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And to make it even more confusing, some institutions or departments will even use the terms differently!
But what are we all really talking about when we refer to a dissertation or a thesis? And does the term you use actually impact on what you actually end up writing?
This article covers the main differences between a dissertation and thesis, and how the terms may differ depending on the course, university and location.
A dissertation is a piece of academic writing centred around original research. In their dissertations, students review existing research but also build on this with unique hypotheses and approaches.
A dissertation can be used to disprove a previous theory or take existing theories and research in a new direction. It is a large research project that is usually completed at the end of the academic year.
Usually, a dissertation starts with a dissertation proposal , which is approved by a study supervisor. The student then completes the research and writes up the methodology , findings, evaluations and conclusions from the research.
Dissertations can be undertaken by both undergraduate and postgraduate students. At undergraduate level the word count is around 5,000 to 8,000 and at postgraduate level it is usually 10,000 to 15,000.
A thesis is an academic paper covering an in-depth review of existing research in a particular discipline. It will involve an academic argument, although it doesn’t usually require original research from the student. The existing research is used to support and evaluate the proposed argument.
A thesis is not usually required at undergraduate level and is more common at postgraduate level.
This large piece of written-up research is usually completed at the end of a masters degree. Some masters courses require a thesis to graduate.
The main purpose of a writing a dissertation is to add new findings to the existing literature in that field with original research. Whereas theses tend to evaluate existing findings, as their purpose is to demonstrate knowledge and skills within the course’s subject matter.
In terms of how long it takes to complete a thesis or dissertation project, a thesis is typically shorter than a dissertation since there are fewer original research aspects involved. This means that it will probably take less time. However, this can differ depending on the university and the course.
Dissertations sometimes require an oral presentation, known as a viva , where findings are showcased to academics who ask questions about the research. Theses usually do not require this.
The word ‘dissertation’ originates from the Latin word ‘dissertare’, meaning to continue to discuss and the Latin word ‘disserere’ which means to examine and discuss .
The word ‘thesis’ originally comes from the Greek word ‘tithenai’, which means to place or position. This later evolved into the Latin ‘thesis’, which had two meanings: an abstract question and to put something forward .
Although there are some key differences between a dissertation and a thesis, there are also similarities.
Though, the difficulty of a thesis or dissertation depends on your personal skill set. For instance, students that learn better by developing their own research ideas may find a dissertation easier than a thesis.
Difficulty can also depend on the level of the course. For instance, a thesis completed at doctorate level is likely to require more advanced knowledge than a thesis at undergraduate level.
The difficulty of either type of research project can also vary depending on the subject matter and the resources available to you.
Both dissertations and theses can be challenging, but don’t be put off by the thought of having to produce a larger body of work. Your supervisor will be there to support you.
The terms ‘dissertation’ and ‘thesis’ are sometimes used interchangeably, and the meanings can differ depending on the country and university.
There are plenty of differences between the variant forms of English, such as British English and American English. Around the world, different English-speaking countries use the words ‘dissertation’ and ‘thesis’ differently.
Generally, nations with British-based academic systems of university education use dissertation to refer to the body of work at the end of an undergraduate or masters level degree . British-based institutions generally use thesis to refer to the body of work produced at the end of a PhD .
In countries and institutions that are based on the American system of education, the words tend to be used in reverse. However, institutions and even different departments in the same university can use the words differently.
If you're in doubt, then stick with the way the university and department you're currently attending use the terms.
In the UK, the terms ‘dissertation’ and ‘thesis’ are generally applied equally across institutions and subjects.
However, in the US the meanings can differ between different subject areas. The term ‘thesis’ can be used to describe a piece of original research in US academia, whereas original research is usually referred to as a dissertation in the UK.
If you’re studying in the US , you may complete a thesis at masters level in another subject area that involves wide-ranging reading and understanding rather than original research and still call it a thesis.
With so much interchangeability between the two terms, it’s understandable that there is often confusion in the debate between a dissertation vs thesis, as there is no clear answer.
Always read specific course details to understand exactly what’s involved in the research project that you are required to produce.
Georgetown University in the US refers to a dissertation and a thesis as both adding to your 'field of knowledge' . The University of Edinburgh recommends that you refer to your individual course handbook for guides to dissertations, so each department will have their own guidelines to using the word dissertation and thesis. At University College London they refer to a thesis as the piece of work at the end of an EngD, MPhil, MD(Res) or PhD, which are all research degrees.
Ultimately, it doesn't really matter which word you use as both refer to a serious and lengthy piece of work where you can show what you have researched and understood as part of your postgraduate studies.
As long as you are referring to the piece of work that you are compiling in the same way as those in your department then you will avoid confusion.
It is important to check whether the research piece involves original research or expects you to build upon existing research.
Writing a dissertation or a thesis requires a substantial amount of planning and work and you don't want to let yourself down at the last hurdle with poor presentation of your work, so always keep an eye on your course or department guidelines.
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Core Differences
We Provide Comparison for All Terms
What is the main difference between essay and report? An essay pertains to a literary technique wherein nearly all aspects of a subject are thoroughly explored or articulated. A report serve as the documentation and comprehensive analysis of the discoveries and suggestions derived from practical research.
In the realm of academic writing, students frequently come across two prevalent types of assignments: essays and reports. While these assignments share certain resemblances, they also possess marked distinctions.
This piece aims to delve into the contrasting characteristics of essays and reports, with a particular emphasis on their objectives, structures, and writing approaches.
To explore, argue, or present a viewpoint. | To convey information, findings, or data. | |
Typically divided into introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion. | Often structured with sections like title page, executive summary, introduction, methodology, findings, and conclusion. | |
Varies in length but usually concise, around 1,000 to 2,500 words. | Can be shorter or longer, depending on the topic and purpose, ranging from a few pages to extensive documents. | |
More narrative, often persuasive or analytical, with a personal voice. | Tends to be more formal and objective, with a focus on conveying facts and data. | |
General or academic audience; may aim to engage and persuade. | Specific audience, such as business professionals, policymakers, or researchers; aims to inform or make recommendations. | |
May include citations but often more flexible in citation style. | Requires consistent and formal citation, following a specific style guide (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago). | |
Allows for the expression of personal opinions and subjective analysis. | Typically avoids personal opinions, emphasizing objective presentation of data. | |
Often includes a restatement of the thesis and final thoughts. | Concludes with summaries, findings, recommendations, or actionable insights. | |
Less common; may use subheadings for organization. | Frequently uses headings and subheadings for clear organization and readability. | |
May include visuals like charts, graphs, or images to illustrate points. | Frequently includes visual elements to support data and findings, such as charts, tables, and graphs. |
An essay is a written composition that presents a focused and organized discussion or exploration of a particular topic, idea, or argument. Essays are a common form of academic, literary, and creative writing and are characterized by several key features:
Thesis Statement : An essay typically begins with a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines the main argument or purpose of the essay.
Structure : Essays follow a specific structure, including an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. This structure allows for the logical presentation of ideas and arguments.
Supporting Evidence : Arguments and claims in an essay are supported by evidence, which may include examples, data, quotes, or references to authoritative sources.
Coherence : Essays are expected to be coherent, with ideas flowing logically from one point to the next. Transitions and topic sentences help maintain this coherence.
Analysis : Essays often involve critical thinking and analysis, where the writer evaluates, interprets, or critiques the topic or subject matter.
Clarity and Conciseness : Effective essays are clear, concise, and free from unnecessary jargon or verbosity. They communicate ideas effectively to the intended audience.
Variety of Types : Essays come in various forms, such as argumentative, persuasive, expository, narrative, and descriptive, each with its own unique characteristics and objectives.
A report is a formal and structured document that presents information, data, findings, or recommendations on a specific topic, issue, or problem. Reports are typically written for a targeted audience, such as business professionals, government officials, researchers, or stakeholders, and they serve various purposes:
Information Dissemination : Reports convey objective and factual information, often gathered through research, investigation, or analysis.
Problem-Solving : Some reports are designed to address specific problems or challenges, offering solutions or recommendations.
Decision-Making : Reports provide the necessary data and analysis to support informed decision-making processes.
Documentation : They serve as records of events, actions, or research, preserving information for future reference.
Accountability : Reports may be used to document the performance or progress of projects, organizations, or individuals, ensuring accountability.
In conclusion, while essays and reports are both written forms of communication, they serve distinct purposes and exhibit notable differences in their characteristics and structures.
Essays are primarily vehicles for presenting, analyzing, and discussing ideas or viewpoints, often incorporating subjective analysis and personal opinions.
In contrast, reports are formal documents intended to convey objective information, research findings, or recommendations, maintaining objectivity and utilizing data and past research.
The structural variances are evident, with essays featuring a continuous flow of text divided into paragraphs, while reports are organized into sections with informative headings for clarity. Additionally, reports often employ visual aids like charts and tables, enhancing data presentation.
Finally, their conclusions differ significantly, as essays express personal opinions and optimism, while reports provide impartial conclusions with recommendations for further research or action.
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What is the difference between an essay and a report.
Reports are typically used to present the findings from a particular project, experiment, or investigation in a systematic way. Essays are used to develop a discussion of a topic or build an argument.
Reports present information in a different way from an essay. Whilst essays are generally quite fluid in terms of structure, enabling the author to explore a topic through a series of paragraphs, a report will be highly structured with section headings and subheadings that have a clear function. Reports often use tables, bullet points and graphics to present information.
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However, the main difference is that while an academic research proposal is for a specific line of research, a project proposal is for approval of a relatively smaller enterprise or scientific scheme; most often, project proposals are written with the intent of obtaining support in the form of budget penalties and permission to devote time and effort to the chosen project. Here it must be remembered that the forms, procedures and principles of academic research proposals are much more rigorous than for project proposals; it goes without saying that even the standard is much more demanding than in the project proposals.
While format, length, and content may vary, the overall goal of academic research proposals and project proposals remains the same: approval by supervisors, academic committees, or reviews . This article will discuss the complexities of academic research proposals and project proposals, thereby helping readers understand the differences between the two. The following steps describe a simple and effective research paper writing strategy. You will most likely start your research with a working, preliminary, or preliminary thesis, which you will refine until you are sure where the evidence leads. The thesis says what you believe and what you are going to prove. Good thesis statement distinguishes a thoughtful research project from a mere review of the facts. A good experimental thesis will help you focus your search for information.
Before embarking on serious research, do some preliminary research to determine if there is enough information for your needs and to set the context for your research. Now that the direction of your research is clear to you, you can start searching for material on your topic. Choose a topic on which you can find an acceptable amount of information. People wishing to publish the results of a quality assurance project should read this guide. Worksheets for assessing whether a quality assurance activity is also exploratory The following are two worksheets to help researchers determine whether to consult with the IRB before starting a quality assurance project.
The main similarity between a thesis and a research project is that both can be inserted as academic papers. To understand the difference between a thesis and a research project, it is necessary to understand the similarities between the two terms. A dissertation is much more thorough than a research project; is a collection of various studies carried out in the field of study, which includes a critical analysis of their results. It aims to present and justify the necessity and importance of conducting research, as well as to present practical ways of conducting research. In addition, he should discuss the main issues and questions that the researcher will raise during the course of the study. Take on a topic that can be adequately covered in the given project format. A strong thesis is provocative; takes a stand and justifies the discussion you present.
It contains the introduction, problematic hypothesis, objectives, hypothesis, methodology, rationale, and implications of the research project. The information collected during the study culminates in an application document such as policy recommendations, curriculum development, or program evaluation. The purpose of a design study is to collect information that will help solve an identifiable problem in a specific context. The purpose of design research is not to add to our understanding of research on a topic. The key difference between design research and a dissertation is that design research does not start from a research problem. The main difference between a terminating project and a thesis is that a terminating project addresses a specific problem, problem, or problem in your field of study, while a dissertation attempts to create new knowledge. The final project focuses on a narrow and specific topic, while the dissertation addresses a broader and more general issue.
The main difference between projects and programs is usually that projects are designed to produce results while programs are designed to achieve business results. Obviously, there are some similarities between projects and programs, namely that they are both interested in change, i.e., in creating something new, and both require the use of a team to achieve a goal. To make the difference between project and programme more concrete, let's look at a practical example of the difference between project and programme. But to understand the difference, you need to start by understanding the definitions of projects and programmes. In a project portfolio, each project is responsible for managing multiple projects. The figure also highlights the differences between the project management level and the program and portfolio.
Program Managers Project Managers Program Managers create the overall plans that are used to manage projects. Project management has a defined timeline with a defined deliverable that determines the end date. The program manager defines the vision, which is especially important when he oversees several projects at the same time. Program managers need to think strategically, especially as they often have to negotiate between different organizations and sometimes between multiple projects interacting over a program. Indeed, some of these projects can be so large and complex that they are programs in their own right. Thus, our software projects will only be one of the projects controlled by the program. Project Report Research Report Mainly focuses on achieving the desired outcome of the project. The focus is on providing information derived from data and problem analysis. A project report, as the name suggests, is simply a report that provides useful and important information to make better business decisions and also helps in project management.
Conversely, a research report defines what is being sought, sources of data collection, how data is collected (for example, a research report focuses on the results of a completed research work. The research proposal has been submitted, evaluated, taking into account a number of factors, such as the associated costs , potential impact, soundness of the project implementation plan This is usually a request for research funding on the subject of study. Instead, the research report is prepared after the project is completed. The research proposal is written in the future, the time used in the research report is past because it is written in the third person. Research proposals are approximately 4-10 pages in length. On the other hand, research consists of proving the main thesis backed up by evidence and data. Originality and personal research are important components of a dissertation. This dissertation engages the student in stimulating or provocative research and shows a level of thinking that opens up new horizons. Researching and writing an article will be more enjoyable if you are writing about something interesting.
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Introduction.
Project management is a vital part of the governance structure and is actively used in South Africa in science and defense development, information technology, and construction. Many project management methods and techniques have been directly and successfully applied in the administration and public sector, while the terminology can still remain unclear. The paper aims to examine the difference between a project, a sub-project, and a program used and implemented by project managers in the Department of Public Works and to give examples of such projects. The executive who has been appointed to oversee the construction of a community hall needs to explain this information to a community meeting that is being held to initiate this project.
The meaning of each concept must be defined separately to determine the difference between each one of them. First, to understand what a project is, it is essential to distinguish between a project and a process. A process is a repeatable task or operation that produces an expected result. Examples of a process are printing out documents, selling products, and evaluating a subordinate’s work; a process’s main characteristic is repetitiveness (Bogdanova et al., 2020:284-285). Moreover, the result of a process is predictable, while a project is a set of actions, limited in time and aimed at solving a problem or achieving a specific goal. It is also important to note that a project, unlike a process, always has a high degree of uncertainty, although it consists of known processes. Thus, a project is a unique task or group of tasks with a goal, purpose, beginning, and end (Moutinho & Rabechini, 2020:1262). Accordingly, examples of a project corresponding to the processes examples: writing a program for printing documents, building a store to sell goods, and developing new methods for evaluating the effectiveness of employees.
A project program is a group of related projects of the same type, with the same focus, or carried out by the same team. It may also include sub-programs – smaller programs grouped by more clearly defined characteristics. For example, the state’s Mpumalanga development program includes a sub-program to develop the downtown area, which already includes the construction of a community hall. On the other hand, a sub-project is a part of the project as a sub-program of the program. In the case of a sub-project, it may be a list of specific tasks grouped within the project. These tasks have their exact purpose within the project and can be carried out by a designated team. For example, when building a community hall, the sub-project may include creating plans and budgets for the building using computer design systems or by hand.
Thus, the main difference between a project, program, and sub-project is the number and size of goals, objectives, and time units. According to the project management theory, each project has four essential criteria while still being unique: time, content, cost, and quality (Mashwama et al., 2020:305-308). All these attributes are interrelated, and changing one will modify the other. When building a community hall, higher quality requirements can be set, but that will increase both the cost, time, and complexity of the project and sub-projects. Although quality is the most subjective property of a project outcome, evaluating the result always implies its importance. Quality and complexity will inevitably suffer with shorter construction times, and costs can decrease or increase. A sub-project always has a goal similar to, or a direct part of, the project’s goal (Bogdanova et al., 2020). The interaction between the project and the project program is also similar.
Every program, project, and sub-project has a responsible multifunctional person with a wide range of competencies: the project manager (Ribeiro & Domingues, 2018). The main functions of such a person correlate with all the processes that take place in a project, in particular:
Based on the information above, all the differences between a program, a project, and a sub-project can be further divided into four categories. The first and most apparent is the scale of the concept, where a program is a set of projects, and a project is a set of sub-projects (Seelhofer & Graf, 2018:12). The second category is related to the first but is not as obvious. Its essence is duration: the program timeline is much broader if provided, while project and sub-project timeframes are specific and measurable. The third category of difference is complexity: the execution of a program is much more intricate than a project, as it involves many sub-tasks that need to be coordinated. Lastly, the fourth category is the outcome: a project is realized when the planned actions and steps are completed by the specified date. The result of the program is a global change of state or the impact on the current situation, so even its partial implementation is possible, and the final effect may exceed all expectations.
The Department of Public Works declares that an integrated infrastructure and transport system has to be built to promote social and economic development. This government organization’s primary goal is to effectively execute all directives that will facilitate the management of all province’s tangible infrastructure assets (Mashwama et al., 2020). Much attention is provided to the roads and transportation systems, both freight and public. Examples of programs, projects, and subprojects the Department conducts will be presented below.
The Department of Public Works, Roads and Transportation in Mpumalanga province has many programs in operation to improve citizen living standards and infrastructure. For example, one of the most crucial programs deals with the development of an improved public transportation system. Its main goal is to give all citizens equal access to affordable, reliable, and safe public transportation and taxi. The public works program is also significant: provincial infrastructures are being expanded, built, and maintained, and public customer services are being improved.
Examples of projects integrated into programs in the Department of Public Works are numerous and decent. The expansion and improvement program of the transportation system includes such vital projects as the implementation of taxi services’ recapitalization, restructuring of the bus subsidy system, and renewal of the regional freight railroad. One of the projects in the development program, for example, is the current one, the community hall building plan.
Sub-projects are incomparably more numerous in the Department of Public Works. The current project can be analyzed and divided into sub-projects according to construction stages or tasks to be performed. Even before the construction is underway, the major tasks for sub-projects within the project are identified clearly: creating a building plan, communications planning, and staff recruitment for specific types of work. With professional project management, the balance of costs, time, and scope can be achieved.
As mentioned above, the differences between a program, a project, and a sub-project lie in the scale of the goals and the methods. The program’s goals are the most global, achieved by the sum of the accomplished project goals. Moreover, the latter, in turn, is split into objectives within mini-projects, called sub-projects. With this division, the maximum efficiency in achieving the purposes is attained as the overall manageability rises.
Bogdanova, M., Parashkevova, E., & Stoyanova, M. (2020). Agile project management in the public sector–methodological aspects . Journal of European Economy , 19 (2), 283-298.
Mashwama, N., Thwala, D., & Aigbavboa, C. (Ed.). (2020). Obstacles of sustainable construction project management in South Africa construction industry. In L. Scott, M. Dastbaz, & C. Gorse (Eds.), Sustainable ecological engineering design (pp. 305-314). Switzerland: Springer Publishing. (Original work published 2020).
Moutinho, J. D. A., & Rabechini, R. J. (2020). Project management in the public context: Research field mapping. Revista de Administração Pública , 54 (1), 1260-1285.
Ribeiro, A., & Domingues, L. (2018). Acceptance of an agile methodology in the public sector. Procedia Computer Science, 138 , 621-629.
Seelhofer, D., & Graf, C. O. (2018). National project management maturity: A conceptual framework. Central European Business Review , 7 (2), 1-20. Web.
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In the evolving field of project management, selecting the right methodology is crucial. Agile and Waterfall, two widely debated approaches, each offer unique strengths suited to different project needs. A clear understanding of their key differences is essential for informed decision-making. This article provides a concise analysis of these distinctions, helping organizations choose the most appropriate methodology for their projects.
Agile is recognized as a project management methodology that prioritizes flexibility and customer-centric processes. Originally crafted for the dynamic field of software development, Agile was designed to manage projects where requirements are expected to evolve. This methodology is particularly suited for situations where the end goals are not fully defined at the outset, requiring the team to adapt as the project progresses.
The agile workflows
In the Agile methodology, projects are divided into short development cycles known as "sprints," typically lasting two to four weeks. Each sprint results in a potentially shippable product increment, allowing teams to deliver value early and frequently. This approach enables continuous feedback from stakeholders, providing the opportunity to make necessary adjustments throughout the project’s lifecycle. Agile is most effective in environments that demand rapid adaptation and ongoing refinements.
Waterfall is the more traditional project management methodology , where everything is planned out in a linear sequence from start to finish. This methodology was developed with industries like manufacturing and construction in mind, where making changes mid-project can be costly and complicated.
The waterfall workflows
The Waterfall methodology divides the project into distinct phases: requirements gathering, design, implementation, testing, deployment, and maintenance. Each phase must be completed before the next one begins, leaving little room for modification once a phase is finished. This methodology relies heavily on thorough planning and detailed documentation upfront, ensuring that all project requirements are met before moving to the next stage. Waterfall is best suited for projects with fixed requirements, where the risk of changes is minimal and a predictable, structured process is crucial.
Agile: In Agile, roles are dynamic and collaborative, with team members frequently taking on multiple responsibilities. The key roles typically include the Product Owner, Scrum Master, and Development Team, all working closely to adapt to changing project needs.
Waterfall: In contrast, Waterfall employs clearly defined and hierarchical roles. The Project Manager oversees the entire process, while specialized teams, such as Business Analysts, Designers, and Developers, focus on their specific tasks with little overlap.
Agile: Agile emphasizes continuous client involvement throughout the project. Clients are regularly engaged, providing feedback at the end of each sprint, which fosters a highly collaborative and iterative process.
Waterfall: Waterfall, on the other hand, involves the client mainly at the beginning and end of the project. After initial requirements are gathered, there is limited opportunity for client feedback until the final product is delivered.
Agile: The Agile timeline is flexible, with projects broken into short, iterative sprints typically lasting 2-4 weeks. This approach allows for rapid adjustments and ongoing improvements as the project progresses.
Waterfall: Waterfall follows a more rigid, predefined timeline. Each phase must be completed before the next begins, often leading to a longer overall timeline due to the sequential nature of the process.
Agile: Agile maintains minimal documentation, focusing on what is necessary to support the team’s work. Documentation is continuously updated, enabling the project to remain adaptable and responsive to change.
Waterfall: Waterfall requires extensive documentation at each phase of the project. From the initial requirements through to the final testing plans, detailed records are essential for ensuring that the project remains on track and adheres to the original plan.
Agile Teams: Agile teams are typically small, cross-functional, and self-organizing. This structure fosters adaptability, allowing team members to shift roles and responsibilities as the project evolves.
Waterfall Teams: Waterfall teams tend to be larger and more specialized. The structure is hierarchical, with each member having a clearly defined role, offering less flexibility but ensuring a focused and organized approach to each phase of the project.
These five key differences highlight the distinct approaches of Agile and Waterfall methodologies. Each has its strengths and is suited to different types of projects. Businesses should carefully evaluate these factors—such as the need for flexibility, the level of client involvement, the project's timeline, documentation requirements, and team dynamics—before deciding which methodology to adopt. By weighing these elements, businesses can make an informed choice that aligns with their project goals and ensures the best possible outcomes.
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Published on September 14, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on April 16, 2024.
A thesis is a type of research paper based on your original research. It is usually submitted as the final step of a master’s program or a capstone to a bachelor’s degree.
Writing a thesis can be a daunting experience. Other than a dissertation , it is one of the longest pieces of writing students typically complete. It relies on your ability to conduct research from start to finish: choosing a relevant topic , crafting a proposal , designing your research , collecting data , developing a robust analysis, drawing strong conclusions , and writing concisely .
You can also download our full thesis template in the format of your choice below. Our template includes a ready-made table of contents , as well as guidance for what each chapter should include. It’s easy to make it your own, and can help you get started.
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Thesis vs. thesis statement, how to structure a thesis, acknowledgements or preface, list of figures and tables, list of abbreviations, introduction, literature review, methodology, reference list, proofreading and editing, defending your thesis, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about theses.
You may have heard the word thesis as a standalone term or as a component of academic writing called a thesis statement . Keep in mind that these are two very different things.
The final structure of your thesis depends on a variety of components, such as:
Humanities theses are often structured more like a longer-form essay . Just like in an essay, you build an argument to support a central thesis.
In both hard and social sciences, theses typically include an introduction , literature review , methodology section , results section , discussion section , and conclusion section . These are each presented in their own dedicated section or chapter. In some cases, you might want to add an appendix .
We’ve compiled a short list of thesis examples to help you get started.
The very first page of your thesis contains all necessary identifying information, including:
Sometimes the title page also includes your student ID, the name of your supervisor, or the university’s logo. Check out your university’s guidelines if you’re not sure.
Read more about title pages
The acknowledgements section is usually optional. Its main point is to allow you to thank everyone who helped you in your thesis journey, such as supervisors, friends, or family. You can also choose to write a preface , but it’s typically one or the other, not both.
Read more about acknowledgements Read more about prefaces
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An abstract is a short summary of your thesis. Usually a maximum of 300 words long, it’s should include brief descriptions of your research objectives , methods, results, and conclusions. Though it may seem short, it introduces your work to your audience, serving as a first impression of your thesis.
Read more about abstracts
A table of contents lists all of your sections, plus their corresponding page numbers and subheadings if you have them. This helps your reader seamlessly navigate your document.
Your table of contents should include all the major parts of your thesis. In particular, don’t forget the the appendices. If you used heading styles, it’s easy to generate an automatic table Microsoft Word.
Read more about tables of contents
While not mandatory, if you used a lot of tables and/or figures, it’s nice to include a list of them to help guide your reader. It’s also easy to generate one of these in Word: just use the “Insert Caption” feature.
Read more about lists of figures and tables
If you have used a lot of industry- or field-specific abbreviations in your thesis, you should include them in an alphabetized list of abbreviations . This way, your readers can easily look up any meanings they aren’t familiar with.
Read more about lists of abbreviations
Relatedly, if you find yourself using a lot of very specialized or field-specific terms that may not be familiar to your reader, consider including a glossary . Alphabetize the terms you want to include with a brief definition.
Read more about glossaries
An introduction sets up the topic, purpose, and relevance of your thesis, as well as expectations for your reader. This should:
In other words, your introduction should clearly and concisely show your reader the “what, why, and how” of your research.
Read more about introductions
A literature review helps you gain a robust understanding of any extant academic work on your topic, encompassing:
A literature review is not merely a summary of existing work. Rather, your literature review should ultimately lead to a clear justification for your own research, perhaps via:
Read more about literature reviews
Your literature review can often form the basis for your theoretical framework, but these are not the same thing. A theoretical framework defines and analyzes the concepts and theories that your research hinges on.
Read more about theoretical frameworks
Your methodology chapter shows your reader how you conducted your research. It should be written clearly and methodically, easily allowing your reader to critically assess the credibility of your argument. Furthermore, your methods section should convince your reader that your method was the best way to answer your research question.
A methodology section should generally include:
Read more about methodology sections
Your results section should highlight what your methodology discovered. These two sections work in tandem, but shouldn’t repeat each other. While your results section can include hypotheses or themes, don’t include any speculation or new arguments here.
Your results section should:
Additional data (like raw numbers or interview transcripts ) can be included as an appendix . You can include tables and figures, but only if they help the reader better understand your results.
Read more about results sections
Your discussion section is where you can interpret your results in detail. Did they meet your expectations? How well do they fit within the framework that you built? You can refer back to any relevant source material to situate your results within your field, but leave most of that analysis in your literature review.
For any unexpected results, offer explanations or alternative interpretations of your data.
Read more about discussion sections
Your thesis conclusion should concisely answer your main research question. It should leave your reader with an ultra-clear understanding of your central argument, and emphasize what your research specifically has contributed to your field.
Why does your research matter? What recommendations for future research do you have? Lastly, wrap up your work with any concluding remarks.
Read more about conclusions
In order to avoid plagiarism , don’t forget to include a full reference list at the end of your thesis, citing the sources that you used. Choose one citation style and follow it consistently throughout your thesis, taking note of the formatting requirements of each style.
Which style you choose is often set by your department or your field, but common styles include MLA , Chicago , and APA.
Create APA citations Create MLA citations
In order to stay clear and concise, your thesis should include the most essential information needed to answer your research question. However, chances are you have many contributing documents, like interview transcripts or survey questions . These can be added as appendices , to save space in the main body.
Read more about appendices
Once you’re done writing, the next part of your editing process begins. Leave plenty of time for proofreading and editing prior to submission. Nothing looks worse than grammar mistakes or sloppy spelling errors!
Consider using a professional thesis editing service or grammar checker to make sure your final project is perfect.
Once you’ve submitted your final product, it’s common practice to have a thesis defense, an oral component of your finished work. This is scheduled by your advisor or committee, and usually entails a presentation and Q&A session.
After your defense , your committee will meet to determine if you deserve any departmental honors or accolades. However, keep in mind that defenses are usually just a formality. If there are any serious issues with your work, these should be resolved with your advisor way before a defense.
If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!
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The conclusion of your thesis or dissertation shouldn’t take up more than 5–7% of your overall word count.
If you only used a few abbreviations in your thesis or dissertation , you don’t necessarily need to include a list of abbreviations .
If your abbreviations are numerous, or if you think they won’t be known to your audience, it’s never a bad idea to add one. They can also improve readability, minimizing confusion about abbreviations unfamiliar to your reader.
When you mention different chapters within your text, it’s considered best to use Roman numerals for most citation styles. However, the most important thing here is to remain consistent whenever using numbers in your dissertation .
A thesis or dissertation outline is one of the most critical first steps in your writing process. It helps you to lay out and organize your ideas and can provide you with a roadmap for deciding what kind of research you’d like to undertake.
Generally, an outline contains information on the different sections included in your thesis or dissertation , such as:
A thesis is typically written by students finishing up a bachelor’s or Master’s degree. Some educational institutions, particularly in the liberal arts, have mandatory theses, but they are often not mandatory to graduate from bachelor’s degrees. It is more common for a thesis to be a graduation requirement from a Master’s degree.
Even if not mandatory, you may want to consider writing a thesis if you:
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.
George, T. (2024, April 16). What Is a Thesis? | Ultimate Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 3, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/thesis/
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In the brain, the hippocampus is enriched with mineralocorticoid receptors (MR; Nr3c2 ), a ligand-dependent transcription factor stimulated by the stress hormone corticosterone in rodents. Recently, we discovered that MR is required for the acquisition and maintenance of many features of mouse area CA2 neurons. Notably, we observed that immunofluorescence for the vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (vGluT2), likely representing afferents from the supramammillary nucleus (SuM), was disrupted in the embryonic, but not postnatal, MR knockout mouse CA2. To test whether pharmacological perturbation of MR activity in utero similarly disrupts CA2 connectivity, we implanted slow-release pellets containing the MR antagonist spironolactone in mouse dams during mid-gestation. After confirming that at least one likely active metabolite crossed from the dams’ serum into the embryonic brains, we found that spironolactone treatment caused a significant reduction of CA2 axon fluorescence intensity in the CA1 stratum oriens , where CA2 axons preferentially project, and that vGluT2 staining was significantly decreased in both CA2 and dentate gyrus in spironolactone-treated animals. We also found that spironolactone-treated animals exhibited increased reactivity to novel objects, an effect similar to what is seen with embryonic or postnatal CA2-targeted MR knockout. However, we found no difference in preference for social novelty between the treatment groups. We infer these results to suggest that persistent or more severe disruptions in MR function may be required to interfere with this type of social behavior. These findings do indicate, though, that developmental disruption in MR signaling can have persistent effects on hippocampal circuitry and behavior.
Brain corticosteroid receptors, including the glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptors (GRs and MRs), are important regulators of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and function in learning, memory, and behavioral adaptations to stress [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. The hippocampus expresses both GR and MR, where they operate as ligand-inducible transcription factors upon binding endogenous stress hormones cortisol or corticosterone (“cort”) [ 5 ]. Interestingly, staining for MR is highly enriched in area CA2, a part of the hippocampus with a peculiar resistance to long-term potentiation (LTP) [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Recent studies have demonstrated a necessity for CA2 neurons in aggression, social memory, and novelty detection [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ], and MRs are required for an animal’s preference towards social novelty and reaction to contextual novelty [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. Importantly, variations of the gene encoding MRs ( NR3C2 ) have been implicated in developmental and psychiatric disorders such as autism spectrum disorder and depression [ 19 , 20 ].
Molecular and functional maturation of CA2 occurs early in postnatal life in mice, around postnatal day 12 [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. However, expression of MR, but apparently not GR, is concentrated in hippocampal pyramidal cells beginning in the embryo, and MR expression both precedes and controls the expression of most known CA2 markers [ 16 , 21 , 24 ]. We have previously shown that MR knockout caused striking effects on CA2’s ‘synaptic plasticity phenotype’ and downregulation of genes enriched in CA2 [ 16 ]. Further, embryonic (Nestin-Cre; MR fl/fl), but not postnatal (Amigo2-Cre; MR fl/fl), deletion of MR decreased staining for vGluT2, which has been shown to label axon terminals from the SuM neurons [ 25 ]. Input from the SuM appears to be critical to CA2’s function in social behavior [ 14 , 16 , 26 , 27 ]. Despite what is known about the actions of MRs in regulating CA2 genes from our studies using knockout mice and pharmacological manipulation in adult animals, little is known about the effects of MR disruption that is limited to early development. We hypothesized that disturbing MR function during early development may impair the establishment of CA2 connectivity, and with it, its role in behavior.
Prenatal pharmacological manipulation of hormone signaling has previously been used in several animal models, and these studies report persistent effects on differentiation, development and function of target organs long after exposure ceases [ 28 , 29 , 30 ]. In this study, we used a similar approach to manipulate stress hormone signaling in the brain prenatally. Because knockout of genes using the Cre-LoxP recombination system in mice permanently excises the target gene, persisting throughout the life of the animal [ 31 ], and we aimed to limit MR signaling disruption to prenatal development, we took a pharmacological approach. We asked whether in utero exposure to the MR antagonist spironolactone (spiro) could disrupt the acquisition of CA2 molecular identity, connectivity, and/or CA2-dependent behaviors in adults. We found that although spiro-treated animals showed no change in some CA2 markers in adults, both CA2 neuron input (from the SuM) and output (to the CA1) connectivity were disrupted. Additionally, we found an increase in the animals’ reactivity to contextual novelty, similar to what has been shown in the MR conditional knockout mice [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. These findings support the idea that MRs shape CA2 development and adult behavior. Furthermore, they illustrate a period of prenatal life when CA2 neuron structure is vulnerable to disruption by a pharmacological agent.
Timed pregnancies & pellet implantation.
Male C57BL/6J mice and female animals expressing green fluorescent protein under the Amigo2 promoter (Amigo-2 GFP; Gene Expression Nervous System Atlas, Amigo2-EGFP; Tg(Amigo2-EGFP)LW244Gsat/Mmcd) were paired for timed mating. Dams were monitored for copulation plugs and separated from sires after being paired for 48 h. Dams were also weighed for several days to confirm progression of pregnancy (≥3 g over base-weight). Using the presence of a copulation plug as the first gestational day, surgeries were performed on gestational day 12 (+/−1 day). Dams were anesthetized using 2.5% isoflurane and subcutaneously implanted with 21-day release pellets containing either spiro or vehicle (15 mg/pellet, spiro, Cat. No. M-161, vehicle, Cat. No. C-111 Innovative Research of America, Sarasota, FL, USA) alongside a no-surgery control group. The 15-mg spiro pellets follow zero-order kinetics, yielding a constant dose over the 21-days. The spiro pellets are predicted to release ~0.7 mg spiro/day, yielding an approximate dose of 20 mg/kg/day. Vehicle pellets were a biodegradable matrix of the carrier-binder consisting of cholesterol, lactose, celluloses, phosphates, and stearates. The same matrix was used for the spiro pellets with the drug included in the matrix for a slow, continuous release.
Dams were maintained on a breeding chow for the duration of gestation (LabDiet, Cat. No. 5KON). Although midgestational administration of a 21-day release pellet could possibly expose pups postnatally, we consider the dosing “prenatal” due to the poor excretion of spiro into breastmilk [ 32 ]. Pups were weaned at approximately P21 and offspring were housed with same-sex littermates until P60 (+/−3) when behavioral assessments were performed, after which animals were sacrificed for immunohistochemical analysis. All animal protocols were approved by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Animal Care and Use Committee and are in accordance with the National Institutes of Health guidelines for care and use of animals. Mice were housed on a 12 h:12 h light-dark cycle with same-sex littermates, with up to five animals per cage. Mice were provided water and food ad libitum . For all measures in adult subject offspring, we found no difference between males and females or between vehicle-treated and non-surgical controls, so we combined data from males and females within each treatment and combined vehicle-treated and non-surgical controls into a single control group.
Dams and pups were sacrificed for serum or brain tissue (pups) collection on the day of parturition and subsequent analytical confirmation of spiro and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Dams were anesthetized using sodium pentobarbital (50 mg/mL; >100 mg/kg intraperitoneal (IP) injection), killed by decapitation, and trunk blood captured into a 1.5 mL tube. Blood coagulated for 15–30 min at room temperature and spun for 10 min at 4500 rpm at 4 °C. The serum fraction was collected and stored at −20 °C until analysis. Pups were decapitated and brains collected into a prechilled 1.5 mL tube before storage at −70 °C.
The following stock reagents were created into standard solutions to confirm accurate mass and retention time of analytes: spiro (Cayman Chemical Company; 9000324), canrenone (“can”; Cayman Chemical Company; 21307), 7α-thiomethylspironolactone (“7-alpha”; Santa Cruz; sc-207187), and 6β-Hydroxy-7α-thiomethylspironolactone (“6-beta”; Santa Cruz; sc-210569). Spiro and its metabolites do not ionize efficiently in MS instruments, and so stock reagents and samples were subjected to a pretreatment with a derivatizing agent, Girard’s reagent P(GP), to increase signal responses [ 33 ].
In brief, pup brains were bead homogenized in HPLC-grade water (200 mg tissue/mL water) in an Omni Bead Ruptor Elite. Serum samples from dams ( n = 4 dams/group; non-surgical and vehicle mixed for control group) and brain homogenates of pup brains from one litter of each spiro and non-surgical groups ( n = 3 pups/litter/experimental group) were processed in parallel. Proteins were removed using methanol precipitation and centrifugation and the supernatant subjected to Girard P derivatization [ 34 ]. Samples were analyzed using an ultra-high performance liquid chromatograph (Vanquish TM Horizon UHPLC, Thermo Scientific) coupled to a high-resolution mass spectrometer (Orbitrap Fusion TM Tribrid, Thermo Scientific). Data were extracted using FreeStyle from ThermoFisher Scientific, and peaks were integrated using the default setting for the monoisotopic mass of each derivatized analyte with 5 ppm mass error. All values for integrated peaks of spiro and its metabolites were “0”, or not detected, for tissues collected from non-dosed animals. Thus, to facilitate comparisons, all integrated peak areas were log 2 (x + 1) transformed before statistical analysis. Metabolites in dam serum and pup brains were compared using a two-way ANOVA with multiple comparisons.
A wildtype C57BL/6J mouse was sacrificed on the day of birth (P0) for RNA in situ hybridization (RNAscope). The mouse was sacrificed via rapid decapitation and the brain was harvested in RNAse-free conditions. The brain was frozen in Tissue Plus® O.C.T Compound (Fisher Scientific, Hampton, NH) and stored at −70 °C until cryo-sectioning at 10 μm. In situ hybridization was performed according to the manufacturer’s protocol for the RNAscope Fluorescent Multiplex kit (Advanced Cell Diagnostics, Hayward, CA) using Mm- Nr3c2 -E5E6-C3 (Cat#456321-C3) and coverslipped with Vectashield Hardset Mounting Medium containing a DAPI nuclear counterstain (Vector, Burlingame, CA). Stained sections were imaged on a Zeiss LSM 880 inverted confocal microscope.
All behavioral experiments were conducted during the light cycle. Animals were brought to the behavior room and habituated for 30 min prior to each behavioral assay. Before and after each animal was placed into and removed from the respective behavioral arenas, a cleaning solution was used to thoroughly sanitize the floors, walls, and objects or cups of testing areas. Animals assessed for anxiety-like behaviors (Open Field) and reactivity to novel objects included 32 controls (18 males from 8 litters and 14 females from 5 separate litters) and 20 spiro-treated (10 males from 4 litters and 10 females from 3 separate litters). No significant differences were found between sexes or between litters with a treatment group ( p > 0.05, two-way ANOVAs with Sidak’s multiple comparisons tests) so males and females from all litters were combined within each treatment group. Animals were placed in a novel, empty arena to freely explore for 5 min before returning to their home cage. Noldus Ethovision was used to track the animals’ locomotion in this novel environment, including measurements of distance traveled, velocity, and time spent (s) in the center of the arena. On the following day, animals were re-introduced to the same arena to explore for 10 min to serve as a habituation period. On the third day, novel object reactivity was assessed by placing two identical novel objects (glass vials) along opposing walls of the same arena. Animals were placed in the arena and allowed to investigate the novel objects for 10 min before being returned to their home cage. Noldus Ethovision was used to record and track the movement of the mice and the time spent interacting with the objects in their respective zones (“interaction zones”). To calculate novel object reactivity for each animal, the times spent in each interaction zone were summed. All comparisons between collapsed-control and spiro exposed were performed using two-tailed t-tests.
Animals tested for sociability and social novelty preference included 26 controls (12 males from 6 litters and 14 females from 5 separate litters) and 14 spiro-treated mice (8 males from 3 litters and 6 females from 2 separate litters). No significant differences were found between sexes or between litters within a treatment group ( p > 0.05, two-way ANOVAs with Sidak’s multiple comparisons tests), so males and females from all litters were combined within each treatment group. The social assays were performed using a three-chamber arena with doorways between each chamber. The left and right chambers contained mesh cups in their respective extreme corners, large enough to hold a conspecific. The subject animal was placed in the center chamber at the start of the first trial and permitted to investigate the three chambers freely for 10 min. At the end of the 10 min, the animal was ushered back into the center chamber and the doorways closed while a novel sex- and age-matched conspecific was added to one of the mesh cups. The second trial began with re-opening the doorways and the subject animal was allowed to explore again for 10 min to habituate to the novel animal. At the end of the second trial, the subject animal was ushered back into the center chamber and the doorways closed as a different (now novel) conspecific (sex- and age-matched from a different litter than the first stimulus) was placed in the mesh cup. The third trial began with re-opening the doorways and the animal allowed to explore the 3 chambers again for 10 min. Placement (left or right chamber) of the novel conspecifics for the second and third trials were randomly assigned to counterbalance across subject animals. Between each subject animal, the arena and cups were thoroughly cleaned. Neuromotive software (Blackrock Neurotech) was used to record videos of each trial, which were later imported into the Noldus Ethovision software for the tracking and analysis of the subject mouse during trials two and three. Social discrimination was calculated as the ratio of time the animal spent in the interaction zone around the novel conspecific divided by the time spent in the interaction zone about the familiarized conspecific (“discrimination ratio”) for each animal. Comparison between controls and spiro-exposed animals were performed using a two-tailed t-test.
After behavioral assessment, a subset of litters was arbitrarily selected for immunostaining and tissue processing, and only those animals that were GFP+ used, including 10 (9 male, 1 female) control animals (from three vehicle litters and one non-surgical litter, no significant litter effects detected, p > 0.05) and 6 (4 male, 2 female) spiro-treated animals (from two litters, no significant litter effects detected, p > 0.05, two-way ANOVAs with Sidak’s multiple comparisons tests). GFP-expressing animals were sacrificed to facilitate localization of CA2 neurons during immunostaining. Staining, imaging, and analysis were performed with the experimenter blinded to condition. Briefly, mice were anesthetized with Fatal Plus (sodium pentobarbital, 50 mg/mL; > 100 mg/kg IP injection) and transcardially perfused with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) followed by 4% paraformaldehyde. Brains were harvested and post-fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde at 4 °C for 24 h. Brains were sectioned coronally on a vibratome at 40 μm and stored at 4 °C in PBS with 0.02% sodium azide until future processing. For immunofluorescent staining for CA2 markers (NECAB2, PCP4, and MR), sections were rinsed with PBS, permeabilized with in 0.3% TritonX PBS, and blocked for 1 h with 5% normal goat serum in 0.3% TritonX PBS, prior to overnight incubation at 4 °C in the following primary antibodies in 5% normal goat serum in 0.3% TritonX PBS (see supplemental material for details): rabbit anti-PCP4, rabbit anti-NECAB2, mouse anti-MR. Sections were then washed 2 ×10 min in TritonX PBS and then incubated for 2 hours with the appropriate secondary antibodies conjugated to fluorescent probes. Tissue was rinsed 2 ×10 min with 0.1% Triton X in PBS and washed with PBS before mounting in Vectashield Hardset Mounting Medium with a DAPI nuclear counterstain (Vector, Burlingame, CA).
For visualization of CA2 axons and afferents presumably from SuM, we immunostained sections for GFP signal and vGluT2 protein, respectively. The staining procedure was identical to above, with the following modifications: 0.1% TritonX PBS was used instead of 0.3% for permeabilization; 3% normal goat serum in 0.2% TritonX PBS was used for blocking overnight; primary antibodies (guinea pig anti-vGluT2 and chicken anti-GFP) were diluted in 3% normal goat serum PBS and were incubated for 48 h. Sections were washed 2 ×15 min with 0.2% TritonX PBS before incubation in fluorescent secondary antibodies with 3% normal goat serum in PBS: AlexaFluor 568 goat anti-guinea pig and AlexaFluor goat anti-chicken 488 for 5 h at room temperature. Sections were rinsed 2 ×15 min with 0.2% TritonX PBS and 1x PBS for 10 min before mounting with Vectashield Hardset Mounting Medium with a DAPI nuclear counterstain (Vector, Burlingame, CA). Tissue across treatment groups were processed concurrently, in the same reaction conditions, for each staining experiment to facilitate comparisons.
All images for quantification were acquired on a Zeiss AxioObserver.Z1 microscope by an experimenter blinded to treatment. Quantifications were performed in ImageJ (1.49 v) using images collected between −1.7 and −1.9 mm posterior to bregma. For quantification of CA2-localized stains (PCP4, NECAB2, MR, GFP, vGluT2, somatic GFP), a free-form region-of-interest was circumscribed around marker staining in the GFP channel for measurement in other analysis channels. For these, background signal in fluorescence images were subtracted using an area outside of the hippocampal pyramidal layer. For quantification of vGluT2 immunofluorescence in the DG, a 250 ×250 pixel square region-of-interest was created and positioned over the outer granule cell layer, localized over vGluT2 staining, of the granule cell layer. Immunofluorescence values were averaged from two to three sections for each animal. Comparisons between control and spiro-exposed mice were completed using a two-tailed t-tests. Presented images are brightness/contrast adjusted equally across treatment groups for each stain.
For analysis of CA2 axonal projections, fluorescence signal from axonal structures was evaluated in treated and control Amigo2-GFP offspring. A linear region-of-interest was created across hippocampal cell layers (SO, SP, SR, SLM) starting at the bottom of alveus and ending at the border of SLM and the suprapyramidal blade of the DG. This linear region-of-interest was placed parallel to the midline and perpendicular to the pyramidal cell layer. Similar coronal planes were used for each animal (~1.82 mm posterior to bregma). Fluorescence intensity was extracted at every pixel distance along this line, binned at 10 μm, and plotted as a signal intensity plot. Maximum fluorescence intensity values of the SO and SR regions were extracted from each animal across groups and compared using two-way, repeated measures ANOVA with post hoc comparisons. GFP + CA2 neurons were quantified in the same sections as with axon targeting analysis and manually scored using Imaris (Oxford Instruments plc, Abington UK, v10.1).
We previously demonstrated that treatment with spiro, an MR antagonist, delivered via subcutaneously implanted slow-release pellets resulted in decreased expression of the CA2 marker RGS14 in adult animals (McCann et al. [ 16 ]). This finding suggests that spiro – or a metabolite- in a pellet formulation can penetrate brain tissue and modulate protein expression. Here, we implanted spiro pellets in gestating mice with the aim of inhibiting MRs in the prenatal embryo. To ensure that prenatal spiro treatment was sufficient to reach systemic circulation in a pregnant animal and cross the placental barrier to reach brain tissue of offspring, we performed LC-MS of dam serum and pup brain homogenates in control and treated groups (Fig. 1 ). Spiro was not detected in serum or brain tissue samples, likely owing to the rapid metabolism in vivo of the prodrug [ 35 ]. Instead, we detected canrenone (“can”), 7α-thiomethylspironolactone (“7-alpha”), and 6β-hydroxy-7α-thiomethylspironolactone (“6-beta”), major metabolites of spiro in the serum of treated dams [ 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 ]. The lipophilic nature of spiro and its metabolites is thought to permit their passage across the blood-brain and placental barriers [ 41 ]. As such, we did detect 6-beta in treated pup brains. These data indicate that the drug delivered by pellet implant did in fact reach circulation in the dam and that at least one metabolite crossed the placenta into brains of the pups.
a On the first day of pregnancy (gestational day 0; GD0), each Amigo2-GFP dam was paired with a male C57BL/6J mouse. Pregnancy was confirmed by the presence of a copulation plug after pairing. Spiro pellets (15 mg/pellet) were implanted in pregnant dams at gestational day 12 (+/−1; GD12). High-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLCMS) was used to confirm the presence of spiro and metabolites in a subset of dams and pups collected on the day of birth (first postnatal day; P0). Other litters were allowed to age until P60 for behavioral assays prior to immunofluorescent studies. b RNA in situ hybridization of the gene encoding MR, Nr3c2 (magenta), in a murine hippocampus at P0. Scale bar is 200 µm. c Log 2 (x + 1) transformed peak integrated values (arbitrary units; a.u.) of spiro and metabolites in serum and brain homogenates of treated (red circles) and control (black circles) subjects. Displayed analytes include spiro and metabolites canrenone (can), 7α-Thiomethylspironolactone (7-alpha), and 6-beta-7-alpha-thiomethylspironolactone (6-beta). Two-way ANOVA analysis revealed that there was a main effect of treatment on transformed integrated peak values (two-way, ANOVA, F (1,6) = 16363, p < 0.0001). Post hoc analysis revealed that integrated areas differed between control and treatment groups for can, 7-alpha, and 6-beta (Šídák multiple comparisons test, p < 0.0001 for all except for spiro, which was not detected). One metabolite of spiro, 6-beta, was detected in pup brains of a spiro-treated litter on the day of birth (one-tailed, unpaired t-test, t (4) = 22.94, p < 0.0001). Data are presented in box and whisker (min to max, line at median) and floating bar (min to max, line at mean) plots in Prism for serum and brain homogenate data, respectively. d Table showing mass spectral measurements of spiro and metabolites measured by LC-MS.
CA2 neuron axons project to ipsilateral dorsal CA1, primarily targeting the stratum oriens (SO) layer, and to a lesser extent targeting stratum radiatum (SR; [ 42 , 43 , 44 ]). We asked whether MR blockade during development impacts the patterning of CA2 axon projections in CA1, which likely develop during the time that animals were exposed to spiro [ 45 , 46 ]. We used dams expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) under control of the Amigo2 promoter (Amigo2-GFP), so treated pups also expressed GFP in CA2 pyramidal neurons, enabling visualization of their axons (Fig. 2a, b ). To measure GFP fluorescence intensity of CA2 axons in dorsal CA1, we created a linear region-of-interest across the CA1 layers, SO , stratum pyramidale (SP), SR, and stratum lacunosum-moleculare (SLM) (Fig. 2c ). We found that the axonal GFP signal profile differed between the treatment groups (Fig. 2d–f ). GFP fluorescence was significantly decreased in SO of spiro-treated animals than controls, although no difference was detected in SR. To determine whether the decreased axonal GFP signal was simply a result of decreased GFP expression, we measured the fluorescence intensity in the CA2 pyramidal cell body layer between treatment groups (Fig. 2g, h ). We additionally measured the number of GFP-expressing cells in sections and found no difference in cell number between treatment groups (Fig. 2i ). Therefore, the decreased axonal GFP fluorescence in CA1 is unlikely to reflect a decrease in CA2 cell number or GFP expression, supporting the conclusion that prenatal spiro treatment perturbed CA2 axon number or guidance in dorsal CA1. Image created with BioRender.com.
a Schematic of green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression being driven by the Amigo2 promoter. Amigo2 and GFP are selectively expressed in CA2 of this mouse strain. Image created in Biorender. b Representative image of GFP expression in the murine hippocampus. c To assay CA2 axonal profile, coronal hippocampal sections were immunostained for GFP to enhance endogenous fluorescence. A 10-pixel width linear region-of-interest (ROI) was created through CA1 to capture CA2-axonal GFP signal through the stratum oriens (SO), stratum pyramidale [ 65 ], stratum radiatum (SR), and stratum lacunosum-moleculare (SLM) cell layers. Fluorescence intensity values along the line were plotted for the creation of line intensity plot for each animal. Of note, CA2 axonal signal is most dense in SO and SR layers. d Representative images of CA2 axonal signal in CA1 of adult animals from control (left) and spiro-treated litters (right). e Averaged line intensity profile plots for control and spiro-exposed animals. Lines are displayed with cyan and magenta SEM error bars for control and spiro litters, respectively. Control and spiro groups seemed to differ in GFP expression in SO and SR. f The maximum fluorescence intensity value from the SO and SR linear regions were extracted from each animal. We found no main effect for treatment (two-way, rmANOVA, F (1,14) = 3.239, p = 0.0935), but there was a significant interaction between layer and treatment (two-way, rmANOVA, F (1,14) = 8.842, p = 0.0101). Post hoc analysis revealed that maximum fluorescence intensity value differed in SO between control and spiro (Šídák multiple comparisons test, t (28) = 2.555, p = 0.0324), but not in SR (Šídák multiple comparisons test, t (28) = 0.9032, p = 0.6083). g Representative images of GFP immunofluorescence in CA2 of adult animals from control (left panel) and spiro-treated litters (right panel). h Adult, background-subtracted GFP immunofluorescence also did not differ (two-tailed, unpaired t-test t (14) = 0.4979, p = 0.6263). i Similarly, the number of GFP+ cells did not differ across groups (two-tailed, unpaired t-test t (14) = 2.075, p = 0.0569). Scale bars are: b 200 µm; d 50 µm; g 100 µm. Image created with BioRender.com.
CA2 cells express a unique complement of genes [ 47 , 48 ], which is maintained by the cell-autonomous expression of MRs [ 16 ]. We proposed that MR may be a “terminal selector” transcription factor that functions principally to specify CA2 cell fate in early development of the hippocampus [ 16 , 49 , 50 ]. Therefore, we next asked whether prenatal MR blockade would be sufficient to change CA2 molecular identity in adulthood. Using immunofluorescence, we measured the protein expression of MR and two MR-dependent CA2 markers, PCP4 and NECAB2, in the CA2 pyramidal cell layer of adult animals that were prenatally exposed to spiro (Fig. 3 ). We found no difference in MR, PCP4, or NECAB2 immunofluorescence between spiro-treated animals and controls. Therefore, prenatal MR blockade does not cause any lasting expression of some CA2 protein markers as measured in adulthood.
a Representative images of PCP4 immunofluorescence in CA2 of adult animals from control (left panel) and spiro-treated litters (right panel). Scale bars are 100 μm. b Adult PCP4 expression in CA2 did not differ in offspring of control and treated litters (two-tailed, unpaired t-test, t (14) = 0.3903, p = 0.7022). c Representative images of NECAB2 immunofluorescence in CA2 of adult animals from control (left panel) and spiro-treated litters (right panel). Scale bars are 100 μm. d Adult NECAB2 expression in CA2 did not differ in offspring of control and treated litters (two-tailed, unpaired t-test, t (14) = 0.2339, p = 0.8185). e Representative images of MR immunofluorescence in CA2 of adult animals. f MR expression levels did not differ between control (left panel) and spiro-treated litters (right panel) (two-tailed, unpaired t-tests, t (14) = 0.5362, p = 0.6002). All scale bars are 100 µm.
Previously, we reported that in mice with MR deleted prenatally, using a Nestin-Cre line, staining for vGluT2 in CA2, which most likely labels axon terminals from SuM, was significantly decreased (Fig. 4a, b ) [ 16 , 51 ]. However, in mice with MR deleted postnatally, using an Amigo2-Cre line, vGluT2 staining was not significantly decreased. Given this apparent dependence of vGluT2 positive innervation of CA2 on embryonic MR expression, we asked whether vGluT2 staining may similarly be disrupted in spiro-treated mice. As the SuM is known to project heavily to both CA2 and DG and its axons can be stained with vGluT2 antibodies, we measured immunofluorescence for vGluT2 in both CA2 and the DG of adult animals in animals prenatally treated with spiro (Fig. 4c–f ). We found that vGluT2 immunofluorescence was significantly decreased in CA2 and DG in spiro-treated animals compared with controls. These data suggest that prenatal MR inhibition causes a lasting loss of presumed SuM axons in the hippocampus.
a Schematic representation of known SuM projections to CA2 and the DG of the hippocampus. SuM afferents are approximated by vGluT2 immunostaining in these regions, shown in an example in b . c Representative images of vGluT2 staining (red) in CA2 of control (top) and spiro-treated (bottom) mice. d Prenatal exposure to spiro led to decreased vGluT2 immunostaining in CA2, suggestive of decreased SuM input into this region (two-tailed, unpaired t-test, t (14) = 3.040, p = 0.0088). e Representative images of vGluT2 (red) staining in the DG of control (top) and spiro-treated mice. f Spiro exposure led to decreased vGluT2 immunostaining in the DG, also suggestive of decreased SuM input into this region (two-tailed, unpaired t-test with Welch’s correction, t (10.78) = 4.721, p = 0.0007). Scale bars are: b 200 µm; c and e 50 µm.
SuM-CA2 and SuM-DG circuits are activated by social and contextual novelty, respectively [ 14 ], and we previously found that MR deletion, either brain-wide or CA2-targeted, results in behavioral hyper-reactivity to novel objects and a loss of preference for social novelty [ 4 , 16 , 18 ]. Therefore, we asked if mice exposed to spiro prenatally, and thus with a likely disruption of SuM input, would similarly show differences in response to novel social and object stimuli. We found that spiro-treated animals showed hyper-reactivity to novel objects, evidenced by an increased cumulative duration of time spent in interaction zones about the objects (Fig. 5c, d ). We also tested social behavior in animals using the 3-chamber social assay. Similar to our findings with the conditional MR knockout animals, we found that animals in both treatment groups showed a significant preference for the cup with the novel animal over the empty cup (Fig. 5e, f ). However, in contrast to data from conditional knockout mice, we did not detect a significant difference in preference for a novel animal over a familiar animal; prenatal spiro-treated animals did not differ significantly in the ratio of time spent with the novel vs familiar mice when compared to controls (Fig. 5e, f ). We additionally tested spiro-treated animals and controls for measure anxiety-like tendencies in an open field assay. We found no difference in time spent in center (Fig. 5a, b ), distance traveled, or velocity (two-tailed, unpaired t-tests, distance traveled, p = 0.6221, velocity, p = 0.6347; not shown) in the open field, suggesting no effect of treatment on anxiety-like behaviors. These data suggest that preference for social novelty differs from reactivity to novel objects in its (lack of) susceptibility to prenatal MR inhibition; postnatal disruption of MR function or lasting changes in gene expression may be required for some social behaviors like social memory.
a Mice were allowed to freely explore a novel open arena (Open Field) for a 10-minute period. Anxiety-like behavior was measured by determining the cumulative time spent in the center of the arena (less time in the center is interpreted as greater anxiety). b The total duration of time spent in center did not differ between control and exposed groups (two-tailed, unpaired t-test, t (50) = 1.274, p = 0.2085). c Animals were tested for novel object reactivity in a familiarized testing arena. d Animals exposed to spiro prenatally spent more time in the interaction zones about novel objects than controls (two-tailed, unpaired t-test, t (50) = 2.295, p = 0.0260). e For a 10-minute period, subject mice were allowed to explore a familiarized three-chamber arena containing one novel conspecific within a cup in one chamber and an empty cup in the opposing chamber, which served as a test for sociability (1). Mice were then introduced to a second novel conspecific contained in the opposing chamber (2). The time spent in the interaction zones over a 10-min duration about the stimuli mice was measured. f Mice in both treatment groups showed a significant preference for the cup with the novel animal over the empty cup. (main effect of chamber: F(1,76) = 59.72, p < 0.0001; each treatment group, p < 0.0001; two-way ANOVA with Sidak’s multiple comparisons test. g The ratio of time spent about the novel mouse to the time spent about the familiar mouse did not differ between control and spiro-treated groups (two-tailed, unpaired t-test, t (35) = 1.216, p = 0.2322).
Pyramidal neurons in CA2 appear to play an important role in social recognition memory, yet little is known about the functional significance of MR expression there. Of interest is the enrichment of MR expression in CA2 not only in adults, but also early in development [ 24 ]. We previously showed that MR knockout mediated by Nestin promoter-driven Cre recombinase disrupted the molecular and synaptic profile of CA2 pyramidal neurons [ 16 ]. Nestin is specifically expressed during development in neuroepithelial stem cells and, thus, Nestin- driven Cre expression is established in all neurons of the brain beginning in development at embryonic day 7.75 [ 52 ]. However, from this, it was unclear whether embryonic MR activity alone is sufficient to drive the changes we observed, given the irreversible nature of the Cre-driven excision of LoxP-flanked MR allele. Therefore, to disrupt MR function in utero , we used gestational treatment of dams with spiro to temporally-confine MR blockade. We confirmed the release of spiro from the subcutaneous pellet and presence of major spiro metabolites in both the dam serum and pup brain. As 6-beta was the only major metabolite detected in the pup brain, we suggest that 6-beta is responsible for the spiro-induced effects. Although spiro itself can bind androgen receptors (ARs) and progesterone receptors, albeit at a lower affinity to than binding to MR [ 36 , 38 ], less is known about the efficacy and specificity of the metabolites like 6-beta [ 37 ]. That said, we think the observed effects of prenatal spiro were due to activity at MRs because we know of no evidence that ARs are expressed in the mouse hippocampus during the treatment window. To the contrary, it appears that AR expression does not increase to substantial levels until sometime after postnatal day 4 (P4), with some enrichment in CA2 by P14 (Allen Developing Mouse Brain Atlas). Future studies, however, will be required to determine the free concentrations of 6-beta in the embryonic brain as well as its binding and functional affinities at MRs (and ARs). Our findings reveal that prenatal MR inhibition is sufficient to alter CA2 circuitry, including inputs, likely arising from SuM, and outputs to dorsal CA1, as well as to change behavior in adulthood. We conclude that embryonic MR activity plays a fundamental role in establishing the connectivity and function of CA2 neurons that persists into adulthood. However, prenatal MR inhibition did not cause lasting disruption of a number of CA2 markers detected in adulthood, suggesting that the molecular fate of CA2 neurons was not disrupted by this treatment. That adult social behavior was not affected in the prenatal spiro treated animals, though, is inconsistent with findings from our previous study in which pre- or post-natal knockout of MR, which was sufficient to impair adult social behavior [ 16 , 18 ]. Thus, a more prolonged MR blockade, or temporary blockade of MR function during a different critical time window may be required for impairment of preference for social novelty. Alternatively, homeostatic type mechanisms may be compensating at the synaptic level for the early loss of MR function.
The primary target of CA2 neurons within the hippocampus is the SO in dorsal CA1, as well as in the CA1 SO and SR at more caudal levels [ 44 , 53 ]. Animals exposed to spiro embryonically showed reduced CA2 innervation of SO (in dorsal CA1), as measured by axonal expression of GFP arising from CA2 neurons. Neither CA2 cell number nor somatic GFP fluorescence were decreased, supporting our conclusion that it is the CA2 axons that were mistargeted or else failed to develop the normal number of axon collaterals. Because MR expression is required for expression of all tested CA2-enriched molecular markers [ 16 ], we suggest that MR may be upstream in the transcriptional control of CA2-unique guidance cues such as growth factors like NT3, that are diffusible to the extracellular environment [ 54 ]. Alternatively, MR may be important for expression of structural scaffolds like perineuronal nets, that could be responsible for the stabilization of SuM axons to these regions, as suggested previously [ 16 ].
The CA2 to dorsal CA1 subcircuit remains to be fully characterized for its functional consequences and role in behavior, although it does not appear to be required for social recognition memory [ 55 ], instead relying on ventral CA1 for CA2’s requirement in social memory 56 . We did not investigate CA2 axonal inputs to ventral CA1, so the contribution of that pathway to the normal social discrimination we observed in spiro-treated animals is to be determined. However, the CA2 to dorsal CA1 subcircuit has been implicated in novel object recognition [ 55 ], so the altered response to novel objects in our spiro-treated animals may be partially explained by the impaired CA2 innervation of dorsal CA1, which likely impaired CA2 to CA1 synaptic communication.
SuM input to each of CA2 and DG have been found to signal contextual and social novelty, respectively, in mice [ 14 ]. In their study, Chen et al. [ 14 ], reported that largely non-overlapping populations of SuM neurons were excited by either contextual or social novelty, although approximately one-third of SuM neurons responded to both stimuli. Retrograde labeling experiments similarly revealed largely non-overlapping SuM populations project to each region, although approximately one-quarter of neurons projected to both regions. We found that embryonic inhibition of MR had a pronounced impact on vGluT2 staining, which likely represents SuM terminals in both CA2 and DG. This finding suggests that embryonic MR activity, likely in CA2 and possibly in DG neurons, is required for appropriate establishment of SuM connections within the hippocampus. Of note, although the SuM is not known to express MRs at any age, DG granule neurons do express MRs, albeit at lower levels than CA2 neurons [ 57 , 58 ]. Although we interpret the vGluT2 staining to reflect SuM axons, several other extrahippocampal inputs to CA2 express vGluT2, namely a number of hypothalamic nuclei [ 59 ], which could instead, or in addition, be impacted by prenatal spiro and MR knockout. However, we note that the pattern of vGluT2 staining best matches the pattern of input from the SuM rather than input from the PVN, for example, in that it appears concentrated in the deep pyramidal cell layer in CA2 [ 14 , 60 ]. In addition, transection of the fimbia/fornix, which carries SuM axons to hippocampus, results in a significant loss of vGluT2 stain in CA2 [ 25 ]. For these reasons, we think that input from the SuM is impacted, but certainly vGluT2 staining may be reflecting inputs from elsewhere.
In behavioral assessments, we found that spiro-treated animals were hyper-reactive to novel objects, a contextual novelty phenotype, although they showed no deficits in a social discrimination assay. The presence of a contextual novelty phenotype, absent of a social novelty impairment, was somewhat surprising given our previous finding that whole-brain as well as CA2-targeted MR deletion impaired behaviors in response to both contextual and social novelty. Thus, embryonic MR does not appear to be sufficient to impact social behavior, which could be related to the adult gene expression. However, Chen et al. [ 14 ] reported that although inhibition of the SuM-DG pathway impairs contextual novelty detection, inhibition of the SuM-CA2 pathway does not impair social novelt y detection, suggesting redundancy in the circuit or compensatory changes in their studies and ours.
Despite prenatal exposure to spiro impairing establishment of CA2 input and output circuitry, we found no difference in adult expression levels of CA2 molecular markers, including MR, PCP4 and NECAB2. Most of the prominent histological markers for CA2 are first observed in early postnatal life, around the second postnatal week [ 21 , 22 , 23 ] and spiro was likely eliminated from the tissue by that age. Inhibition of MRs through spiro metabolites could also be accompanied by a subsequent physiological negative feedback response and restoration of baseline expression [ 16 , 61 ]. That PCP4 and NECAB2 expression in adults are unchanged with spiro treatment is likely reflective of the normal MR levels in CA2, arguing that CA2’s transcriptional program can be recovered upon restoration of MR function.
We cannot rule out whole-body effects of treatment and the potential that spiro is also acting on MRs outside of the hippocampus such as in either the dams’ or the embryos’ peripheral nervous systems or kidneys, thus making interpretation of its site of action difficult to disentangle [ 62 ]. As yet though, we know of no better method of inhibiting MRs in utero , in a time-limited way, thus making it the best approach available for addressing the role of MR activity on CA2 development. We note that full MR knockout animals were not shown to develop health issues until postnatal day 5, at which time they showed weight loss and death [ 63 ], suggesting that embryonic MRs, central or peripheral, are not required for embryonic development. We also observed no indication of poor pregnancy outcomes in the dams. Additionally, as our results closely parallel the findings observed in whole brain and forebrain-specific embryonic conditional knockout models [ 16 , 18 ], we think that the phenotypes observed are related to prenatal MR inhibition in the brain.
To comprehensively investigate the involvement of embryonic MR expression in the development of CA2 circuitry and function, future studies assessing the roles of CA2’s extrahippocampal projections and inputs in other CA2-dependent behaviors will be required. For example, both activation of a projection from CA2 to the lateral septum and the vasopressinergic input from the hypothalamus into CA2, are required for some social aggressive behaviors [ 11 , 64 ]. Therefore, social aggressive behavior in mice may also be susceptible to prenatal exposure to spiro, possibly by disruption of the CA2 projection to lateral septum. We hypothesize that MR activity during development is required for normal connectivity, and thus normal behavior. How both are derived from the capacity of MRs to bind DNA and exert transcriptional control awaits further investigation.
The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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We thank Emma Shaughnessy and Sydney Fry for their contributions to the early parts of this study, James Ward for advice on the statistical analysis of mass spec data, and the expert staff at both the NIEHS Fluorescence Microscopy and Imaging Center for their help with imaging and the NIEHS Neurobehavioral Core for help with behavioral analyses.
This research was funded by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, U.S. National Institutes of Health (ES 100221) and (ZIC ES103363). Open access funding provided by the National Institutes of Health.
Sarah Jo Sleiman
Present address: Neuroscience Curriculum, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
Katharine E. McCann
Present address: School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
Neurobiology Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
Stephanie M. Jones, Sarah Jo Sleiman, Katharine E. McCann, Georgia M. Alexander & Serena M. Dudek
Immunity, Inflammation, and Disease Laboratory, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27709, USA
Alan K. Jarmusch
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SMD & KEM conceived of the study; SMD, KEM, GMA, AKJ, SMJ & SJS designed the experiments; GMA, AKJ, SMJ & SJS performed the experiments and analyzed the data; SMJ and GMA wrote the manuscript with input from all the other authors.
Correspondence to Serena M. Dudek .
Competing interests.
The authors declare no competing interests.
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Jones, S.M., Sleiman, S.J., McCann, K.E. et al. Prenatal exposure to the mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist spironolactone disrupts hippocampal area CA2 connectivity and alters behavior in mice. Neuropsychopharmacol. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-024-01971-7
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Revised : 07 August 2024
Accepted : 14 August 2024
Published : 05 September 2024
DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41386-024-01971-7
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Difference Between Template And TemplateUrl In Angular
Occasionally, you may want to define a component’s template in Angular to control how it appears and functions. Angular offers two methods to add a template to a component: template and templateUrl. Despite having a similar appearance, they have diverse functions.
When using Angular , the @Component decorator function accepts an object as an argument that has multiple attributes, such as template and templateUrl. These properties are treated differently, but they are utilized to define the component’s template.
In Angular, a template is like a blueprint or layout that defines how your component should look on screen. It is written using HTML and can include Angular syntax to display data, handle user inputs, or control how elements are shown on the screen or hidden. Templates allow you to connect your components’ data to view. For example, if you have a user’s name in your component you can display it in your template using curly brackets like {{ user.name }}.
Key Features of Templates in Angular are:
Step 1: install angular cli.
If you have not installed Angular CLI , install it by using the following command.
Step 3: navigate to the project directory.
Folder Structure
Example of template
Below is a code example demonstrating the use of template in which we define the HTML content in template array in @component Decorator.
To start the application run the following command.
In Angular, templatUrl is a property you use to link an HTML file to a component. When you create a web page, you often separate the design (HTML) from the logic (JavaScript). In Angular, a component is like a building blocks of your web page. Each component can have its own design (HTML), logic (JavaScript) and styling (CSS) TemplateUrls is a way to tell angular where to find the HTML file. It helps keep your code organized by separating the design (HTML) from the logic (JavaScript).
Example of templateUrl:
Below is a code example demonstrating the use of templateUrl, which is linked to the app.component.html file of the App Component.
Feature | Template | TemplateUrl |
---|---|---|
Definition | HTML is written directly in typescript file. | HTML is kept in separate file. |
Usage | Good for small, simple components. | Good for large, more complex components. |
Ease of Use | Easy for quick, small tasks. | Better for organization and maintenance. |
Maintenance | Harder to maintain if HTML grows bigger. | Easier to maintain and read, especially as code grows. |
Analogy | Like writing a quick notes directly to your notebook. | Like writing your notes on a separate paper. |
Example | template: `<h1>Hello, World!</h1>` | templateUrl: ‘ ./hello.component.html’ |
In Angular, template and templateUrl are two approaches to provide HTML for a component. In template, you write the HTML code directly inside you component file whereas in templateUrl you put your HTML code in a separate file and link to it from your component file. For better clarification, use template for quick, small piece of HTML directly in the component file whereas use templateUrl for larger or more organized HTML in a separate file to keep your code clean.
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