Effect of Humanistic Theory on Individual Personalities
• Freud's Psychosexual Stage Conception
• Lifespan Development and Its Theories
• Behaviour across the Lifespan
• Erik Erikson's Life and Contributions to Psychoanalysis
• Developmental Theories in Psychology
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IvyPanda. (2019, February 7). The Lifespan Development Perspective. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/

"The Lifespan Development Perspective." IvyPanda , 7 Feb. 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'The Lifespan Development Perspective'. 7 February.

IvyPanda . 2019. "The Lifespan Development Perspective." February 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/.

1. IvyPanda . "The Lifespan Development Perspective." February 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "The Lifespan Development Perspective." February 7, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-lifespan-perspective-of-development/.

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Human Development, Essay Example

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In the works of different researchers, it is claimed that social behavior is not something naturally acquired as a result of aging. Indeed, children’s inadequate behavior usually results from the lack of social and communication skills. Hemmeter, Ostorsky and Fox in the article “Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning: A Conceptual Model for Intervention” emphasized that “creating a caring, socially rich, cooperative, and responsive environment requires an intentional and systematic approach” (2006). The development of social skills and personal capabilities requires appropriate education, gentle guidance of the adults, responsible parenting and good school environment.

There are key social skills that are essential for children when they enter school: an ability to develop positive relationships with peers and adults, an ability to communicate emotions effectively and adequately, an ability to listen (Hemmeter, Ostorsky & Fox, 2006), nonaggressive behavior. Also, children need compassion, ability to work in the team, and, later, an ability to stay calm under pressure. Social skills are skills and behaviors that facilitate interaction and help to achieve social status. The ability to communicate emotions is essential for open and easy communication with peers, without hypocrisy or inadequacy that may lead to misunderstanding or absence of friends. The ability to listen underlies understanding and not interrupting the speaker; inability to listen may make a child a bad company and unwelcome in conversations. The ability to show compassion is vital for children, as it allows understanding of someone’s feelings and sharing them; children without it may be perceived as cruel or aggressive, and thus they may have problems with peers. Working in the team is an indivisible part of every child’s life (games, competitions, classroom activities). Inability to collaborate and respect friends may lead to ostracism or loneliness.

A chief influence in the lives of teenagers and children are their parents, claims Sara in her article devoted to parent-children relationships (2002). It is their family that plays a key role in the establishment of the moral beliefs and social behaviors.

In order to develop social skills such as ability to listen and ability to communicate, parents need to respect their child and not treat him or her as a silly and irresponsible creature. Sara provides the next example: when a child does something wrong (stealing, lying), parents should deal with it by means of conversation, not a lecture (2002). Young children depend on their relationships with parents or caregivers “to teach them about themselves and the world they live in” (Aviles, Anderson & Davila, 2006); these relationships shape children’s understanding of their behaviors by the parents/caregivers responses. What is normal for the family members is normal for the child.  So, showing respect in the family enhances the ability to listen to what adults say and the ability communicate adequately, i.e. as it is normal for certain society.

A human development psychologist Erick Erickson also emphasized the parents influence during first years of the child’s life. By the age of five, the child develops trust or mistrust to the world and society, autonomy or doubtfulness about one’s capabilities, and initiative to play (explore, fantasize…) or guilt (Elkind, 1970). Parents must create caring and responsive family environment in order to promote easy communication with children and other adults. The child who was cared of, listened to and played with will be socially active and open. Responsive family provides the child with friendly and caring communication with parents; this communication improves the child’s ability to communicate as well as adequate responses to child’s communication. Family communication enhances the child’s ability to communicate by creating behavioral patterns and promoting initiative.

In contrast to caring and responsive family atmosphere, the family environment may inhibit children’s social development. If the child experiences aggression, temperamental difficulties, noncompliance, and language difficulties, it indicates problems in the family. Problems like violence and absence of sympathy may inhibit social skills. Violence in the family inhibits communication skills and compassion. Due to violence children may distrust adults and other people, and thus be unable to develop positive social relationship. Also, witnessing violence leads to low self-esteem and inhibit the ability to stay calm under the pressure. Absence of sympathy and care in the family does not provide development of compassion. As social skills are behavioral patterns, compassion must also be a pattern. In order to develop this pattern, caring and responsive approach is needed, thus lack of family care inhibits compassion. To summarize this paragraph, it is essential to point out that negative family environment influences children’s behavior greatly – much more than classroom environment, for example.

At a certain age, a child enters school where teachers can influence his or her social development. The main controlling and directing school environment force is the teacher, his competent work and monitoring of the class. When taught routines and expectations by teacher’s directions and feedback, children learn ethics; this promotes an ability to develop positive relationship with peers and adults in certain society. When children are taught to manage themselves, they learn to stay calm under the pressure. Of course, it is essential for the teacher to make a classroom atmosphere creative and comfortable in order to promote co-working and teamwork. Friendly and creative atmosphere may involve competitions or creative activities with motivating incentives, teaching to be a good loser; such things contribute to the ability to work in the team. It must be comfortable for children to express themselves freely.

In order to foster compassion skills, teacher must provide an example by expressing compassion himself and showing that this is normal. Good example can shape a proper perception of expressions of compassion and thus contribute to this skill. Also, classroom activities include listening to teacher’s instructions or explanations; listening to instructions must be silent and attentive, so children learn to listen first and ask question after. Friendly and creative environment may include active communication or argument, and this provides children with perfect example of communication model, when one person listens to other, and vice versa. Thus, general communication skills and listening skills are improved.

Obviously, negative classroom environment may inhibit social and academic success of the children. Teacher’s indifference may cause a feeling that the child is insignificant, his problems are ridiculous, he is left to his own devices, and adults are not interested in communication with him. It inhibits his ability to develop positive relationship with peers and adults. Inability to find a common language with students or racial or sexual harassment may inhibit the same social skill and compassion as well, as aggressiveness will be deemed normal.

Sara provides an idea that illustrates the central idea of this paper. “If you want your kids to grow up to be kind, compassionate and caring, you’re going to have to lead the way” (Sara, 2002). It means that all adults who can influence the child’s life should improve his or her social development in some way or other.

It does not matter, who you are – a parent or a teacher. When you have children that depend on you, you must remember that whether they will trust you or avoid your company, or whether they will be successful in communication with peers or ostracized, depends on social education that must start in the early childhood and last until late adolescence.

Aviles, A., Anderson, T., & Davila, E. (2006). Child and Adolescent Social-Emotional Development Within the Context of School. Child & Adolescent Mental Health , 11(1), 32-39. doi:10.1111/j.1475-3588.2005.00365.x.

Elkind, D. (1970, April 5). Erik Erikson’s Eight Ages of Man. The New York Times  Magazine . Reprinted by permission from The New York Times Company. Retrieved September 16, 2010 from http://www.ceed.pdx.edu/ectc_sscbt/pdfs/EriksonsEightAgesofMan.pdf

Hemmeter, M., Ostrosky, M., & Fox, L. (2006). Social and Emotional Foundations for Early Learning: A Conceptual Model for Intervention. School Psychology Review , 35(4), 583. Retrieved from MasterFILE Premier database.

Sara, S. (n.d). (2002) Parents can pass values along to children, experts say. Contra Costa  Times (Walnut Creek, CA) , Retrieved September from Newspaper Source database.

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Microbial assimilatory sulfate reduction-mediated H 2 S: an overlooked role in Crohn’s disease development

• Wanrong Luo 1 , 2   na1 ,
• Min Zhao 3   na1 ,
• Mohammed Dwidar 4 , 5 ,
• Yang Gao 2 ,
• Liyuan Xiang 1 ,
• Xueting Wu 1 ,
• Marnix H. Medema 6 ,
• Xiaozhi Li 1 ,
• Hendrik Schäfer 7 ,
• Minhu Chen 1   na2 ,
• Rui Feng 1   na2 &
• Yijun Zhu 2 , 8   na2  

Microbiome volume  12 , Article number:  152 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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H 2 S imbalances in the intestinal tract trigger Crohn's disease (CD), a chronic inflammatory gastrointestinal disorder characterized by microbiota dysbiosis and barrier dysfunction. However, a comprehensive understanding of H 2 S generation in the gut, and the contributions of both microbiota and host to systemic H 2 S levels in CD, remain to be elucidated. This investigation aimed to enhance comprehension regarding the sulfidogenic potential of both the human host and the gut microbiota.

Our analysis of a treatment-naive CD cohorts' fecal metagenomic and biopsy metatranscriptomic data revealed reduced expression of host endogenous H 2 S generation genes alongside increased abundance of microbial exogenous H 2 S production genes in correlation with CD. While prior studies focused on microbial H 2 S production via dissimilatory sulfite reductases, our metagenomic analysis suggests the assimilatory sulfate reduction (ASR) pathway is a more significant contributor in the human gut, given its high prevalence and abundance. Subsequently, we validated our hypothesis experimentally by generating ASR-deficient E. coli mutants ∆cysJ and ∆cysM through the deletion of sulfite reductase and L-cysteine synthase genes. This alteration significantly affected bacterial sulfidogenic capacity, colon epithelial cell viability, and colonic mucin sulfation, ultimately leading to colitis in murine model. Further study revealed that gut microbiota degrade sulfopolysaccharides and assimilate sulfate to produce H 2 S via the ASR pathway, highlighting the role of sulfopolysaccharides in colitis and cautioning against their use as food additives.

Conclusions

Our study significantly advances understanding of microbial sulfur metabolism in the human gut, elucidating the complex interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host sulfur metabolism. We highlight the microbial ASR pathway as an overlooked endogenous H 2 S producer and a potential therapeutic target for managing CD.

Video Abstract

Introduction

Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC) are two main forms of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD), characterized by symptoms including diarrhea, rectal bleeding, abdominal pain, fatigue, and weight loss, significantly impacting patients' lives. IBD incidence and prevalence are rising globally, particularly in newly industrialized regions [ 1 , 2 ]. The growing global burden of this disease underscores the need for preventive and therapeutic measures [ 2 ]. Although the precise etiology remains elusive, it is believed to result from dysregulated mucosal immune responses triggered by gut bacteria, especially in individuals with genetic predispositions [ 3 , 4 ].

Sulfur metabolism and sulfur-containing metabolites play a pivotal role in IBD [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) is the sulfur derivative that garners the most attention in the context of colonic health. In the gastrointestinal system, the H 2 S pathway supports epithelial, immune, and enteric nervous system health through various mechanisms, including posttranslational modification of protein cysteine residues, activation of K ATP channels, and serving as an inorganic fuel for colonocytes [ 8 , 9 , 10 ]. However, excessive exposure to H 2 S can be detrimental to the host, damaging the intestinal epithelium and leading to chronic inflammation, as well as disrupting the balance between cellular proliferation and apoptosis [ 11 ]. An association between elevated H 2 S levels and IBD has long been suspected [ 12 , 13 ]. Several studies suggest that pharmacological interventions targeting H 2 S may improve outcomes in IBD through mechanisms such as driving regulatory T cell differentiation, stabilizing hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α), promoting biofilm formation, and reducing planktonic bacteria growth [ 14 , 15 , 16 ].

However, a comprehensive mechanistic model elucidating the relationship between H 2 S generation and IBD is still lacking. The production and release of H 2 S are regulated by both endogenous and exogenous factors, but the relative contributions of the host and gut microbiota to overall systemic H 2 S levels in humans remain uncertain. Endogenous H 2 S production primarily results from the enzymatic degradation of organic sulfur compounds, particularly cysteine. Key enzymes in this process include cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS), cystathionine gamma-lyase (CTH), 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfur transferase (MPST), and methanethiol oxidase (SELENBP1) [ 17 , 18 ]. On the other hand, our understanding of microbial-mediated H 2 S generation remains limited. Nevertheless, several studies have shown that bacteria generate H 2 S to mitigate oxidative stress from antibiotics [ 19 ], drive cryptic redox chemistry to shape gut metabolism [ 7 ], regulate intracellular cysteine levels [ 20 ], and influence bacterial virulence via proteome S-sulfhydration [ 21 ], highlighting the necessity to clarify the mechanisms of bacterial H 2 S generation.

Bacteria produce H 2 S through the utilization of both organic sulfur compounds like L-cysteine and taurine, as well as inorganic sulfur compounds such as sulfate and sulfite. The two primary pathways for sulfate metabolism are Assimilatory Sulfate Reduction (ASR) [ 22 , 23 ], involving the reduction of sulfate to H 2 S, which is subsequently incorporated into cysteine and methionine biosynthesis, and Dissimilatory Sulfate Reduction (DSR), a process found in sulfate-reducing bacteria where these microbes produce H 2 S from sulfate without integrating it into L-cysteine [ 24 ] (Fig.  1 ).

Exogenous microbial sulfur metabolism results in the production of genotoxic H 2 S via metabolism of inorganic sulfate and organic sulfur like cysteine, taurine, isethionate, methanethiol and alkanesulfonate (black and green). Endogenous H 2 S is produced via metabolism of sulfur containing amino acids like cysteine and homocysteine, as well as organic sulfur methanethiol (green). Gene names and KEGG ID are listed in Supplementary dataset 1. * Recent research has demonstrated that sulfane sulfur is the direct product of the bacterial methanethiol oxidase (MtoX) [ 25 ]

Previous investigations into microbial sulfidogenesis found the contributions of gut microbiota to systemic total H 2 S levels varied widely across subjects [ 26 ], and have mainly focused on the fermentation of organic sulfur compounds [ 5 , 27 ] and sulfate-reducing bacteria DSR [ 28 , 29 ]. Meanwhile, ASR, a common strategy employed by many microbes to fix sulfur and manipulate organosulfur compounds, has been routinely overlooked.

Here, we employed genomic and metagenomic tools to gain a deeper understanding of the colonic sulfidogenic capacity of both the host and gut microbiome in a newly-onset treatment-naïve CD cohort, and observed that CD exhibit reduced endogenous H 2 S production alongside increased gut microbial H 2 S generation, primarily via the ASR pathway. Mechanistically, we genetically manipulated E. coli ASR pathway to evaluate the impact on (i) E. coli 's sulfidogenic capacity, (ii) colon epithelial cell viability, and (iii) the development of colitis and maintenance of mucus integrity in a mouse model. Our data elucidate a previously unappreciated role of microbial ASR pathway in dietary sulfate metabolism, intestinal sulfur homeostasis and mucus integrity, emphasizing its pivotal role in CD pathogenesis.

CD is associated with up-regulation of gut microbial assimilatory sulfate reduction

We conducted a comprehensive investigation into the H 2 S production capabilities of the human gut microbiome, focusing on key genes responsible for sulfide generation from various sources, including organic compounds (such as dietary rich L-cysteine and taurine) and inorganic sulfate (Fig.  1 , Supplementary dataset 1). Our analysis was based on stool metagenomic samples from two independent IBD cohorts, FAH-SYSU (treatment naïve IBD cohort enrolled at the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University) [ 30 ] and PRISM (Prospective Registry of IBD study at MGH) [ 3 ]. ShortBRED was employed to identify unique sequence markers of related family members and quantifying their relative abundance in metagenomic data with high specificity [ 31 ]. It is noteworthy that ShortBRED was not specifically developed for gene cluster identification and quantification. Nevertheless, our search within metagenomic datasets using individual genes revealed a moderate to high degree of consistency among genes from the same cluster (spearman r 0.59–0.94, p  < 0.001, Supplementary dataset 2), confirming the accuracy of the predictions.

We found that genes associated with ASR, including sulfate adenylyltransferase ( cysDN ) and adenylylsulfate kinase ( cysC ), were highly prevalent in both cohorts. In the FAH-SYSU cohort, these genes were present in 100% of both CD and HC subjects, while in the PRISM cohort, their prevalence ranged from 82 to 100%. These genes were also abundant, with RPKM values of 98.0–646.7 in the FAH-SYSU cohort and 20.6–57.2 in the PRISM cohort for both CD and HC subjects (Fig.  2 , Supplementary dataset 3). The PRISM cohort exhibited lower abundance, possibly due to differences in sequencing procedures. In the ASR pathway, organisms use different strategies: 1) Adenosine-5’-phosphosulfate (APS) is phosphorylated into 3’-Phosphoadenosine-5’-phosphosulfate (PAPS) by CysC, which is further reduced into sulfite (SO 3 2− ) by PAPS reductase (CysH); 2) APS is directly reduced by an APS reductase (AprAB) to generate adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and SO 3 2− . Both scenarios generate SO 3 2− which could further be reduced by anaerobic sulfite reductase (AsrABC) [ 32 ] or sulfite reductase (CysJI) to form sulfide (S 2− ), which subsequently yield L-cysteine mediated by cysteine synthase A (CysK ) and cysteine synthase B (CysM) (Fig.  1 ). We found ASR downstream genes, including cysH , cysJI , cysM , cysK , and asrABC , were also more abundant in CD subjects ( p  < 0.01), suggesting a significant role for ASR in H 2 S production from SO 4 2− in CD individuals (Fig.  2 A, Supplementary dataset 3).

CD is associated with decreased endogenous sulfidogenic gene expression and increased gut microbial exogenous sulfidogenic gene expression. A Dot plots comparing selected genes related to microbial sulfide generation from CD versus healthy control subjects (HC) in FAH-SYSU (light green background) cohort and PRISM (light blue background) cohort. The size of each dot indicates the proportion of participants detected in each group of the indicated gene and the color of each dot indicates RPKM with that gene in each group. RPKM, reads per kilobase per million mapped reads. Genes related to ASR, DSR, and organic sulfur metabolism are color-coded according to the scheme in Fig.  1 . B Analysis of cbs , cth , mpst and selenbp1 gene expression in CD and non-IBD control subjects’ mucosa in different IBD cohorts. CBS, cystathionine beta-synthase; CTH, cystathionine gamma-lyase; MPST, 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase; SELENBP1, methanethiol oxidase. * Various control groups were utilized in different cohorts. FAH-SYSU, non-disease control; HMP, symptomatic non-IBD controls; E-MTAB5464, non-disease control; GSE83687, normal non inflamed bowel away from the tumor from sporadic colon cancer patients. C CD patients exhibit increased assimilatory sulfate reduction activity in their fecal microbial community compared to healthy subjects. Significance was determined by nonparametric Mann–Whitney test. * p  < 0.05, ** p  < 0.01, *** p  < 0.001

We observed that the prevalence and abundance of dsrAB genes (key genes for the DSR but not the ASR pathway) were notably lower compared to asr -associated genes in both cohorts. In the PRISM cohort, dsrAB genes were detected in approximately 30.9–32.4% of CD subjects, while this percentage increased to 67.6–76.5% in HC subjects. Moreover, their abundance increased from approximately 0.48 to 0.60–0.72 RPKM ( p  < 0.01). However, no significant difference in dsrAB genes was observed in the FAH-SYSU cohort (Fig.  2 A). Additionally, aprAB , responsible for converting APS to SO 3 2− in both DSR and ASR, showed a marked reduction in CD subjects (Fig.  2 A). Furthermore, we investigated cysPUWA , which encodes a sulfate transporter common to both pathways. These transporter genes were more prevalent and abundant in CD subjects, indicating increased microbial sulfate transport in CD patients.

Organic sulfur metabolism has been reported to be enriched in individuals with IBD and colorectal cancer (CRC) [ 33 , 34 ]. Therefore, we investigated microbial genes associated with organic sulfur metabolism in our study. We found that the bacterial gene mpst , important for converting L-cysteine to H 2 S, exhibited more prevalent and significantly elevated levels in CD subjects compared to HC subjects in both cohorts ( p  < 0.001, Fig.  2 A). Additionally, genes related to taurine and alkanesulfonate metabolism, including taurine transporter ( tauABC ), taurine dioxygenase ( tauD ), sulfonate transporter ( ssuACB ), and alkanesulfonate monooxygenase ( ssuD ), were more abundant in CD subjects in FAH-SYSU cohort ( p  < 0.001, Fig.  2 A). Microbial methanethiol oxidase ( mtoX ), widely distributed in the biosphere [ 35 ], was not detected in human associated bacteria and therefore was excluded in the ShortBRED analysis. In the PRISM cohort, an increasing trend was observed in tauABC and ssuD among CD subjects, although statistical significance was not attained.

CD patients demonstrate impaired endogenous H 2 S production

Endogenous H 2 S production arises from the host's utilization of sulfur-containing amino acids (Fig.  1 ). To shed light on endogenous sulfidogenic activity, we evaluated the expression levels of the host cbs , cth , mpst and selenbp1 by examining intestinal biopsies obtained from newly diagnosed CD patients (n = 46) and non-disease controls (n = 44) from the FAH-SYSU cohort [ 36 ]. Our analysis revealed that all of these 4 genes exhibited significant decreases in inflamed mucosal biopsies from CD subjects (Fig.  2 B). A similar trend was observed in three independent IBD cohorts, including the Mount Sinai Hospital cohort (GSE83687) [ 37 ], a treatment-naive pediatric IBD cohort (E-MTAB-5464) [ 38 ] and the HMP IBD cohort [ 4 ] (Fig.  2 B), although statistical significance was not achieved in some cases. In the E-MTAB-5464 cohort, transcriptomic data were generated from purified intestinal epithelial cells. CBS raw counts in this cohort were generally less than 10, hence not analysed. This finding strongly suggests a substantial reduction in the endogenous sulfidogenic capacity of CD patients.

To uncover whether CD patients have impaired H 2 S catabolism capacity, we examined the expression levels of key enzymes responsible for host H 2 S catabolism in these cohort datasets, including thiosulfate sulfurtransferase (TST), thiosulfate sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase (SQOR), and persulfide dioxygenase (ETHE1) (Fig. S1 A) [ 13 , 39 ]. Our analysis revealed that tst was significantly downregulated, while sqor was upregulated in CD subjects in FAH-SYSU cohort. A similar trend was observed in the HPM IBD cohort, although tst did not reach statistical significance between CD and non-IBD groups in this cohort. The expression of ethe1 remained similar in both FAH-SYSU and HMP cohorts, irrespective of CD or control groups (Fig. S1 B). Therefore, further research is needed to explore the H 2 S catabolism capacity in CD patients.

Oxygen-insensitive ASR is functionally more active in fecal microbiota from CD patients

To further substantiate the contribution of the ASR pathway from gut microbiota to H 2 S generation in CD, we conducted an ex vivo fecal culture experiment using thiosulfate (S 2 O 3 2−2− ) as the sole sulfur source. DSR has been reported in sulfate-reducing bacteria which are strictly anaerobes, whereas ASR has been reported in facultative anaerobes and aerobes [ 40 ]. Therefore, we set up the fecal culture aerobically and measured H 2 S production in fecal samples from both healthy individuals and CD patients to test if oxygen-insensitive ASR activity was enhanced in CD’s gut microbiota. We detected H 2 S production in 19 out of 34 (55.9%) CD stool samples, with 13 showing notably high levels (> 10,000 intensity). In contrast, only 6 out of 35 (17.1%) samples from healthy controls exhibited H 2 S production, with 5 demonstrating high levels (Fig.  2 C). Thus, oxygen-insensitive ASR is more active in CD patients.

The bacterial ASR pathway is prevalent in the human microbiome

The asr gene cluster in E. coli MG1655 [ 22 ] and Salmonella enterica ST8493 [ 23 ], along with the dsr gene cluster in Desulfovibrio gigas DSM 1382 [ 24 ], that have been characterized in previous studies, are shown in Fig.  3 A. To comprehensively assess the distribution of asr - ( cysDN , cysC , cysH , cysJI , cysM, cysK , aprAB and asrABC ) and dsr -associated genes ( dsrAB , aprAB ) among human bacteria, we screened these genes against 1635 Human Microbiome Project (HMP) reference genomes. This extensive analysis revealed that asr -associated genes are more widespread than dsrAB (Fig.  3 B, Supplementary dataset 4). A significant number (88.1%, 1441 out of 1635 reference genomes) of the total reference genomes contain at least one asr -associated gene, distributed predominantly in Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and Bacteroidetes, whilst dsrAB genes are only found in 0.43% (7 genomes) which are from Firmicutes and γ-Proteobacteria (Fig.  3 B, Supplementary dataset 4). The prevalence of cysDN (409 genomes) and cysC (295 genomes) in Bacteroidetes were higher than the other asr -associated genes. On the other hand, cysJI (193 strains) and cysM (275 strains) were more prevalent in Proteobacteria, including facultative aerobic species like E. coli , Proteus mirabilis , Klebsiella oxytoca (Fig.  3 B, Supplementary dataset 4). asrABC (117 genomes) was more commonly found in Firmicutes and Fusobacteria. These observations suggest a potential collaborative interplay among microorganisms in the execution of the ASR pathway.

ASR pathway is widely distributed in human microbiota. A Arrangement of asr - and dsr - associated genes and gene clusters in bacteria. Orange ORFs: asr -associated genes; gray ORFs: dsr -associated genes. Other genes not shown are represented by white ORFs. B Phylogenetic distribution of genomes harboing asr - and dsr -associated genes in 1635 reference genomes of the Human Microbiome Project (HMP). Gene and genome names are listed in Supplementary dataset 4

Construction of E . coli mutants with impaired assimilatory sulfate reduction (ASR)

We focused on the cysJI -mediated ASR pathway in this study since metagenomic data indicated that it is more abundant than asrABC (Fig.  2 A). We used E. coli MG1655, a known bacterium with a complete ASR pathway, as the model organism (Fig.  4 A). Using homologous recombination, we deleted two crucial ASR pathway genes, cysJ and cysM . cysJ encodes sulfite reductase alpha subunit ( cysI encodes beta subunit), responsible for the reduction of SO 3 2−2− to S 2−2− while cysM encodes cysteine synthase B, which converts S 2− to L-cysteine. (Fig.  4 A). As expected, deleting cysJ hindered E. coli growth on SO 4 2− as the sole sulfur source (Fig.  4 B and Fig. S2A). E. coli carries a CysM homologue, CysK, which compensates for CysM in incorporating S 2− into L-cysteine (Fig.  4 A). Consequently, E. coli ∆cysM strains exhibited growth similar to the WT strain when SO 4 2− was the sole sulfur source. Alternatively, CysM can use thiosulfate (S 2 O 3 2− ) in place of S 2− to produce L-cysteine via S-sulfocysteine as the intermediate (Fig.  4 A). Therefore, E. coli WT and ∆cysJ mutant grew on S 2 O 3 2− as the sole sulfur source, however ∆cysM displayed diminished growth rate (Fig.  4 B and Fig. S2B).

Deletion of cysJ and cysM alters E. coli H 2 S sulfidogenic capacities and modulate cell viability. A Scheme of the E. coli MG1655 sulfate assimilation reduction pathway. B Growth of E. coli WT and mutant strains on M9 medium with 1 mM sulfate (left) or sodium thiosulfate (right) as the sole sulfur source. C WT and mutant strains of E. coli were qualitatively tested for H 2 S in SIM media of different sulfur sources, as evidenced by the formation of black FeS. D Relatively quantitative test of H 2 S produced by E. coli WT and mutant strains in M9 medium with different concentrations of L-cysteine as a sole sulfur source under aerobic conditions. Significance was measured with two-way ANOVA analysis with Tukey's multiple comparisons. E Quantification of sulfite (SO 3 2− ) produced by E. coli WT and mutant strains in M9 medium using 1 mM Na 2 S 2 O 3 or Na 2 SO 4 as the sole sulfur source. F Representative images and quantification of cell death rates cell death rate of NCM460 cells co-cultured with E. coli WT and mutant strains, with either L-cysteine supplementation (upper panel) or sodium thiosulfate supplementation (lower panel), were analyzed using live/dead staining. Living cells are represented in green, while dead cells are shown in red. G - H A CCK-8 assay was performed using NCM460 cells treated with supernatant from M9 medium containing 1 mM Na 2 SO 4 that had been pre-inoculated with E. coli WT or mutant strains. Mean ± SEM is displayed from at least three independent experiments. Significance was measured with one- and two-way ANOVA analysis with Tukey's multiple comparisons

We assessed E. coli WT and mutant strains for their sulfidogenic capabilities using various inorganic and organic sulfur sources. In the modified Sulfur, Indole, Motility (SIM) medium, we observed that deleting cysJ increased H 2 S production from L-cysteine, while deleting cysM enhanced H 2 S generation from both L-cysteine and SO 3 2− (Fig.  4 C). E. coli WT also produced H 2 S from L-cysteine, as indicated by slight medium darkening (Fig.  4 C). We further cultured E. coli WT and mutant strains in M9 medium supplemented with varying concentrations of L-cysteine, and observed that all the strains exhibited a dose-dependent production of H 2 S, with the ∆cysJ mutant demonstrating greater efficiency in converting L-cysteine to sulfide than ∆cysM and WT (Fig.  4 D). Under anaerobic conditions, E. coli ∆cysM actively reduced SO 3 2− to produce H 2 S (Fig. S2C). While the ∆cysJ mutant consistently showed increased H 2 S production in the presence of L-cysteine under anaerobic conditions, both E. coli WT and mutant strains displayed decreased H 2 S production compared to aerobic conditions (Fig. S2D). Additionally, the ∆cysJ mutant accumulated SO 3 2− in M9 medium when SO 4 2− or S 2 O 3 2− was the sole sulfur source due to the loss of sulfite reductase activity (Fig.  4 E). These findings highlight the impact of ASR pathway alterations on both inorganic and organic sulfur metabolism. E. coli WT and ASR-deficient mutants displayed distinct morphological characteristics and proteomic profiles (Fig. S3A, B, Supplementary dataset 5), suggesting that the alteration of the ASR pathway has a profound effect on bacterial physiology.

Bacterial assimilatory sulfate reduction modulates epithelial cell viability

We proceeded to investigate the impact of modifications in the bacterial ASR pathway on the growth of colonic epithelial cells in an in vitro setting. We co-cultured E. coli WT and mutant strains with normal human colonic mucosal epithelial cell line NCM460 with either L-cysteine or S 2 O 3 2− as the sole sulfur source. Cell viability assay revealed that in the presence of L-cysteine, the ∆cysJ mutant led to significantly decreased cell viability, concurrent with increased H 2 S production (Fig.  4 D, F). When S 2 O 3 2− served as the exclusive sulfur source, the ∆cysM mutant induced more pronounced cell death, accompanied by higher H 2 S generation (Fig.  4 C, F).

As ∆cysJ mutant accumulates more SO 3 2− in the medium when SO 4 2− is the sole sulfur source (Fig.  4 E), this accumulation of SO 3 2− may potentially leads to cell toxicity [ 41 ]. To investigate it further, we collected the supernatants from cultures of E. coli WT and mutant strains grown in M9 medium supplemented with Na 2 SO 4 and used them to treat NCM460 cells (Fig.  4 G). As indicated by the cell proliferation assay, the ∆cysJ mutant exhibited the most pronounced inhibition of cell proliferation in agreement with the high levels of SO 3 2− (Fig.  4 H). Thus, the data suggest that bacterial ASR modulates epithelial cell viability through SO 4 2− metabolites.

The gut microbiota is the primary contributor to serum H2S levels in the DSS-induced mouse colitis model

Colitis, a key component of IBD, is frequently studied using murine models. One widely employed method to induce colitis in these models is the administration of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) via drinking water. Our initial objective was to determine if H 2 S production is linked to the DSS-induced colitis model. We found a significant increase in serum H 2 S levels in mice received DSS compared to vehicle controls (Fig.  5 A), suggesting that serum H 2 S is associated with DSS-induced colitis.

DSS-induced colitis is associated with increased exogenous H 2 S generation. A Serum H 2 S level of mice in normal control (NC) and DSS-treated group. Each dot represents an individual mouse. NC, mice were on water (n = 6–7). B The expression levels of cbs , cth , mpst , and selenbp1 in murine colonic tissues were assessed during the administration of DSS and the subsequent recovery period (GSE131032, n = 2 − 3). P-value was determined by nonparametric one-way ANOVA analysis with Dunn’s multiple comparisons. See Fig.  2 for gene full names. C Schematic diagram showing the experimental design, timeline of mouse models and sampling strategy. D Relative body weight of mice receiving DSS with antibiotics (DSS + Abx) and without (DSS) as shown in Fig B. n = 5–6. Significance was measured with two-way ANOVA with Tukey's multiple comparisons. E–G Colonic morphologies ( E ), colon length ( F ) and serum H 2 S level ( G ) of mice under different treatments. H Cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) and cystathionine γ-lyase (CTH) protein levels were analysed by western blotting in mouse colon epithelial tissues. n = 4. Nonparametric Mann–Whitney test was used for non-pairwise comparisons. Each dot represents an individual mouse

Although a previous study suggested that germ-free mice exhibit reduced plasma H 2 S levels [ 42 ], the specific contribution of the gut microbiota to systemic H 2 S levels in the context of DSS-induced colitis remained unknown. To illuminate the link between elevated serum H 2 S and gut microbes, we performed two studies. First, we utilized a publicly available colonic tissue transcriptomic dataset from mice undergoing DSS-induced colitis, followed by a tissue regeneration phase (GSE131032) [ 43 ]. During the colitis and recovery stages, the expression of cbs and cth genes remained stable, while mpst and selenbp1 expression displayed a decreasing trend during colitis, followed by a slight elevation during the recovery stage (Fig.  5 B). This suggested that endogenous H 2 S production remained consistent or even decreased during DSS-induced colitis, hence the rise in serum H 2 S observed is probably from gut microbiota. Second, we administered broad spectrum antibiotics (Abx) to mice in the DSS-induced model (Fig.  5 C), and observed a significant reduction in serum H 2 S levels and alleviated DSS-induced colitis, as evidenced by weight and colon length measurements (Fig.  5 D-G). Given mRNA levels of cbs and cth remained stable throughout the DSS-induced colitis and recovery stages (Fig.  5 B), we further examined protein levels of CBS and CTH in Abx-challenge mice experiment, and observed no significant difference between the two groups (Fig.  5 H). Collectively, these findings provide compelling evidence that the gut microbiota plays a central role in the elevation of systemic H 2 S levels in the DSS-induced colitis model. Therefore, we utilized this model to investigate the causal relationship between microbial ASR pathway and colitis in vivo.

The gut bacterial ASR pathway contributes to sulfide generation derived from dietary sulfate

Diet plays a pivotal role in shaping the composition and metabolic activity of the gut microbiota. While prior research mainly concentrated on organic sulfur compounds from dietary proteins, the role of inorganic sulfur (SO 4 2− ) remains understudied [ 5 , 27 ]. Carrageenan, a common sulfated polysaccharide food additive, is linked to UC relapse risk and can induce intestinal inflammation in animal model [ 44 , 45 ]. We hypothesized that gut microbiota-mediated carrageenan degradation and subsequent H 2 S production might contribute to its pro-colitis effects.

To test this hypothesis, we initially cultured E. coli WT and mutant strains in M9 medium supplemented with λ-carrageenan as the sole sulfur source, owing to its high sulfur content (32–39%, Fig.  6 A). Surprisingly, both WT and mutant strains demonstrated H 2 S production (Fig.  6 A), which contrasted with previous findings that ∆cysJ mutant couldn’t grow on inorganic SO 4 2− . Given that carrageenan is a biopolymer derived from red algae, it likely contains trace amounts of organic sulfur compounds that can be utilized by ∆cysJ mutant. As a result, we transitioned to DSS, a synthetic sulfated polysaccharide with approximately 18–20% sulfur content (Fig.  6 B), which as mentioned earlier, is a commonly used as inducer in murine colitis models [ 46 ].

Gut bacterial ASR pathway contributes to H 2 S generation derived from dietary sulfated polysaccharide. A E. coli WT and mutant strains formed H 2 S from λ-carrageenan. Molecular formula of λ-Carrageenan (above). Representatives of H 2 S detection using lead acetate strip after growing E. coli WT and mutant strains in M9 medium supplemented with 1% λ-Carrageenan for 16 h aerobically (below). B Schematic outlining H 2 S production from DSS via bacteria. C DSS residue rate in mouse feces compared with abx-treated group in day3 and day5. Mice treatment was described in Fig.  5 C. Unpaired t-test was used for non-pairwise comparisons. D DSS degradation by fecal flora in mice and humans was tested in M9 supplemented with 1% DSS as the sole sulfur source. Medium without bacteria inoculation was used as controls. E Flow chart of H 2 S production from DSS test (left). H 2 S production analysis by E. coli and P. mirabilis strains was examined using lead acetate strip (right). F Growth of E. coli WT and mutant strains on M9 supplemented with DSS as the sole sulfur source. G DSS degradation by E. coli WT and mutant strains was tested in M9 supplemented with 1% DSS as the sole sulfur source. Medium without bacteria inoculation was used as controls. Values are Mean ± SEM from at least three independent experiments. P-value was determined by ordinary one-way ANOVA analysis with Tukey's multiple comparisons

We first tested whether the gut microbiota was involved in DSS degradation. Abx-treated mice exhibited significantly higher fecal DSS levels compared to vehicle control mice, suggesting active DSS degradation by gut microbiota in vivo (Fig.  5 C, 6 C). Ex vivo experiments with mouse and human stool samples showed about 35% of the DSS was consumed after overnight incubation (Fig.  6 D), confirmed microbiota-mediated DSS degradation.

We postulated that DSS degradation releases SO 4 [2−], which are subsequently assimilated by bacteria employing the ASR pathway. To test this hypothesis, we initiated an experiment involving 1% DSS incubation with human/mouse fecal cultures for 16 h, followed by supernatant collection, and subsequent inoculation with E. coli WT and mutant strains (Fig.  6 E). As anticipated, E. coli WT and mutant strains formed H 2 S in the presence of pre-incubated DSS. E. coli ∆cysM mutant produced higher levels of H 2 S than WT and the ∆cysJ mutant, although statistic significance was not attained (Fig.  6 E). P. mirabilis , which carries the asr -gene cluster, generated H 2 S as well (Fig.  6 E, Supplementary dataset 4). Direct culture of E. coli ∆cysJ mutant in M9 medium with DSS as the sole sulfur source did not yield growth (Fig.  6 F). Although E. coli WT and ∆cysM mutant grew on DSS as the sole sulfur source, they showed low utilization and negligible DSS degradation, emphasizing metabolic cross-feeding among bacterial species for efficient sulfated polysaccharide metabolism (Fig.  6 F-G).

The ASR pathway modulates DSS-induced colitis in vivo

SPF mice received Abx-cocktail were subsequently inoculated with E. coli WT, ∆cysJ and ∆cysM , then subjected to DSS administration (Fig.  7 A). Mice colonized with the E. coli ∆cysJ mutant exhibited elevated serum H 2 S and fecal SO 3 2− levels associated with more severe disease phenotype evidenced by a greater body weight loss, a worsening of disease activity, and more severe intestinal inflammation characterized by increased mucosal erosion, crypt destruction and inflammatory cell infiltration in the colon (Fig.  7 B-H). The heightened serum H 2 S levels may be ascribed to the degradation of organic sulfur compounds within the gastrointestinal tract, such as L-cysteine, catalyzed by E. coli ∆cysJ . We found a significant reduction in plasma levels of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), α- and ω-muricholic acid (MCA), and an increase in cholic acid-7-sulfate (CA-7S) in mice colonized with the ∆cysJ strain (Fig. S4A), indicating that alteration of E. coli ASR pathway strongly influenced the bile acid profile in mice.

E. coli ASR pathway modulates intestinal sulfation and DSS-induced colitis in vivo . A Schematic diagram showing the experimental design, timeline of mouse models and sampling strategy. B , C Serum H 2 S and caecum content SO 3 2− levels in mice colonized with E. coli WT, ∆cysJ , and ∆cysM mutant strains. n = 3–5. Two cecum samples from the WT group were contaminated and excluded from the analysis. D Body weight was tracked after DSS administration. n = 5. E Disease activity over the duration of the experiment. F Colonic morphologies and representative H&E-Stained mouse colon sections at the termination of the experiment on day 6. G , H Colon length ( G ) and histological assessment of disease severity ( H ). J Representative micrographs of High-Iron Diamine-Alcian Blue (HID-AB) staining in mouse colon sections. Sulfomucin is stained black/brown and sialomucin is stained blue. K-L Sulfomucin ( K ) and Sulfomucin/Sialomucin ( L ) area ratio among ∆cysJ , ∆cysM and WT groups. M The box-whiskers plot showed abundance of papss2 from CD and control subjects from FAH-SYSU, GSE-83687 and HMP cohorts. CPM, copy per million. The highest and lowest values are denoted by the upper and lower extremities of the vertical line, respectively, while the median is represented by the central horizontal line. * Refer to Fig.  2 B for details regarding the control groups in each cohort. N Relative mRNA levels of papss2 in the colonic tissue of the mice shown in Fig.  7 A. Significance was measured with ordinary one- or two- way ANOVA analysis with Tukey's multiple comparisons. Nonparametric Mann–Whitney test was used for non-pairwise comparisons. Data shown as mean ± SEM. Each point represents an individual mouse

While ∆cysM and WT-colonized mice exhibited similar disease severity, serum H 2 S and fecal SO 3 2− levels, a significant difference in colonic mucin composition was observed. The colonic mucus layer, essential for maintaining homeostasis between resident microbiota and underlying immune cells, is primarily composed of acidomucins, broadly categorized as sialomucins or sulfomucins depending on the presence of sialic acid or sulfate groups [ 47 ]. Colonic tissues from ∆cysM -colonized mice showed a reduced sulfomucin:sialomucin ratio in (F i g.  6 I-K), indicating compromised host sulfation than WT mice. Intestinal sulfation, crucial for colitis protection, is dependent on the host PAPS synthase 2 (PAPSS2), which is central in generating PAPS, the universal sulfonate donor for sulfation [ 41 ]. Our analysis of transcriptomic data from the FAH-SYSU, HMP and GSE83687 cohorts indicated a significant decrease in colonic papss2 gene expression in actively inflamed CD patients compared to non-disease and non-IBD controls (Fig.  7 L). Mice deficient in papss2 have been previously demonstrated to manifest reduced intestinal sulfomucin content, rendering them susceptible to DSS-induced colitis [ 41 ]. Therefore, we reasoned that reduced host sulfate in ∆cysM -colonized mice were due to the downregulation of papss2 . Indeed, we observed decreased colonic mRNA expression of papss2 in both ∆cysJ and ∆cysM groups compared to the WT group, as confirmed by real-time PCR analysis (Fig.  7 M).

The burden of IBD, which encompasses conditions like CD and UC, is substantial and often leads to hospitalizations and surgical interventions [ 1 ]. Current treatments primarily target host inflammatory pathways using non-specific immunosuppressive agents, which can pose significant risks and may not always be effective, necessitating the exploration of alternative approaches [ 48 ]. Mounting evidence suggests that an imbalance in H 2 S production, either insufficient or excessive, can act as an environmental trigger for CD [ 29 , 49 ]. Studies have shown that the administration of H 2 S donors can suppress the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and ameliorate colitis in murine models [ 12 , 50 ]. This raises the possibility that modulating H 2 S concentrations in the gut lumen could be an exciting therapeutic strategy for treating CD [ 51 ]. However, research into this potential link between H 2 S and CD has been hindered by a limited understanding of sulfur metabolism within the human gut.

To address this knowledge gap, we conducted a comprehensive investigation into the functional capacity of both the gut microbiota and host in H 2 S production. Our findings suggest that microbial sulfur metabolism within the human colon is more complex and widespread than previously recognized. We analyzed metagenomic data from independent IBD cohorts and found that CD is associated with an increase in microbial generation through ASR pathways, as evidenced by the increased abundance and prevalence of asr -associated genes. Ex vivo fecal culture confirmed ASR-mediated H 2 S generation is more functionally active in stool samples from CD patients. This aligns with the “oxygen hypothesis”, which suggests that chronic inflammation of the intestinal walls leads to an increased release of hemoglobin carrying oxygen and reactive oxygen species into the intestinal lumen [ 52 ]. This process creates a microenvironment that favors facultative anaerobes. Using E. coli as the model organism, we generated ∆cysJ and ∆cysM mutants deficient in the ASR pathway. We conducted in vitro and in vivo studies to validate that the bacterial ASR pathway modulates cell viability, host sulfate homeostasis, and colitis pathogenesis. Our investigation has brought into focus the pivotal role played by ASR pathway in reshaping the utilization of L-cysteine and generation of H 2 S. The deletion of cysJ gene in E. coli amplifies H 2 S production from L-cysteine. The heightened metabolism of L-cysteine by gut microbes and increased abundance of cysM has recently been associated with CRC [ 34 ]. We noticed that asrABC is enriched in CD subjects, warranting further investigation into its potential association with CD.

In contrast to previous research, our findings suggest that the DSR pathway is unlikely to be the primary contributor to the elevated fecal microbial sulfidogenic capacity in CD. Prior research on exogenous H 2 S generation primarily centered on DSR, based on the culturing and sequencing of Desulfovibrio genus, sulfate-reducing bacteria frequently found in the human and animal gut [ 28 , 53 ]. However, Anantharaman et al. [ 54 ] revealed that dsrAB -mediated dissimilatory sulfur metabolism is predicted in a much broader diversity of bacterial and archaeal groups than previously recognized, primarily due to horizontal gene transfer, such as Bilophila wadsworthia , an opportunistic pathogen inhabiting the gut. Consequently, it is more reasonable to predict DSR-mediated H 2 S generation based on dsr -gene cluster quantification, rather than relying solely on Desulfovibrio quantification. The gut microbiota not only generates H 2 S but also has the capability to oxidize it using sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase and persulfide dioxygenase [ 55 , 56 ]. Further studies are warranted to gain a comprehensive understanding of gut microbiota sulfur metabolism.

Analysis of intestinal biopsy transcriptomic data from multiple IBD cohorts has unveiled a compromised endogenous sulfidogenic capacity in CD patients. This is evident from the downregulation of key genes, specifically cbs , cth , mpst and selenbp1 . Severe CD manifestations in a child with cbs deficiency has been reported [ 57 ]. Reduced expression of cbs mpst and selenbp1 has been linked to the exacerbation of inflammation-induced intestinal barrier injury in UC and CD [ 58 , 59 , 60 ],. Animal studies have provided additional evidence highlighting the critical role of endogenous H 2 S generation in colitis. MPST −/− and MPST ± mice exhibit exacerbated DSS-induced colitis [ 59 ]. Inhibition of endogenous H 2 S synthesis through the use of CBS and CTH inhibitors, such as β-cyanoalanine, propargylglycine, and O-carboxymethyl-hydroxylamine hemihydrochloride, has been demonstrated to worsen colitis in mouse model [ 12 ]. A correlation has been identified in immune deficiency and impaired H 2 S synthesis. Numerous studies have demonstrated that IL-10 plays an essential role in maintaining mucosal immunological tolerance in patients with IBD [ 61 ]. Flannigan et al.'s study with IL-10-/- mice, which spontaneously develop colitis, revealed a significant impairment in colonic H 2 S synthesis. This impairment was reversed by the administration of recombinant IL-10, confirmed an interplay between IL-10 and H 2 S synthesis [ 62 ].

Considerable efforts are underway to investigate the potential contributions of dietary factors to the pathophysiology of IBD [ 63 , 64 ]. The interplay of genetic, environmental, microbial, and immunological factors makes diet a crucial aspect of IBD etiology [ 65 ]. Dietary sulfur intake, primarily from inorganic sulfate and sulfur-containing amino acids (SAAs) such as methionine, cysteine, and taurine, plays a significant role [ 5 , 27 ]. However, estimations of dietary sulfur content often fail to account for sulfur-containing food modifiers or additives, such as carrageenan and sulfiting agents ( e.g. , potassium bisulfate, sodium bisulfate) [ 66 ]. Daily intake of inorganic sulfate is estimated to range from 1.5 to 16.0 mmol [ 66 ]. Interestingly, fecal sulfate (and sulfide) excretion is minimal compared to dietary intake, suggesting that sulfate is actively removed from the fecal stream during passage through the gut by both host and gut microbiota [ 67 ]. Carrageenan, a sulfated polysaccharide, contains approximately 15% to 40% sulfur, depending on the specific type of carrageenan ( e.g., kappa, iota, lambda) and the seaweed species used for extraction [ 68 ]. Carrageenan is widely used as a food additive in the Western diet, and its consumption has substantially increased over the past 50 years, paralleling the rising prevalence of IBD [ 69 ]. Successful dietary interventions that induced CD remission have excluded processed foods containing carrageenan, further supporting the notion that carrageenan may trigger or exacerbate inflammation in IBD [ 70 ]. In animal models, carrageenan administration consistently induces intestinal ulcerations resembling human IBD histopathologically [ 45 ]. We reasoned that SO 4 2− released during carrageenan degradation are utilized by gut microbes, contributing to IBD pathogenesis. To investigate, we used synthetic sulfated polysaccharide DSS due to carrageenan's organic sulfur contaminants. The DSS-induced colitis model is known for consistently mimicking epithelial damage seen in IBD, underscoring the complex interplay between dietary elements, gut microbiota, and disease pathogenesis [ 46 ]. DSS mouse colitis model is known for its variability even among genetically identical mice and across different mouse facilities. A recent study found that gut microbiota plays a significant role in driving this variability within the model [ 71 ].

Through in vivo and ex vivo studies, we've demonstrated that the gut microbiota can degrade DSS, releasing SO 4 2− that fuel bacterial ASR pathways. This alteration in microbial sulfur metabolism ultimately modulates disease severity. Our study highlights the crucial role of gut microbial ASR metabolism in dietary sulfate metabolism and susceptibility to colitis. It's important to acknowledge the significant daily intake of inorganic sulfate and the potential exacerbation of microbial H 2 S production by carrageenan used as food additives in processed foods, which can lead to mucosal damage. Furthermore, it is worth noting that CD pathogenesis is unlikely to be solely attributed to the presence and activities of single species. Genes associated with the ASR pathway exhibited varying distribution patterns among human bacteria. Additionally, in DSS degradation, mouse and human fecal microbial communities are more efficient than E. coli monocultures, suggesting cross-feeding among different bacterial species for the efficient metabolism of sulfated polysaccharides.

In summary, our study reveals the extensive diversity of microbial sulfur metabolism pathways. These findings highlight the association between CD and reduced endogenous H 2 S production alongside increased gut microbial H 2 S generation, primarily via the ASR pathway. Microbial ASR-mediated dietary sulfate metabolism emerges as a crucial factor in colitis. Thus, it is essential to maintain the homeostasis of microbial assimilatory sulfate reduction. Further research is needed to elucidate the regulation of the cysteine regulon and its impact on CD. Our research sheds light on the complex interaction between diet, the gut microbiota, and inorganic sulfate metabolism, highlighting their potential as promising therapeutic targets for managing CD.

Materials and Methods

Human subjects.

All study protocols abided by the Declaration of Helsinki principles and were approved by Ethical Committees of the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University. Intestinal biopsies and stool specimens were collected as part of the FAH-SYSU cohort study (2016[113]). Subject stool samples were collected at the FAH, SYSU gastroenterology clinic and stored at -80 °C immediately. For culturing assays, fecal samples were collected and diluted to make a 10% (w/v) fecal slurry by resuspension of the feces in 10% (w/v) glycerol solution, and aliquots were stored in cryogenic vials at -80 °C until use. The exclusion criteria applied to all groups were as follows: recent (< 3 months prior) use of any antibiotic therapy, current extreme diet ( e.g. , parenteral nutrition or macrobiotic diet), known history of malignancy, current consumption of probiotics, any gastrointestinal tract surgery leaving permanent residua ( e.g. , gastrectomy, bariatric surgery, colectomy), or significant liver, renal, or peptic ulcer disease.

Analyses of asr - and dsr -associated genes in Human Microbiome project (HMP) references genomes

HMP references genomes (1635 genomes as of June 30, 2023) were selected and analyzed through the IMG program on the Joint Genome Institute website ( https://img.jgi.doe.gov/) [ 72 ]. The functions (Supplementary dataset 1) were used to carry out a “Function Profile” against all selected reference genomes to identify those carrying asr - and dsr -associated genes. Hits were manually inspected. Genomes carrying sulfidogenic gene(s) were selected to generate a phylogenetic tree using phyloT ( https://phylot.biobyte.de/ ) based on NCBI taxonomy and visualized using iTOL [ 73 ]. Genome and gene IMG ID are available in Supplementary dataset 4.

Metagenomic data analysis

We used ShortBRED [ 31 ] to accurately profile the abundance of genes involved in the H 2 S generation in metagenomes sourced from the FAH-SYSU (BioProject: PRJNA793776) [ 74 ] and PRISM (BioProject: PRJNA400072) [ 3 ] datasets. We initially compiled a set of identified bacterial sulfidogenic genes as our query sequences (Supplementary dataset 6). Subsequently, ShortBRED-Identify was employed to generate markers for these key bacterial sulfidogenic gene sequences using UniRef90 (May, 2023) as a reference list with an 85% cluster ID threshold. These markers were applied in ShortBRED-Quantify to assess gene abundance in paired metagenomes, which had previously undergone quality control via the KneadData workflow ( http://huttenhower.sph.harvard.edu/kneaddata ). The output from ShortBRED-Quantify was expressed as reads per million reads per kilobase million (RPKM).

Cultivation of wild type bacteria and mutants

Escherichia coli MG1655 wild type, mutants (Δ cysJ and Δ cysM ) and Proteus mirabilis ATCC 29906 were generally cultivated in Luria broth (LB) containing tryptone (10 g· L −1 ), yeast extract (5 g· L −1 ) and NaCl (10 g· L −1 ). To characterize the growth of E. coli wild type and mutant strains, they were cultivated in 5 mL LB overnight at 37 °C in a shaking incubator (250 rpm) and the pellet was collected by centrifugation at 3,000 × g for 10 min. Cell pellets were then washed and re-suspended in fresh M9 media (inoculum size 1:20, v/v ). The defined M9 medium contained NaCl (0.5 g·L −1 ), KH 2 PO 4 (3 g·L −1 ), Na 2 HPO 4 ·12H 2 O (6 g·L −1 ), NH 4 Cl (1 g·L −1 ), MgCl 2 (95 mg·L −1 ), CaCl 2 (11.1 mg·L −1 ) and glucose (0.1%, w/v). 1 mM Na 2 SO 4 , Na 2 S 2 O 3 , L-cysteine or DSS was used as sole sulfur source. 200 µL samples were collected from each tube at the indicated time points, and their optical density at 600 nm was measured in flat-bottom 96-well plates (200 µL per well). Sulfite in the supernatant was quantified as described in Sulfite Quantification section.

Allele-exchange mutagenesis of ΔcysJ and ΔcysM in E. coli MG1655

DNA fragments (~ 1 kb) corresponding to the upstream and downstream regions of the target gene were amplified and a subsequent overlap PCR was used to fuse the two fragments which were then ligated into suicide plasmid harboring kanamycin resistance cassette, oriT (mob), sacB counter selection marker and R6K origin of replication using the In-Fusion HD Cloning kit (Clontech). The ligated suicidal plasmid (pKmobSac) was transformed into the donor strain, E. coli S17 λpir. In parallel, E. coli MG1655 was transformed with a temperature-sensitive ampicillin-resistance plasmid carrying oriR101 origin of replication (p101-Amp). The suicidal plasmid (pKmobSac) was then transformed into E. coli MG1655 through conjugation and the resulted conjugants were screened at room temperature on LB agar plates containing ampicillin at 100 ng/µL (to select against E. coli S17 donor cells) and kanamycin at 50 ng/µL. One single-crossover integrant was then selected and re-streaked on LSW-Sucrose agar plate (tryptone 10 g/L, yeast extract 5 g/L, glycerol 5 mL/L, NaCl 0.4 g/L, sucrose 100 g/L and agar 20 g/L) [ 75 ] supplemented with ampicillin at 100 ng/µL to select for the correct double cross-over mutants. One mutant was then selected, re-streaked, and confirmed for the loss of the conjugated plasmid through Sanger sequencing and its ability to grow in presence of ampicillin but not kanamycin. The knockout E. coli MG1655 mutants were then cured from p101-amp plasmid through growing at 37 °C.

H 2 S quantification

Plasma H 2 S levels were quantified using a modified methylene blue method. In brief, ZnAC was added to 100 μL of plasma samples to precipitate H 2 S, HS − , S 2− , and plasma proteins. Subsequently, the ZnS pellet was re-dissolved by adding 130 μL of 2% N, N-dimethyl-p-phenylenediamine and 130 μL of 20% trichloroacetic acid. Methylene blue formation was initiated by addition of FeCl 3 ·6H 2 O and quantified at 665 nm using a spectrophotometer. Microbial culture H 2 S levels were quantified by Modified S ulfur, I ndole, M otility (SIM)-medium and Lead Acetate Test Strip. See online supplemental material for further details.

Dextran sulfate quantification

To measure DSS concentration in mouse fecal pellets, Sample aliquots (50 µL) were injected onto a size exclusion column (SEC-150, 3 μM, 7.8 × 300 mm, Welch, Cat # 00237–21052) and eluted at a flow rate of 1.5 mL/min. The mobile phase consisted of 25 mM KH 2 PO 4 , 25 mM K 2 HPO 4 ·3H 2 O, 50 mM KCl, and 10% ethanol. The eluent passed through a post-column derivatization instrument (LABRAT, LYM-1060), where it mixed with a 10 μg/mL dimethylene blue zinc chloride double salt (DMB, Sigma, 34108) delivered directly by pump A connected to the online mixer. Detection was performed using a VWD detector at 530 nm wavelength, with data collected via OpenLAB CDS chromatography data software (1260 Infinity II, Agilent, Hong Kong, China).

Sulfite quantification

150 μL of culture supernatant or caecum slurry extract was mixed with 350 μL distilled water and 10 μL 10 M NaOH. Sulfite was quantified using the Total Sulfite Assay Kit (JC-HX-04, HK, China) based on the Pararosaniline Method, following the manufacturer's instructions. The reaction formed a purple-red complex, pararosaniline methylsulfonic acid, which exhibited maximal absorption at 550 nm, and absorbance was measured after a 10-min incubation using a plate reader (UV-2450, SHIMADZU, Japan).

Cell culture and viability assay

The NCM460 human colon epithelial cell line (RRID: CVCL_0460) was maintained in RPMI 1640 basic medium (Gibco, Thermo Fisher Scientific, MA, USA) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), 100 µg/mL penicillin G, and 100 µg/mL streptomycin sulfate (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA). Cells were cultured at 37 °C in a 5% CO 2 humidified incubator.

Cell viability was analyzed by live/dead staining or Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK8, GLPBIO, GK10001) according to the manufacturer's instructions. For live/dead staining, NCM460 cells (4 × 10 3 /well) in 96-well microplates were cultured for 48 h in 100 μL of 1640 medium. After washing with PBS, cells were prepared for bacterial co-culture. E. coli strains were cultivated overnight at 37 °C in LB, washed in sulfur-free M9 media, and resuspended in M9 medium with L-cysteine or Na 2 S 2 O 3 as the sole sulfur source. Cells were co-cultured with these bacteria for 2 h (150 μL bacterial culture per well). Afterward, cells were stained with 30 μL calcein-AM/PI working solution (2 μM calcein-AM and 4.5 μM propidium iodide) at 37 °C for 20 min, followed by fixation with 0.4% polyformaldehyde. Quadruplicate experiments were conducted, and images of cells were acquired and analyzed using an Olympus IX83 fluorescence microscope (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan). All experiments were performed in quadruplicate. Positive cell percentages and average fluorescence intensity were determined using Image-Pro Plus 6.0. For CCK8 assay, NCM460 cells (5 × 10 3 /well) were cultured overnight in 96-well microplates and treated with 50 μL of bacterial supernatants from M9 medium cultures with 2 mM Na 2 SO 4 as the sole sulfur source. After a 6-h incubation, cells were washed, incubated with 100 μL of RPMI 1640 Medium plus 10 μL CCK-8 reagent, and absorbance at 450 nm was monitored. All experiments were performed in six replicates and blank wells without cells served as controls.

Animal studies

Male SPF C57BL/6 mice (6–8 weeks) were maintained on a standard normal rodent diet (Synergy Bio, AIN-93 M, Jiangsu, China). All the mice used in this study were bred and raised in the animal facility of the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University. Mice (n = 6) received antibiotic cocktail (Abx) [ 76 ] for 5 days prior to 2% DSS ad libitum in drinking water for 6 days. Mice (n = 6) without Abx pre-treatment was used as vehicle control. Fecal samples from days 3 and 5 were processed by mixing 0.05 g of fresh feces with 500 μL PBS, vortexed for 3 min, and centrifuged at 14,000 × g for 10 min. The supernatant was used for DSS quantification as described in DSS quantification section. For E. coli gavage experiment, mice received Abx-water were subsequently administered E. coli wild type and mutant strains via oral gavage at a dose of 1.0 × 10 9  cfu/200 µL each. DSS was supplied in drinking water at 3% (w/v) for 6 days. Caecum was harvested for sulfite quantification as described in Sulfite Quantification section.

Mice were monitored daily for body weight, stool consistency and stool bleeding. Mice were euthanized by cervical dislocation after 5–6 days of DSS treatment. Colon samples were collected for histological, western blot and qRT-PCR analysis. See online supplemental material for further details.

Bacterial H 2 S Production from λ-Carrageenan and DSS

Bacteria from the LB start culture were harvested, washed, and inoculated in 5 mL sulfur-free M9 medium with 1% λ-carrageenan (inoculum size 1:200, v/v ), incubated overnight at 37 °C while a suspended lead acetate strip monitored H 2 S generation. Medium without inoculum was set up as a negative control.

To assess DSS degradation, mouse and human fecal samples (2 CD subjects and 2 healthy individuals) were cultured in 10 mL LB medium (OD 600  = 1.0). Bacterial pellets were resuspended in 5 mL sulfur-free M9 medium with 1% DSS. DSS levels in supernatants were measured via SEC-HPLC, and H 2 S production was monitored with suspended lead acetate strips.

To investigate H 2 S production from DSS by E. coli WT, mutants, and P. mirabilis , cultures were grown overnight in 10 mL LB medium at 37 °C, 250 rpm. After harvesting, cells were resuspended in 1 mL sulfur-free M9 medium. Pre-incubated DSS medium was prepared using supernatant from M9 medium with 1% DSS and cultures from two CD subjects, as described earlier. Subsequently, 200 µL of this pre-incubated DSS medium and sulfur-free M9 medium with 1% DSS were inoculated with 50 µL of bacterial cultures. Incubation was conducted at 37 °C in a 96-well plate with lead acetate strips for sulfide quantification (see Sulfide Quantification, Lead Acetate Strip section).

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were performed with Prism v.8.0 (GraphPad). For two-group comparisons, the statistical significance was determined by unpaired t test or nonparametric Mann–Whitney test as indicated. Multiple group comparisons were made by ANOVA for most of the studies as indicated. Each data point denotes an individual human subject, animal, or biological replicate.

Availability of data and materials

All study data are included in the article and/or SI Appendix. Data are available in a public, open access repository. Gene expression profiling by high-throughput sequencing data have been deposited in Gene Expression Omnibus accession no. (GSE83687 and GSE131032) and Biostudies accession no. (E-MTAB-54674). Metagenomic sequences for the PRISM is available via SRA with BioProject number PRJNA400072. Raw metagenomic data of the FAH-SYSU cohort were deposited in the NCBI public repository (Bioproject #PRJNA793776). HMP IBD metagenomics and transcriptomic data can be accessed at https://ibdmdb.org/tunnel/public/summary.html . The raw RNA-seq data of FAH-SYSU cohort have been deposited in the Genome Sequence Archive [ 77 ] in National Genomics Data Center [ 78 ], China National Center for Bioinformation/Beijing Institute of Genomics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (GSA-Human: HRA007763) that are publicly accessible at https://ngdc.cncb.ac.cn/gsa-human . All plasmids, bacterial mutant strains, and reagents generated in this study are available from the lead contact upon completing Material Transfer Agreement. Any additional information required to reanalyze the data reported in this paper is available from the lead contact upon request.

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Acknowledgements

We thank the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University Research Computing for computational resources, maintenance, and support. We thank the First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University Mass Spectrometry Core Laboratory, especially Yuanmei Ye, for their assistance with mass spectrometry analysis.

This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (82341217 to M.C. 82100577 to Y.Z., 82270579 to R. F., 82370551 to M. C.), Guangxi Natural Science Foundation (2024GXNSFFA010009 to R.F.).

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Wanrong Luo and Min Zhao contributed equally to this work.

Minhu Chen, Rui Feng and Yijun Zhu contributed equally to this work.

Authors and Affiliations

Department of Gastroenterology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, No.58 Zhongshan Er Road, Room 1209, Guangzhou, 510080, China

Wanrong Luo, Liyuan Xiang, Xueting Wu, Shu Xu, Xiaozhi Li, Minhu Chen & Rui Feng

Institute of Precision Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

Wanrong Luo, Yang Gao & Yijun Zhu

Department of Gastroenterology, Shenzhen No.3 People’s Hospital, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China

Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA

Mohammed Dwidar

Center for Microbiome and Human Health, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA

Bioinformatics Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands

Marnix H. Medema

School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK

Hendrik Schäfer

Key Laboratory of Human Microbiome and Chronic Diseases (Sun Yat-Sen University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong, China

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M.C., M.D., R. F., and Y.Z. designed research; W.L., M.Z., W.X., R.F., S.X., X.L., L.X., X.L, and Y. G. performed research; W.L., M.Z., M.D. and X.L. analyzed data; and M.D. M.H.M, H.S., and Y.Z. wrote the paper.

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Correspondence to Minhu Chen , Rui Feng or Yijun Zhu .

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Luo, W., Zhao, M., Dwidar, M. et al. Microbial assimilatory sulfate reduction-mediated H 2 S: an overlooked role in Crohn’s disease development. Microbiome 12 , 152 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-024-01873-2

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-024-01873-2

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Mytishchi , city, centre of a rayon (sector), Moscow oblast (region), western Russia , situated northeast of the city of Moscow. Mytishchi’s importance in the past derived from its position on the road between Moscow and the Trinity–St. Sergius Monastery. It was the source of Moscow’s water supply until the 20th century. In 1908 Mytishchi became the site of the first artificial-fibre factory in Russia. Since its incorporation in 1925, the city has become a centre of machine building, especially transport machinery. Pop. (2006 est.) 161,811.