social case study pcso

DSWD Program

How to Apply DSWD Death and Burial Assistance Cash Aid

The death of a loved one is always a difficult time. But it can be even more difficult when you’re struggling to cover the funeral’s costs financially. Thankfully, the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) offers death and burial assistance to help ease the burden. 

The DSWD Death Assistance or DSWD Burial Assistance is a cash aid grant that aims to assist indigent families with funeral expenses. It is part of the Assistance to Individuals in Crisis Situations and it is available to all Filipino citizens, regardless of age, gender, or religion. To apply, you will first need to be qualified for the program.

Also Read: How to Apply DSWD Educational Assistance Cash Aid

The post will go over what is needed for a person to apply for said assistance and what the benefits are should one be approved. It’ll also touch on how much DSWD buries an individual and what it covers funeral-wise so that families know exactly what they’re getting into before making an application. Hopefully, this post will provide some much-needed clarity during a difficult time.

Table of Contents

What Is DSWD Death And Burial Assistance

The Death and Burial Assistance program is a Social Amelioration Program of the Department of Social Welfare and Development. It provides financial aid to low-income families for the burial expenses of their deceased loved ones. The program is for needy Filipino citizens who die due to natural causes, such as illness, and not due to violence or crime. 

The assistance is in the form of a cash grant that can be used to cover funeral expenses such as the cost of the coffin, transport, food, and other related expenses. To be eligible for this assistance, applicants must be residents of the Philippines and provide proof of indigence or poverty. They must also provide proof of the individual’s death, such as a death certificate or obituary notice. 

The DSWD Death and Burial Assistance is one way that the government supports those struggling to make ends meet. It helps to ease the burden of funeral costs and allows families to focus on grieving during this difficult time.

What Are The Benefits Death and Burial Assistance from DSWD

The DSWD Death and Burial Assistance Program provides a one-time payment of PHP 10,000 to help with funeral expenses. This can be used for items such as a casket, funeral services, wake, burial plot, interment fees, transportation, etc.  

What Are The Requirements for Death and Burial Assistance from DSWD

• One of the requirements for DSWD death and burial assistance is a death certificate. This should be obtained from the hospital or doctor who pronounced the death. A certificate from the imam is also required if the deceased is a Muslim.
• The funeral contract is another requirement for DSWD death and burial assistance. This document outlines the arrangements made for the funeral, including the date, time, place, and cost. It should be signed by both the funeral home and the deceased’s family.
• A statement of account from the funeral home is also required. This document itemizes the costs associated with the funeral arrangements.
• In addition, a certificate from the barangay is needed to apply for DSWD death and burial assistance. This document certifies that the deceased was a resident of the barangay and that their bereaved family members are also indigent residents. A transfer permit from their previous barangay is also required for those who died outside of their residence. For deaths due to COVID-19, a quarantine permit from their place of isolation is needed instead of a transfer permit.
• A promissory note may also be required in cases where there are remaining expenses after DSWD death and burial assistance have been paid out. This document signifies that the bereaved family agrees to repay any remaining balance within six months from the date of the release of funds. 
• Lastly, a social case study report (SCSR) prepared by a trained social worker is needed to assess eligibility for other forms of social protection services provided by DSWD. 

How To Process the Death/Burial Assistance Program

Please follow these simple steps in terms of the procedure for getting death and burial assistance from DSWD:

Step 1: Screening – Screening is the first step in applying for the DSWD Death/Burial Assistance Program. During this phase, you will be required to submit certain documents so the agency can determine if you are eligible for assistance.

Step2: Assessment – The social worker will ask for basic information about the deceased and the family’s socio-economic status. Once the social worker has the necessary information, they will determine if the family is eligible for the program. 

Step 3: Payout – The final step is the payout, which a Cashier does. The Cashier will issue a check to the authorized representative of the family, who can then use it to pay for funeral expenses. 

Video: REQUIREMENTS 2022 FOR MEDICAL/HOSPITALIZATION, BURIAL, AND EDUCATIONAL ASSISTANCE

This video is all about the different requirements that the Department of Social Welfare and Development has for those who need medical assistance, hospitalization, or burial services and those who need help with their education. If you need any of these services, be sure to watch this video to know exactly what you need to do to get the help you need.

Frequently Asked Questions 

Here are some FAQs about the burial assistance program and death assistance from DSWD:

1. Where Can I Get Burial Assistance In The Philippines?

In the Philippines, several government-run programs provide financial assistance for burial expenses. The most well-known of these is the Department of Social Welfare and Development’s (DSWD) funeral assistance program. Under this program, eligible indigent families can receive up to PHP 10,000 to help cover funeral costs. 

2. How Do I Avail DSWD Burial Assistance?

DSWD provides funeral and burial assistance to needy individuals through its various programs. To avail of this assistance, you will need to submit the following documents: 

• Funeral Agreement.
• Certificate of Registered Death.
• Transfer permission/Health clearance (for transfer of cadaver)
• Letter of Referral (if applicable)
• Certificate of Indigence from the Client’s Barangay.
• Any legitimate client ID.

3. What Is Burial Assistance?

Burial assistance is a type of financial assistance that helps cover the costs of a funeral. In the Philippines, burial assistance is provided by the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD). Assistance can be used to cover the costs of a coffin, transportation, food, and other expenses.

4. How Do I Claim Senior Death Benefits In The Philippines?

To claim senior death benefits in the Philippines, you must visit your nearest DSWD office. You will need to bring the deceased senior citizen’s identification card and death certificate. Only the beneficiary or the one who took care of the deceased can claim the benefits. Once at the office, you must fill out a form. After filling out the form, you will then be able to claim the benefits.

5. When Will I Receive The Death And Burial Financial Assistance”?

DSWD will release the death and burial financial assistance in one day if the amount is less than 10,000 PHP. If the amount is more than 10,000 PHP, DSWD will release the death and burial financial assistance in 3 to 5 days. DSWD will release the death and burial financial assistance through bank or cash. 

6. Who Can I Call To Ask About The DSWD Death And Burial Assistance Program

If you are interested in learning more about this program, you can call the DSWD hotline at 0943 464 8026 or 0932 933 3251. The hotline is available 24 hours a day, seven days a week, and DSWD staff will be able to answer any questions you have about the program. You can also visit the DSWD website for more information.

7. What Are The Qualifications For The DSWD Death And Burial Assistance Program?

To be eligible for this program, you must meet the following criteria: The deceased must be a Filipino citizen.The death must have occurred in the Philippines.The family of the deceased must be indigent.The funeral must be held within seven days of the death. 

8. How Much Does The DSWD Death And Burial Assistance Program Provide?

The DSWD provides up to 10,000 PHP for funeral expenses. This money can be used to cover the costs of a coffin, transportation, food, and other expenses.

9. What Are The Documents Needed For The DSWD Death And Burial Assistance Program?

To avail of this assistance, you will need to submit the following documents: Funeral Agreement, Certificate of Registered Death, Certificate of Indigence from the Client’s Barangay, Any legitimate client ID.

The Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) provides death and burial assistance to the families of qualified beneficiaries. The program offers a maximum amount of PHP 10,000.00 for funeral expenses. Funeral assistance may be used to cover costs such as a casket, embalming, grave digging, flowers, and other related expenses. 

The agency should be contacted as soon as possible after a family member’s death so they can provide financial assistance for the funeral. DSWD will also investigate to assess the family’s need for assistance. If you need death or burial assistance, please contact your local DSWD office .

Find Medical Assistance

The following information may help you access financial support for cancer diagnosis and treatment.

PHILIPPINE CHARITY SWEEPSTAKES OFFICE

Prepare the following requirements:

• Treatment Protocol
• Prescription
• Clinical Abstract
• Biopsy Result
• Letter of request addressed to: Jose Ferdinand Rojas II General Manager Philippine Charity Sweepstakes Office E. Rodriguez Sr., Avenue Quezon City, Metro Manila

PCSO HELP DESK IN AFFILIATED HOSPITALS

Specifically known as ASAP (At Source Ang Processing). This program aims to facilitate accessibility in the filing and processing of request for Individual Medical Assistance Program (IMAP) for indigent patients confined in the affiliated hospital. Patients NEED NOT TO GO TO PCSO office to file their request for assistance. They can immediately file their request and submit the necessary requirements at the PCSO Help Desk.

For further inquiries you may visit at Radiotherapy Bldg, Lung Center of the Philippines Complex, Quezon Avenue, Quezon City or you may also call their landline 426-3735; 921-7608

SENATE OF THE PHILIPPINES

The following list of senators offers assistance to any patients from ANY GOVERNMENT HOSPITAL under the Department of Health. Patients must prepare the following documents:

• Laboratory Results
• Social Case Study
• Certificate of Indigency
• Endorsement letter from the hospital
• Billing from the hospital
• Identification card of the patient and requester
• Personal letter addressed to the following:

Senator Aquilino “Koko” Pimentel III Senate Office: Rm. 606-609 & 1 (New Wing 5/F) GSIS Bldg., Financial Center, Roxas Blvd., Pasay City Trunk Lines: (632) 552-6601 to 70 local no. 5548 Direct Line: (632) 822-9758

Senator Vicente C. Sotto III Senate Office: Rm. 603 & 24 (New Wing 5/F) GSIS Bldg., Financial Center, Roxas Blvd., Pasay City Trunk Lines: (632) 552-6601 to 70 local nos. 6501 to 6505 Direct Lines: (632) 659-5259 (Admin)/ (632) 804-0270 (Legis)

Senator Paolo Benigno Aquino IV Senate Office: Rm. 510 & 5 (New Wing 5/F) GSIS Bldg., Financial Center, Roxas Blvd., Pasay City Trunk Lines: (632) 552 6601 local nos. 6512 / 8623 Direct Line: (632) 552-6747

Senator Alan Peter “Compañero” S. Cayetano Senate Office: Rm. 602 & 11 (New Wing 5/F) GSIS Bldg., Financial Center, Roxas Blvd., Pasay City Trunk Lines: (632) 552-6601 to 70 local no. 5520

Senator Leila De Lima Senate Office: Rm. 502 & 16 (New Wing 5/F) GSIS Bldg., Financial Center, Roxas Blvd., Pasay City Trunk Lines: (632) 552-6601 to 70 local nos. 5750 / (Rm. 16) 8619 Direct Lines: (Rm. 502) 807-8489 / (Rm. 16) 807-8580

Senator Francis “Chiz” G. Escudero Senate Office: Rm. 517 & 10 (New Wing 5/F) GSIS Bldg., Financial Center, Roxas Blvd., Pasay City Trunk Lines: (632) 552-6601 to 70 local nos. 6537 / 6540 / 8610 Direct Line: (632) 833-5034

Senator Emmanuel “Manny” D. Pacquiao Senate Office: Rm. 526 & 6 (New Wing 5/F) GSIS Bldg., Financial Center, Roxas Blvd., Pasay City Trunk Lines: (632) 552-6601 to 70 local nos. 5701-5702 Direct Lines: (632) 552-6686 / (632) 552-6685

Senator Antonio “Sonny” F. Trillanes IV Senate Office: Rm. 519 & 15 (New Wing 5/F) GSIS Bldg., Financial Center, Roxas Blvd., Pasay City Trunk Lines: (632) 552-6601 to 70 local nos. 5666 / 5667 Direct Line: (632) 833-6257

Senator Maria Lourdes “Nancy” S. Binay Senate Office: Rm. 523 & 14 (New Wing 5/F) GSIS Bldg., Financial Center, Roxas Blvd., Pasay City Trunk Lines: (632) 552-6601 to 70 local no. 8616 Direct Line: (632) 502-9477 *NOTE. Senator Nancy Binay only offers assistance to patients from ages 0-17 years old.

SUBMISSION OF APPLICATION IS EVERY MONDAY (8AM-5PM)

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

The House of Representatives offers assistance to patients from NATIONAL KIDNEY AND TRANSPLANT INSTITUTE, EAST AVENUE MEDICAL CENTER, and PHILIPPINE HEART CENTER. Patients must prepare the following documents:

• Medical Certificate

You may pass these documents at Constitutional Hills, Quezon City every MONDAY (8am-5pm). For further inquiries you may call the following numbers:

House of Representatives: 931-5001 National Kidney and Transplant Institute: (63) (2) 981-0300, 981-0400 East Avenue Medical Center: (632) 928-0611 Philippine Heart Center: (632) 925-2401

OTHER INSTITUTION THAT OFFERS ASSISTANCE FOR CANCER PATIENTS

REDEMPTORIST CHURCH (BACLARAN) Redemptorist Church offers assistance to patients from PHILIPPINE GENERAL HOSPITAL, PHILIPPINE CHILDREN’S MEDICAL CENTER, NATIONAL CHILDREN’S HOSPITAL, and JOSE REYES MEDICAL CENTER. You can approach the SOCIAL SERVICE of these hospitals for more information or you may call 832-1150.

GMA KAPUSO FOUNDATION GMA Kapuso Foundation offers assistance to patient age 0-18 years old from ANY GOVERNMENT HOSPITALS. Patient must prepare the following documents:

• Medical Certificate/Clinical Abstract

For more details, you may call their landline 928-4299 or you can go to 2/F Kapuso Center Samar St. Cor. Jamboree St. Diliman, Quezon City.

ABS-CBN TULONG CENTER ABS-CBN Tulong Center offers assistance to patients from any government hospitals. Patients must prepare the following documents:

• Medical Abstract (Updated)
• Prescription/Laboratory Request
• Referral from the hospital

You can pass these requirements at ABS-CBN Center Road, Mo. Ignacia St. in Quezon City or you may also call their landline 414-1296/414-5431

ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST PARISH/QUIAPO CHURCH St. John the Baptist Parish only offers MEDICAL ASSISTANCE. Patients must submit the following requirements:

• Social Indigency
• Barangay Certificate
• Identification card of the patient and the immediate family accompanying them

You can pass the following requirements every TUESDAY-FRIDAY (9AM). For further inquiries, you may call their landline 733-4945.

KYTHE FOUNDATION Kythe Foundation offers assistance to KIDS CANCER PATIENT from Philippine Children’s Medical Center, National Children’s Hospital, Armed Forces of the Philippines Medical Center and Philippine Orthopedic Center. You can approach KYTHE DESK COORDINATOR on these following hospitals. For more inquiries, you may call 376-3454 or visit them at Room 201 FSS 1 Bldg. #20 Sct. Tuason Corner St. Brgy. Laging Handa, Quezon City.

ANDRES SORIANO FOUNDATION Andres Soriano Foundation offers assistance to patients with BREAST CANCER STAGE I-II or better. Patients must prepare the following:

• Profile of patient, diagnosis (original or certified true copy of medical abstract and histopathology or biopsy results), history, plan of treatment/doctor’s report with his name, signature and license number.
• Names of medication needed (prescription of all drugs signed by the medical officer with his/her license number) and prices (include source of price information).
• Letter of request for financial assistance from the patient.
• Photocopy of identification card with latest picture of the requesting person with his/her signature on the back.
• Personal letter addressed to:

LEMIA SIMBULAN Executive Director Andres Soriano Foundation Andrew Avenue , Pasay City 1300

You may also call their landline 831-9941/834-0872

Copyright © 2014 Philippine Cancer Society Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Home » Government Services » PCSO » How to Avail of PCSO Medical Assistance Program

How to Avail of PCSO Medical Assistance Program

Do you need money for your health problem or for someone you love? You can ask for help from the PCSO Medical Assistance Program. This is a program from the Philippine Charity Sweepstakes Office (PCSO) that gives money to poor Filipinos who need help with their medical bills.

This program started in 1993 and works with many hospitals, health centers, medicine stores, and other government offices like DSWD. They want to help Filipinos who have no money for their health needs.

In this article, we will tell you how to ask for help from the PCSO Medical Assistance Program in 2023. We will also tell you what you need to prepare and what they can help you with. We will also give you a list of hospitals that work with PCSO.

What is PCSO?

The Philippine Charity Sweepstakes Office (PCSO) is a government agency that runs lotteries and other games of chance in the Philippines. President Manuel L. Quezon established it in 1935 to raise money for charitable and health-related initiatives.

The PCSO is known for its popular lotto games, such as Swertres , Lotto 6/42, Mega Lotto 6/45, Super Lotto 6/49, Grand Lotto 6/55, and Ultra Lotto 6/58. These games have made many Filipinos millionaires and have also helped many others who need medical assistance. The PCSO also has other games like Keno, Scratch-It, and STL.

Who is Eligible for PCSO Medical Assistance?

The PCSO Medical Assistance Program can help patients who have a health problem and need money for it. Patients can apply by themselves or through a representative. They need to have these documents:

• A medical or clinical abstract that says they are in a hospital or health center, or they are going to one, or they need to go to another country for their treatment because no local hospital or health center can do it.
• An ID card or any proof of identity and citizenship that shows who they are and that they are Filipinos.
• A PCSO IMAP Application Form that they fill out from PCSO to ask for help.
• A medical abstract or a clinical abstract from their doctor that tells about their health problem and has their name and number on it.
• A statement of account or a billing statement from the hospital or health center that tells how much money they need to pay them.
• A social case study report from a DSWD or LGU social worker that tells about their situation and why they need help

The program can help patients who are in a government or private hospital, or who have left the hospital but still owe them money. It can also help patients who have a health problem that needs regular treatment outside the hospital, like cancer or kidney dialysis. It can also help patients who need to go to another country for their treatment because no local hospital or health center can do it.

PCSO Medical Assistance Requirements

To avail of PCSO Medical Assistance for your hospital bills, you need to submit these papers to PCSO. You may also need to meet some additional requirements, depending on your request from the PCSO.

• A fully-accomplished PCSO IMAP Application Form. Download it here .
• A Medical Abstract or a Clinical Abstract that your doctor signs and writes your health problem and their name and license number on it. You can get this from the Medical Records Section of the hospital. Tell them you need it for PCSO help.
• Handwritten Request for Financial Assistance Addressed to PCSO General Manager Alexander Bulutan or PCSO Chairman Simeon Pinili.
• A statement of account or a billing statement from the hospital that tells how much money you need to pay them. You can get this from the finance and billing section of the hospital. The Billing Officer or Credit Supervisor should sign it. If you are in the pay section, tell them you need it for PCSO help. Make sure it has all the deductions on it.
• A valid ID of the patient and the representative. This can be a government ID like a passport, Driver’s License , GSIS eCard, PRC ID , Voter’s ID, PhilHealth ID, or Senior Citizen’s ID. It can also be a Company ID or a Student ID.
• If you are in the charity or social service section of the hospital, a paper from the Medical Social Services of the hospital says they agree with your request for PCSO help.
• If you have left the hospital but still owe them money, get a paper from the hospital that says how much money you still need to pay them. This can be a promissory note that the hospital signs or certification with your remaining balance.
• If your health problem is because of an accident or a crime, get a copy of the report from the police or the traffic enforcers that tells what happened.

How To Apply for PCSO Medical Assistance

If you already have all the requirements stated above, you may now proceed in applying for the PCSO Medical Assistance Program.

For Patients from NCR

Starting February 1, 2022, those from the NCR need to apply online through the NCR Online Application System. To apply online, here are the steps you need to follow:

• Scan all the documentary requirements. Make sure they are clear and easy to read.
• Go to https://www.pcso.gov.ph/ and click “E-Services”. Choose the NCR Online Application for Medical Assistance and click “Proceed to Online Application”.
• Supply all the needed information about the patient’s details.
• Attach all the documents you scanned to the system. Each file should not be larger than 2MB.
• You will get an email from PCSO on the same day saying they received your request.
• If your request is approved, they will send you a Guarantee Letter. Print this and the MAP application form.
• Submit the Guarantee Letter, the MAP application form, and all the documents to the hospital, dialysis center, partner health facility (PHF), medicine retailer, or diagnostic center where you get your treatment.

Apply as early as you can. The website will only take requests from 8:00 AM to 3:00 PM. They also have a limit on how many requests they can help with each day. If they reach the limit, you can try again the next day.

For Non-NCR Patients

If you are not in the NCR, you can go to the nearest PCSO Regional Office and submit the application requirements. Their personnel will check your documents, and you will then be scheduled for an interview.

How to Check the Status of the Application

You can check the status of your PCSO Medical Assistance request online or by phone. To check it online, go to the PCSO website, click the IMAP Status Inquiry link, and then enter your Guarantee Letter number and the date of issuance of the IMAP.

To inquire by phone, call the PCSO hotline at (02) 8465-7000 or (02) 8708-7080. Provide your name, GL number, and date of issuance to inquire about your application status.

what if you do not have the guarantee letter .but you have submitted all the requirements needed? what will i do ?

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PCSO Medical Assistance for Hemodialysis

INDIVIDUAL MEDICAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAM (IMAP) of the PCSO

Office/Department in Charge:  Fund Allocation Department

Location:  PCSO-Lung Center of the Philippines Office or at PCSO Regional Offices

Schedule:  Mondays to Fridays 6:00 AM – 5:00PM

Documents Required for REQUESTING FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR DIALYSIS from PCSO:

• Personal Letter Request addressed to the Chairman/General Manager of PCSO
• Original or Certified True Copy of the Updated Clinical Abstract, signed by the doctor with license and PTR #
• Endorsement or Certificate of Acceptance of PCSO guarantee letter from the hospital or dialysis center
• Official Price Quotation of dialysis
• Social Case Study Report from Local Government Unit Local Government (optional)
• Relevant laboratory result
• Valid ID (patient and representative)

. Keep copies of your documents for your subsequent requests.

. For your subsequent filing for assistance, file 2 months after the release date of your last Guarantee Letter.  This 2-month rule might change, so ask.

. Here’s a personal narrative from Narciso Tapia who wrote about his experience in asking for hemodialysis cost assistance from PCSO. I discovered his post while searching online:

Steps in getting PCSO financial assistance for hemodialysis

.  An article on inquirer.net says that hemodialysis assistance ranges from 10,000 to 15,000 pesos per application, depending on social status (“the less you have in life, the more we will give. The more you have, the less we give”)

. You can file your request through your representative if you’re unable to go to PCSO. Your representative presents your authorization letter, your ID and his/her ID.

. Go to PCSO very early, so you’ll get within the cut-off number for the day.

.  If the facility has not yet been improved to accommodate more seats, be ready to stand for two hours, three hours or more.

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Tackling anti-social behaviour: case studies

A series of council case studies on anti-social behaviour.

Foreword by Councillor Nesil Caliskan, Chair of the LGA’s Safer and Stronger Communities Board

Left untackled we know that anti-social behaviour (ASB) can have a devastating impact on communities and individuals. Many ASB offences are serious issues for local residents and businesses, and councils are keen to protect them from offenders who can make the lives of those they target a misery.

When we use the term “anti-social behaviour”, we are referring to behaviour which involves “acting in a manner that causes or is likely to cause harassment, alarm or distress to one or more persons not of the same household”.

We sometimes hear ASB referred to as ‘low-level’ crime, but this dismisses the cumulative impact that anti-social behaviour can have on its victims. As Baroness Newlove, the former Victims Commissioner for England and Wales, highlights in her report “ Anti-Social Behaviour: Living a Nightmare”.

ASB is often downplayed as a petty, ‘low-level’ crime. But put yourself in their shoes – to suffer from ASB is an ordeal that causes misery, disturbs sleep, anxiety, work and relationships – leaving victims feeling unsafe and afraid in their own homes. It can feel like you are living a nightmare. 

During the COVID-19 pandemic, the National Police Chiefs’ Council identified an increase in reports of anti-social behaviour, particularly during the lockdown period. In part, they found this could be attributed to noise nuisance and neighbour disputes, as well as wider perceptions of households flouting the social-distancing rules.

Over time, there will need to be a full asessment as to why there has been an increase in ASB referrals during the pandemic and whether this trend continues post-lockdown. What remains clear is that anti-social behaviour continues to be prevalent in our local communities, and all partners need to take action to help prevent and tackle this type of behaviour. 

The Anti-social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014 seeks to place victims at the heart of local responses to anti-social behaviour. Through the introduction of ASB case reviews (known as the ‘Community Trigger’), the Act provides a mechanism to help ASB victims. The Community Trigger also offers an opportunity to review those responses where problems continue, to make sure councils, the police and their partners have done all they can to intervene and take further action where needed.

We have pulled together a series of case studies to highlight some examples of best practice across local government. The case studies highlight how councils have been working in partnership to deliver support for ASB victims and tackle perpetrator’s behaviour.

We also wanted to highlight areas that have taken the ASB Help Pledge , which demonstrates a commitment to improving awareness of the Community Trigger process and using the Community Trigger to put victims first and deter perpetrators. (Further information on the Community Trigger is included within this case studies document, available on this Gov.UK webpage , or included within the Government’s statutory guidance .)

We would like to thank all the councils and their partners who shared their experiences and examples of best practice. We would also like to thank ASB Help, who continue to provide support to councils on taking the ASB Help Pledge.

I hope you find these case studies useful.

North Tyneside Council: working with young people to improve their life chances

Sheffield Council: neighbourhood officers helping to reduce ASB for council housing tenants

Copeland Council: a multi-agency local focus hub to tackle ASB and low-level crime

Lincolnshire Council: sharing information to improve consistency in practice across the county

Portsmouth Council: pandemic response creates opportunities to address homelessness-related ASB

Surrey Council: mediation, coaching and support for victims of anti-social behaviour

Richmondshire Council: preventing anti-social behaviour at Richmond beauty spots

Plymouth Council: community-led action to reduce crime and ASB in North Stonehouse

Derbyshire Council: a consistent approach to the Community Trigger across 10 councils

Sandwell Council: reviewing the Community Trigger process to strengthen support for victims

Community Trigger – explanatory note

The Home Office statutory guidance outlines the following information on the Community Trigger process:  Purpose: To give victims and communities the right to request a review of their case where a local threshold is met, and to bring agencies together to take a joined up, problem-solving approach to find a solution for the victim. Relevant bodies and responsible authorities: Councils; Police; Clinical Commissioning Groups in England and Local Health Boards in Wales; and Registered providers of social housing who are co-opted into this group. Threshold: To be defined by the local agencies, but not more than three complaints in the previous six-month period. May also take account of: - the persistence of the anti-social behaviour; - the harm or potential harm caused by the anti-social behaviour; - the adequacy of response to the anti-social behaviour. The relevant bodies (listed above) must publish details of the procedure to ensure that victims are aware that they can apply in appropriate circumstances. Details: When an ASB Case Review is requested, the relevant bodies must decide whether the threshold has been met and communicate this to the victim. If the threshold is met: - a case review will be undertaken by the relevant bodies. They will share information related to the case, review what action has previously been taken and decide whether additional actions are possible. The local ASB Case Review procedure should clearly state the timescales in which the review will be undertaken; - the review will see the relevant bodies adopting a problem-solving approach to ensure that all the drivers and causes of the behaviour are identified and a solution sought, whilst ensuring that the victim receives appropriate support; - the victim is informed of the outcome of the review. Where further actions are necessary an action plan will be discussed with the victim, including timescales. If the threshold is not met: - although the formal procedures will not be invoked, this does provide an opportunity for the relevant bodies to review the case to determine whether there is more that can be done. Agencies have a duty to publish specified data on the Community Trigger at least  every twelve months. Who can use the ASB Case Review/Community Trigger procedure:   A victim of anti-social behaviour or another person acting on behalf of the victim with his or her consent, such as a carer or family member, Member of Parliament, local councillor or other professional. The victim may be an individual, a business or a community group.

Further information and resources

• Home Office ASB 2014 Act statutory guidance and updated webpage on the community trigger (updated January 2021)
• ACC Andy Prophet’s presentation on ASB statistics (September 2020)
• LGA guidance on the Anti-Social Behaviour, Crime and Policing Act 2014 and Implementing the Community Trigger and LGA guidance on Public Spaces Protection Orders (PSPOs).
• Dame Vera Baird’s presentation to the LGA’s Safer and Stronger Communities Board.
• Local government practitioner, Daryl Edmunds presentation on how councils can make use of ASB tools

If you would like to get in touch about the case studies or discuss this policy issue in further detail, please contact [email protected]

With thanks to Rachel Potter, who the LGA commissioned to write this report.

Chester Police and PCSO Davies kick off physical activity in local communities

Activators can be found in all walks of life. Community leaders, such as police and community support officers [PCSO’s], have a strong and unique connection with their local area and local people.

As well as creating safer neighbourhoods, PCSOs have grown to support communities in the prevention of crime by getting to know their local people through community engagement.

Chester Police began to deliver youth engagement sessions around six years ago to help break down the barriers that existed between police services and young people in Chester and wider areas of Cheshire West. What started with a football and a few dedicated PCSOs has grown into something that children and young people across Chester, Frodsham, Malpas and Northwich now eagerly await and look forward to.

Three years ago PCSO Lauren Davies (left) joined Chester Police with a beat area of Handbridge and Westminster Park. Over her time as a local PCSO, Lauren began to lead on the youth engagement sessions and is now the youth engagement PCSO for Chester and the surrounding areas. A keen footballer herself, she has a strong interest in physical activity (regularly hitting the recommended guidelines of 150 minutes of physical activity a week!) and proves a worthy opponent for the children and young people she engages with.

In 2017 Lauren led the busiest year yet, holding 37 plus events, 19 of which happened over the summer holidays – a period of time when anti-social behaviour can spike due to schools being closed.

Using the panna cage (right), or often just a ball and a field – and sometimes teaming up with other organisations such as community safety wardens at Cheshire West and Chester Council , and community interest companies such as Streetwise Soccer -, Lauren and the Chester Police team use sport and physical activity to connect with children and young people. Uniformed police even join in to normalise and encourage interaction with the people there to protect the community.

Not only are the events good for building relationships and getting kids to burn off steam, but also for education. While young people play, the police team have opportunities to chat with them and parents about other issues, such as anti-social behaviour, drug use, drinking, swearing, and poor behaviour, and more.

Lauren has kids from as young as two right up to age 16 joining in and has big plans to use physical activity to continue to break down barriers between young people and police, strengthening the trust and respect between them, creating safer communities for all over 2018. This year Chester Police have invested in brand new equipment, including an inflatable panna cage (below).

Lauren and Chester Police are an excellent example of Activators in their local community – using physical activity and sport, not just to encourage people to do more activity in their daily lives, but also for a range of social and community cohesion. For more information about activators, visit the Activators webpage , or call 01606 330 212.

Privacy Overview

New study reveals high risk of overdose deaths in Cuyahoga County among those using drugs when they’re alone

In Cuyahoga County, the stark reality of the opioid crisis is that most drug overdose victims die alone, with no one nearby to help.

A recent study , done in partnership with Case Western Reserve University and Cuyahoga County, highlights the critical need for “targeted harm-reduction strategies” in Northeast Ohio, where the opioid epidemic continues to claim lives at nearly twice the national average.

Those strategies include the distribution of Naloxone (an opioid antagonist that can reverse the effects of an overdose), and increasing the availability of medication-assisted treatment options and fentanyl test strips.

The research, using data from the  Cuyahoga County Medical Examiner’s Office , examined overdose deaths between 2016 and 2020, focusing on people using drugs when they were alone.

The study revealed that a staggering 75% of overdose victims were using drugs alone, a behavior strongly associated with increased mortality. Key findings indicate that individuals using drugs alone were more likely to be at home and less likely to receive life-saving interventions like naloxone, said  Daniel Flannery , the Dr. Semi J. and Ruth Begun Professor and director of the  Begun Center for Violence Prevention Research and Education .

“Being informed is crucial—knowledge equips you to take action,”  Flannery  said. “It’s about reviving someone in need, and if that’s not possible, contacting emergency services immediately. The chances of a fatal outcome significantly increase when there’s no one around to help.”

New policies and community efforts must prioritize reaching individuals at risk of using alone to curb the devastating impact of the opioid crisis, said  Vaishali Deo , research associate at the Begun Center and co-principal investigator in the research.

“Our findings underscore the urgent need for innovative harm-reduction strategies aimed at those most vulnerable—those using drugs alone,” Deo said. “Interventions must focus on reducing isolation and improving access to emergency medical care to prevent further loss of life.”

The research findings were published by the National Institutes of Health’s  National Library of Medicine .

Additional insights

• In Cuyahoga County, from 2016 through 2020, there were 2,944 unintentional overdose deaths for those over 18 years old. That’s 54 deaths per 100,000 residents. The national average is 28 overdose deaths per 100,000 residents.
• The study further details the demographics and circumstances surrounding overdose deaths in Cuyahoga County from 2016 to 2020. Most were non-Hispanic (94.9%), white (72.2%) and male (71.3%), with a significant portion 35 to 64 years old. Most lived in the City of Cleveland. Over half attained at least a high school diploma.
• Toxicology reports revealed that synthetic opioids, specifically illicitly manufactured fentanyl, was present in 72.7% of the deaths. Cocaine and heroin were also significant contributors, found in 41.6% and 29.6% of cases, respectively. Nearly 80% of overdose deaths involved the use of multiple substances.
• Despite the presence of bystanders in more than half the cases, most victims (74.9%) were using drugs alone at the time of their fatal overdose, mainly at home. Emergency medical services responded to most of the incidents, yet over 60% of victims were pronounced dead at the scene—highlighting the critical timing needed for interventions like naloxone, which was administered in just 28.6% of the cases.

Deo and Flannery were joined in the research by Sarah Fulton, a research associate at the Begun Center, and Manreet K. Bhullar, a senior forensic epidemiologist at the Cuyahoga County Medical Examiner’s Office, and Thomas P. Gilson, chief medical examiner of Cuyahoga County.

“These findings paint a stark picture of the opioid crisis in our community,” Gilson said. “The tragic reality is that too many people are dying alone, and we must act swiftly to implement lifesaving measures that can prevent these unnecessary deaths.”

For more information, contact Colin McEwen .

5 Amazing Small Business Case Study Examples for Marketers

In the competitive landscape of small businesses, standing out requires more than just great products or services. It demands compelling stories that resonate with your target audience. Case studies, real-world examples of marketing your product or service, are powerful tools to build trust. Let’s explore nine inspiring small business case study examples that have harnessed the power of storytelling to achieve remarkable results.

Power of Case Studies

Before exploring these inspiring examples, understand the profound impact that well-crafted case studies can have:

• A compelling case study does more than showcase your product or service. It tells a story that resonates with your audience.
• It transforms abstract benefits into tangible results, helping potential customers visualize themselves achieving similar success.
• Case studies build trust and credibility by highlighting specific challenges, solutions, and outcomes.

When a small business shares how it successfully navigated a problem, it positions itself as an expert in the industry. This expertise is backed by real-world results, which makes your brand more trustworthy in the eyes of potential customers.

Small business case study examples are powerful social proof that your offerings deliver real value. According to a survey by the Content Marketing Institute:

“73% of marketers say that case studies are one of the most effective forms of content for influencing purchasing decisions.”

This is because they provide potential customers with evidence that your solution works and can help them achieve similar results.

Small Business Case Study Examples

Here are a few small business case study examples you can not miss to analyze:

Zapier is a prime example of how strategic SEO and content marketing can drive massive organic traffic and user growth. It faced the challenge of increasing its visibility in a crowded market to establish itself as a go-to platform for automation.

Through a meticulously planned SEO strategy, they set a precedent for how small businesses can leverage content and partnerships to fuel growth.

In its early days, Zapier faced a significant challenge. It was how to stand out in a rapidly growing market of productivity and automation tools. With numerous competitors offering similar services, it needed to find a way to differentiate itself and drive organic traffic.

The company recognized the importance of online presence and visibility to attract new users and grow its platform.

The challenge was clear. Zapier needed to boost its SEO efforts and increase website traffic to sustain growth and stay competitive.

To tackle this challenge, the company implemented an ambitious SEO strategy focused on long-tail keywords. These are often less competitive and more targeted.

The company created 25,000 unique landing pages, each optimized for specific long-tail keywords related to their services.

These pages were not just automated templates. They featured well-structured, human-written content that addressed the specific needs of potential users searching for those keywords.

Zapier also developed a comprehensive playbook for onboarding new apps and partners.

By involving their partners, the company generated a vast amount of content without overwhelming their in-house team. These partners wrote high-quality guest posts for their sites, including backlinks to Zapier, further strengthening Zapier’s SEO and increasing referral traffic.

This boosted its domain authority and helped attract new users by increasing the company’s visibility across various online platforms.

Zapier’s strategic SEO and content marketing efforts paid off tremendously. The creation of 25,000 optimized landing pages significantly increased organic traffic, making it easier for potential users to discover Zapier through search engines.

Collaborating with partners for content creation and link building further amplified their online presence, driving even more traffic to the website.

Today, Zapier is recognized as a leader in the automation industry, with a robust user base and a solid online presence, largely thanks to its strategic use of SEO and content partnerships.

Key Takeaways

• Leverage long-tail keywords to create targeted, relevant content that drives organic traffic.
• Create multiple landing pages with well-optimized, human-written content to improve search engine visibility.
• Collaborate with partners to scale content creation and build valuable backlinks.
• Outsource link-building efforts to trusted partners to increase domain authority and attract more users.
• Focus on SEO as a long-term strategy to establish and maintain a solid online presence.

“One more thing…”—a phrase famously used by Steve Jobs during Apple keynotes, signaling the introduction of a groundbreaking product or idea. This phrase perfectly encapsulates Apple’s approach to innovation and branding: consistently delivering something unexpected and transformative.

It’s a testament to Apple’s commitment to pushing boundaries and setting new standards in the industry. This philosophy is reflected in their products and their approach to overcoming challenges and driving success.

Apple’s journey from a struggling tech company to a global powerhouse is a powerful case study of how strategic innovation and branding can redefine an entire industry.

In its early years, Apple faced a series of significant challenges. The company was battling financial difficulties, lagging behind competitors like IBM and Microsoft, and struggling to establish a strong foothold in the highly competitive technology market.

One of the most pressing challenges was Apple’s inability to define its brand identity clearly and differentiate itself from other players in the industry. The company’s products, while innovative, were not achieving the desired market penetration, and Apple was at risk of becoming irrelevant in a rapidly evolving market.

Additionally, Apple faced the challenge of creating products that were not only innovative but also accessible and appealing to a broader consumer base. The company needed to balance its focus on design and technology with the need for mass-market appeal.

Apple also had to overcome internal challenges, including management instability and a lack of cohesive vision, hindering its ability to execute a unified strategy.

To address these challenges, Apple, under the leadership of Steve Jobs, implemented a multi-faceted strategy that focused on innovation, design, and brand reinvention.

Apple doubled down on its commitment to innovation, focusing on creating products that were not only technologically advanced but also user-friendly and beautifully designed.

The launch of the Macintosh in 1984, for instance, was a turning point that showcased Apple’s ability to combine cutting-edge technology with an intuitive user experience. The focus on innovation continued with the development of iconic products like the iPod, iPhone, and iPad, each revolutionizing its respective industry.

Recognizing the need for a solid and consistent brand identity, Apple undertook a significant rebranding effort. This included simplifying its logo, as previously mentioned. It involved redefining Apple’s image as a brand synonymous with innovation, creativity, and premium quality.

The “Think Different” campaign was instrumental in positioning Apple as a brand that stood for innovation and rebellion against the status quo. It resonated deeply with consumers and differentiated Apple from its competitors.

Apple strongly emphasized design and user experience, ensuring that every product performed well and looked and felt exceptional. This strategy extended to the Apple ecosystem, where seamless integration between devices created a unique and compelling user experience that competitors struggled to match.

Apple’s strategic decisions paid off handsomely, transforming the company from a struggling business into the most valuable company in the world. The focus on innovation and design resulted in products that captured market share and created entirely new markets.

The iPod revolutionized the music industry, the iPhone redefined mobile communication, and the iPad opened up new possibilities in personal computing.

The rebranding efforts and the “Think Different” campaign helped establish Apple as a premium brand with a loyal customer base. Apple’s products became status symbols, and the company cultivated a reputation for quality, reliability, and cutting-edge technology.

The Apple Stores further solidified this brand image, providing customers with an immersive, personalized experience that drove sales and brand loyalty.

Under Jobs’ leadership, Apple’s stock price soared, and the company’s market capitalization grew exponentially. Apple’s ability to consistently innovate and reinvent itself has ensured its continued success, making it a dominant force in the technology industry.

• Innovation is vital to staying ahead in a competitive market; consistently developing groundbreaking products can redefine entire industries.
• A strong, cohesive brand identity is essential for differentiating a company from its competitors and building customer loyalty.
• User experience and design are critical factors in product success; functional and aesthetically pleasing products create lasting consumer appeal.
• Retail strategy and direct customer engagement can enhance brand perception and drive sales.
• Leadership and vision are crucial for maintaining focus and executing a successful long-term strategy.

In 2009, Uber emerged with a bold vision: to transform the transportation industry by offering a convenient, reliable, and tech-driven alternative to traditional taxi services.

What began as a simple idea—connecting riders with drivers through a smartphone app—quickly became a global phenomenon that disrupted how people move in cities worldwide.

Uber’s journey from a small startup to a multi-billion-dollar company is a powerful example of how technology, innovative business models, and strategic execution can revolutionize an entire industry.

Uber’s rise from a startup to a multi-billion-dollar company is a compelling case study in leveraging technology, innovative business models, and strategic marketing to disrupt an entire industry.

When Uber was founded in 2009, the transportation industry was dominated by traditional taxi services, often criticized for being inefficient, expensive, and difficult to access. Customers frequently faced challenges such as long wait times, unclear pricing, and poor service.

Uber identified these pain points and recognized an opportunity to disrupt the market by providing a more convenient, reliable, and cost-effective solution.

However, the challenge was not just about creating a better service. It was about convincing both consumers and regulators to accept a completely new model of transportation that relied on private drivers and mobile technology.

To overcome these challenges, Uber implemented a multi-pronged strategy that combined technology, aggressive marketing, and strategic partnerships. Uber’s core innovation was its mobile app, which allowed users to book a ride with just a few taps on their smartphone.

The app provided real-time tracking of drivers, transparent pricing, and the convenience of cashless payments, addressing many issues plaguing traditional taxi services.

Uber also introduced dynamic pricing, known as “surge pricing,” which adjusted fares based on demand, ensuring that riders could always find a ride, even during peak times.

Uber’s business model was disruptive in that it didn’t own any vehicles or employ drivers in the traditional sense. Instead, Uber acted as a platform that connected independent drivers with passengers.

This allowed Uber to scale rapidly without the overhead costs associated with maintaining a fleet of vehicles.

The company offered incentives to drivers, such as flexible working hours and the potential to earn more than traditional taxi drivers, which helped attract many drivers to the platform.

In some regions, Uber introduced services like UberMOTO (motorcycle taxis) and UberAUTO (auto-rickshaws) to cater to local transportation preferences.

This flexibility allowed Uber to penetrate diverse markets and meet the unique demands of different customer segments.

Uber’s strategic approach to technology, business model innovation, and aggressive expansion paid off, making it one of the fastest-growing companies in history.

Within a few years, Uber had disrupted the global transportation industry, challenging the traditional taxi model and inspiring a wave of similar startups.

The company’s success was not without controversy, as it faced legal challenges, protests from taxi unions, and regulatory hurdles in many cities. However, Uber’s ability to adapt and navigate these challenges allowed it to continue growing.

By 2019, Uber had completed over 10 billion rides globally, and the company went public with a valuation of over $80 billion.

Today, Uber operates in more than 900 metropolitan areas worldwide and has expanded its offerings to include services like Uber Eats, Uber Freight, and autonomous vehicle research.

Uber’s journey from a small startup to a global leader is a testament to the power of innovation, technology, and bold business strategies.

• Leveraging technology can transform traditional industries by offering innovative, user-friendly solutions.
• A disruptive business model can enable rapid scaling and global expansion without the constraints of traditional operations.
• Aggressive marketing and strategic expansion are essential for establishing a solid presence in new markets.
• Adapting to local markets is crucial for success in diverse regions, allowing a company to meet specific customer needs and regulatory requirements.
• Navigating regulatory challenges is critical to sustaining growth and maintaining market leadership in a disruptive industry.

“Customer obsession over competitor focus”—this principle has driven Amazon’s growth from a small online bookstore into one of the most influential companies in the world.

Founded by Jeff Bezos in 1994, Amazon was born out of the simple yet ambitious vision to revolutionize the retail industry by harnessing the power of the internet.

Amazon has transformed how people shop and redefined what it means to be a global retailer. This case study explores how Amazon tackled its early challenges, developed game-changing strategies, and achieved remarkable outcomes to become a dominant force in the global economy.

When Amazon launched, the company faced significant challenges. The internet was still infancy, and online shopping was not a common practice. Consumers were wary of buying products online, concerned about security, and unfamiliar with the process.

Moreover, Amazon had to compete with established brick-and-mortar stores with solid brand loyalty and consumer trust. The challenge for Amazon was to convince people to buy books online and shift the entire shopping paradigm towards e-commerce.

As Amazon began to expand beyond books, the company needed to develop a robust logistics network capable of delivering a vast array of products quickly and efficiently, all while keeping costs low.

Amazon’s strategy to overcome these challenges was multi-faceted and centered around three core principles: customer obsession, innovation, and scalability. Jeff Bezos has always emphasized that Amazon primarily focuses on the customer.

From the outset, Amazon prioritized creating a seamless shopping experience by offering a vast selection of products, competitive pricing, and unparalleled convenience.

This customer-centric approach extended to innovations like customer reviews, personalized recommendations, and an easy-to-use interface, which built trust and encouraged repeat business.

Amazon invested heavily in technology to improve the shopping experience and streamline operations. The creation of the “1-Click” purchasing system and Amazon Prime, which offered fast and free shipping, were technological innovations that set Amazon apart from competitors.

Additionally, Amazon Web Services (AWS) was launched as a cloud computing platform, which became a significant revenue stream and powered the company’s vast operations.

Amazon’s strategy involved expanding beyond books into every retail category, from electronics to clothing to groceries.

Amazon also diversified its business by launching products like Kindle, Echo, and Fire TV and expanding into services such as Amazon Prime Video, further embedding itself into consumers’ lives.

Amazon’s strategic focus has yielded extraordinary results, making it a prime example in any collection of small business case study examples. The company rapidly evolved from a startup into one of the largest retailers in the world.

Amazon’s ability to scale operations efficiently has enabled it to dominate the e-commerce space, capturing nearly 40% of the U.S. online retail market as of 2021.

The success of Amazon Web Services (AWS) further exemplifies the company’s innovative spirit, positioning Amazon as a leader in cloud computing. AWS has become a cornerstone of Amazon’s profitability, generating billions in revenue and supporting countless businesses worldwide.

This success story is crucial when discussing small business case study examples, demonstrating how diversification and innovation can drive substantial growth.

The introduction of Amazon Prime has cultivated a loyal customer base, with over 200 million subscribers globally who depend on the service for everything from daily essentials to entertainment.

Amazon achieved a market capitalization that surpassed $1 trillion in 2018.

• Customer obsession is crucial for building a loyal customer base and driving long-term success.
• Continuous innovation in technology and services can differentiate a company from its competitors and create new revenue streams.
• Scalability and efficient logistics are vital in managing rapid growth and maintaining a competitive edge in the market.
• Market expansion and diversification allow businesses to reduce risk and capitalize on new opportunities.
• Strategic acquisitions and investments can accelerate growth and enable entry into new markets and industries.

5. Snapchat

“Embrace the moment”—this mantra encapsulates Snapchat’s unique social media and communication approach. Snapchat emerged as a groundbreaking platform founded in 2011 by Evan Spiegel, Bobby Murphy, and Reggie Brown.

Unlike other social media platforms that focused on permanence, Snapchat introduced the concept of ephemeral messaging, allowing users to send photos and videos that would disappear after being viewed.

This innovative approach resonated with younger audiences and quickly set Snapchat apart in a crowded social media landscape.

This case study explores Snapchat’s journey, its challenges, strategies, and outcomes that solidified its place as a leader in the social media industry.

When Snapchat first launched, it faced significant challenges in a social media environment dominated by giants like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram.

The critical challenge was differentiating itself in a market where social media platforms competed for user attention through features emphasizing permanence, likes, and public sharing.

Snapchat must convince users, especially younger ones, to embrace a new communication method focused on fleeting moments rather than lasting memories.

Another major challenge was monetization. While Snapchat rapidly gained popularity, especially among millennials and Gen Z, turning that user base into a profitable business was not straightforward.

The platform needed to find innovative ways to generate revenue without compromising the user experience centered around privacy and the temporary nature of its content.

Furthermore, Snapchat had to continually innovate to stay relevant as competitors began to imitate its core features. Maintaining its distinct identity and user base in the face of increasing competition was a constant challenge.

Snapchat implemented vital strategies focused on innovation, user engagement, and monetization to overcome these challenges. Snapchat’s primary innovation was its focus on ephemeral content—photos and videos that disappeared after being viewed.

This concept was a significant departure from other social media platforms, where content was designed to be permanent.

Snapchat also introduced other unique features, such as Stories (a 24-hour timeline of photos and videos), Lenses (augmented reality filters), and Discover (a platform for branded content and news). These features helped differentiate Snapchat and attract a younger demographic that valued privacy and spontaneity.

Snapchat prioritized user engagement by constantly introducing new and playful features that kept the platform fresh and exciting. The app’s interface encouraged users to interact with friends more personally and creatively, fostering a strong sense of community and belonging.

The introduction of Snapstreaks, which tracked how many consecutive days two users communicated, further boosted user retention and engagement.

To address the challenge of monetization, Snapchat developed innovative advertising solutions that were integrated seamlessly into the user experience. The company introduced Snap Ads, full-screen vertical video ads between Stories, Sponsored Lenses, and Geofilters, allowing brands to create interactive user experiences.

Snapchat also leveraged its Discover platform to partner with media companies and offer premium content, generating additional revenue streams. These strategies allowed Snapchat to monetize its user base effectively while maintaining its core appeal.

Snapchat used a strategic approach to innovation, user engagement, and monetization. This paid off, making Snapchat one of the most popular social media platforms among younger audiences.

By 2023, Snapchat had over 375 million daily active users.

The majority of its user base comprises millennials and Gen Z, who are often elusive for other platforms to capture. Snapchat successfully turned its unique approach to content sharing into a lucrative business.

The company’s innovative advertising solutions and partnerships with brands and media outlets allowed it to generate substantial revenue. This helped to achieve profitability after several years of operating at a loss.

As of 2023, Snapchat’s parent company, Snap Inc., had a market capitalization of over $15 billion.

Features like AR Lenses and Snap Maps kept existing users engaged and attracted new ones, helping Snapchat maintain its competitive edge.

Despite the challenges posed by larger competitors, Snapchat has carved out a distinct niche in the social media landscape.

• Innovation in user experience can set a platform apart in a crowded market, especially by offering unique features that address specific user needs.
• Focusing on user engagement and updating the platform can help maintain a loyal user base.
• Creative monetization strategies that align with the platform’s core values can drive revenue without alienating users.
• Staying ahead of competitors through constant innovation is essential in fast-moving industries like social media.
• Understanding and targeting a specific demographic can lead to strong brand loyalty and long-term success.

Small business case study examples are about illustrating the transformative impact your business can have. These case studies not only showcase your expertise but also build trust and inspire action.

Let these examples guide you as you develop your case studies. Turn your client successes into compelling narratives that set you apart in the marketplace.

By following these small business case study examples, you can create compelling narratives that resonate with your target audience. Use SocialBu’s analytics to track the performance of your case study campaign and identify areas for improvement.

How do you write a case study for a small business?

What is a case study in business example, what are good examples of case studies, how do you write a business case for a study.

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A case study on ageism during the COVID-19 pandemic

From: Federal/Provincial/Territorial Ministers Responsible for Seniors Forum

On this page

List of abbreviations, list of figures, list of tables, participating governments, acknowledgements, executive summary and policy recommendations, 1. introduction, 2. research questions, 3. methodology, 5. summary of findings, 6. policy recommendations, 7. limitations, annex 1: selection of documents, annex 2: keywords used for the search, annex 3: list of documents, alternate formats.

A case study on ageism during the COVID-19 pandemic [ PDF - 2.3 MB ]

Large print, braille, MP3 (audio), e-text and DAISY formats are available on demand by ordering online or calling 1 800 O-Canada (1-800-622-6232). If you use a teletypewriter ( TTY ), call 1-800-926-9105.

Centres d’hébergement et de soins de longue durée

Coronavirus disease of 2019

Extracorporeal life support

Fédération de l'âge d'or du Québec

Federal, provincial and territorial

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (or questioning)

Long term care

Older adults

Personal care homes

Personal protective equipment

Figure 1: Themes and subthemes from the media discourse

Figure 2: Media discourse themes

Figure 3: Media discourse subthemes

Figure 4: Themes and subthemes from academic discourse

Figure 5: Academic discourse themes

Figure 6: Academic discourse subthemes

Figure 7: Themes and subthemes from the older adult discourse

Figure 8: Older adult discourse themes

Figure 9: Older adult discourse subthemes

Figure 10: Themes and subthemes from the press briefings

Figure 11: Press briefing discourse themes

Figure 12: Press briefing discourse subthemes

Figure 13: Themes and subthemes from the ministry or the department of communications

Figure 14: Ministry or department communications discourse themes

Figure 15: Ministry or department communication discourse subthemes

Table 1: Age reference by number of media articles

Table 2: Description of aging by number of academic articles

Table 3: Age reference by number of press briefings

Table 4: Age reference by number of ministry or department communications

Table 5: Summary of main findings

• Government of Ontario
• Government of Quebec*
• Government of Nova Scotia
• Government of New Brunswick
• Government of Manitoba
• Government of British Columbia
• Government of Prince Edward Island
• Government of Saskatchewan
• Government of Alberta
• Government of Newfoundland and Labrador
• Government of Northwest Territories
• Government of Yukon
• Government of Nunavut
• Government of Canada

*Québec contributes to the Federal/Provincial/Territorial Seniors Forum by sharing expertise, information and best practices. However, it does not subscribe to, or take part in, integrated federal, provincial, and territorial approaches to older adults. The Government of Québec intends to fully assume its responsibilities for older adults in Québec.

Prepared by Dr. Martine Lagacé, Dr. Tracey O’Sullivan, Pascale Dangoisse, Amélie Doucet, Amanda Mac, and Samantha Oostlander of the University of Ottawa, for the Federal, Provincial and Territorial (FPT) Forum of Ministers Responsible for Seniors. The views expressed in this report may not reflect the official position of a particular jurisdiction.

• Canadian older adults Footnote 1 were particularly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, with over 80% of the COVID-19 related deaths during the first wave occurring in long-term care homes. The situation generated substantial media coverage, as well as government communications and academic research
• Understanding how older adults and the aging process were framed during this health crisis is important because the public discourse can have a significant influence on an individual’s personal experience of aging and relationships with older adults. Previous studies have shown that ageist stereotypes and attitudes are often conveyed through public discourse
• The current study aims to understand how older adults and the process of aging were depicted by the Canadian media, academics, older adults (associations of older adults), as well as government representatives themselves through the first and second waves of the COVID-19 pandemic

There are 2 main questions that guided this work: 

• how did ageism emerge as an issue during the COVID-19 pandemic in the media, research, among older adults, associations of older adults and Federal, Provincial and Territorial (FPT) governments’ communications?
• how did the media, researchers, older adults, associations of older adults, and FPT governments contribute to, or address ageist attitudes, behaviours or discourse?
• To answer these questions, researchers conducted a content analysis of Canadian public documents related to COVID-19 and older adults, published from April to December 2020. These public documents included opinion-editorials (authored by journalists or older adults or associations of older adults), academic articles, and government communications (press briefings and communications generated by Federal, Provincial and Territorial ministries and departments)
• In total, 110 documents were analyzed across the 4 different types of public discourse: 20 media articles, 10 academic papers, 20 papers authored by older adults or associations of older adults, and 60 FPT government communications. Documents were selected over 3 time periods during 2020: (1) April; (2) mid-September to mid-October; and (3) early December Footnote 2
• Content analysis was conducted to align with the research questions as well as findings from previous studies
• The results of this analysis show that ageism was raised as an issue throughout the 4 types of discourses, in 1 of 2 ways, either contributing to ageism or criticizing ageism (as illustrated in Table 5 )
• Discourse messaging framed older adults as “victims” in 50% to 88% of all the communications reviewed. Further, the aging process was described as a process of “loss” in the majority of communications produced by the media, the academics, older adults (and associations of older adults) and governments. Communications produced by older adults themselves were the least likely to associate aging (their own aging however) with loss
• Academics criticized ageism and recognized the negative impact of ageism on mental health, social isolation, and access to care, as well as its impact on other forms of discrimination (such as, sexism and racism)
• Older adults and associations of older adults also criticized ageism and recognize its negative impact, however they mostly focused on healthy older adults who lived independently within their own homes/communities, not older adults residing in long term care
• Diverse strengths of older adults – and their contributions to society – were rarely acknowledged, with the exception of older adults communications. In this case however, the diversity of strengths was attributed to healthy older adults
• In general, similar themes and arguments were made throughout the data sources regarding the neglect in long-term care and the importance of caring and protecting older adults during the pandemic
• Similarly to other types of discourse, the media emphasized the vulnerability of older adults living in long term care facilities and the values of protecting them. However, few media articles gave a voice to these older adults (through interviews, for example) 
• The importance of conducting more research with Indigenous Elders was underlined by academics
• Press briefings and ministry or government communications from the territories made some  references to the important roles and contributions of Indigenous Elders
• While the 4 domains of employment, health and healthcare, social inclusion, and safety and security were identified in all data sources (except government press briefings), the most prominent domain was health and healthcare
• The following policy recommendations are based on the findings from this case study of 110 documents (media articles, academic articles, articles written by older adults or their associations, and government communications)
• Editing of all press briefings and media should be screened to ensure the language used is inclusive and non-ageist. For instance, aging should not be portrayed uniquely as a process of loss; older adults should not be viewed as victims or vulnerable people only in need of protection and care. This important editing includes confirmation that the communication is balanced and recognizes the capacities and contributions of older adults that support pandemic response and resilience
• Building a society that recognizes the importance of listening to the voices of older adults is key. The pandemic has brought older adults into the conversation in a way not typically seen. Older adults are now visible and they have something new to bring to the table: criticizing ageism and providing a heterogenous view of older adults
• The absence of references to Indigenous Elders in different types of communications raises some concerns. Communications should be inclusive, and investments should be made to understand how Indigenous Elders are framed in widespread communication and to what extent and how they experience ageism, through an intersectional lens
• The positive references to Indigenous Elders can serve as inspiration for learning how to address ageism across all communities

The COVID-19 pandemic continues to have a tremendous impact on older adults in Canada, from every facet, be it physical, psychological or social. People living in long-term care homes have been particularly impacted, with more than 80% of the COVID-19 related deaths during the first wave of the pandemic, occurring in these facilities (Royal Society of Canada, 2020). The pandemic generated significant media coverage, government communications, and research from academics. Public discourse (such as, media coverage, government communication) has the power to shape social representations, create norms and expectations that influence personal experience. It is important to examine how the resulting public discourse stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic impacted older adults. Research completed prior to the pandemic demonstrated that public discourse towards older adults contributes directly and inadvertently to ageist stereotypes and attitudes.

Ageism refers to how we think (stereotypes), feel (prejudice) and act (discrimination) towards others or ourselves based on age. It can target younger and older individuals. The focus of the current project is on ageism towards older adults, expressed in different ways, as explained in the following:

Ageism can be hostile when, for example, an aging population is depicted as a real threat to the economy and a burden to the health care system. An example of hostile ageism is the infamous hashtag “#BoomerRemover” that was conveyed on social media at the beginning of the pandemic. 

Ageism can be compassionate. In this type of communication, older adults are portrayed as frail and vulnerable and in need of help; not being able to make decisions and having no self-agency. This type of ageism is often seen in the context of caregiving. Although its purpose is to provide help and support, it conveys the idea that all older adults are vulnerable and does not recognize diversity within an age group, which paves the way for patronizing attitudes.

Ageism can also be expressed through intergenerational and intragenerational comparisons. Intergenerational ageism relates to competition or scarcity of resources (that is., the health care system is over-burdened due to an aging population). Intragenerational ageism relates to competition or comparisons between older adults themselves (for example, older adults that are healthy and fit may want to dissociate, or not be identified, with older adults that are facing health challenges).

It is worth noting that compassionate as well as intergenerational or intragenerational ageism are often expressed unconsciously in an implicit or covert manner. On the other hand, hostile ageism is usually expressed explicitly or overtly , that is, consciously.

Studying ageism during the pandemic is important, to gather concrete data to measure its existence. The pandemic, its deadly impact, and the policies and actions put in place to manage it, all appeared to have exacerbated discrimination against older adults. To confirm this fact, examples of ageism need to be identified, examined and measured, to develop policies and legislation to address ageism.

This report examines how older adults, as well as aging as a process, were depicted by the Canadian media, academics, government representatives and older adults themselves through the first and second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic.

The following data sources were used to examine the 2 research questions:

• media articles (20 published articles)
• academic research (10 published papers)
• older adults or associations of older adults who have written on this issue (20 published articles)
• FPT government communications (60 press briefings or ministries and department documents)

In this section

3.1 selection of documents, 3.2 analysis of documents.

To answer the research questions mentioned above, content analysis of Canadian public documents related to COVID-19 and older adults that were published from April to December 2020, was conducted. These public documents included media op-eds (authored by journalists or older adults or associations of older adults), academic articles, and government communications (press briefings and communications generated by Federal, Provincial and Territorial ministries and departments).

Geography and time were used as sampling criteria for the 110 documents included in the study as outlined below. More specifically, media articles, academic articles and articles written by older adults were limited to Canadian authors and sources. Government communications included all 13 provinces and territories and the Government of Canada. More so, documents published in April, mid-September to mid-October and early December were randomly selected. These time intervals align with turning points for the COVID-19 health crisis in Canada Footnote 3 .

Annexes 1 and 2 to this report summarize the sampling approach, as well as key words used to select the document for analysis.

After selection of the documents, a coding grid was developed with the following categories:

• what are the main themes and subthemes? Main themes relate to the central concept of the document, the primary question or issue being addressed. Subthemes focus on notable specific elements of the themes?
• what are the main arguments?
• is ageism being discussed or criticized as an issue (in an implicit or explicit way)?
• do documents contribute to ageism, that is, reflect ageist attitudes (implicitly or explicitly)?
• Implicit attitudes were defined as negative thoughts, feelings or beliefs about older people without the authors seeming to directly promote or endorse age discrimination. Implicit ageism is usually indirect and covert. An example of implicit ageism would be associating the aging of a  population with a burden on the economy
• Explicit attitudes were defined as direct statements that represent thoughts, feelings or beliefs about older people that are conscious and made overtly. Hostile ageism reflects explicit ageist attitudes. The hashtag #BoomerRemover that appeared on social media in the early days of the pandemic is an example of explicit ageism
• are there references to specific chronological age (or age range)?
• it is important to note how older age was referred to throughout the documents, to pinpoint whether discriminatory content was focused on a specific age group, and which age groups were impacted the most by this discourse
• how is aging, as a process, described or referred to (loss, gain, both, neither)?
• are there references to older adults’ contribution(s) to society?
• are challenges or potential costs posed by aging or older adults mentioned?
• how are older adults portrayed in regards to other groups?
• what is the role of older adults during the pandemic (victims; fighters; neither; both)?
• domain categorization (employment; health and health care; social inclusion; safety and security)?
• are Indigenous Elders mentioned?

The next section presents the main findings of the content analysis, according to the 4 types of discourse: media, academic, older adult, and government.

4.1 The media discourse (n=20)

4.2 the academic discourse (n=10), 4.3 the older adult (associations of older adults) discourse (n=20).

• 4.4 Government communication discourse (n=60)

The findings relating to the media discourse are based on an analysis of 20 articles from 3 sources Footnote 4 : The Globe and Mail (n=7); The National Post (n=7); and La Presse (n=6). The sample of communications included both French (n=6) and English (n=14) articles. The main themes and subthemes within the media, as well as the answers to the main study questions for this data type are presented below.

Figure 1 depicts the main themes and subthemes for the media discourse. The main themes are shown in blue, with subthemes shown underneath in orange.

The following themes and subthemes emerged from the media discourse:

• neglect in LTC:
• need to improve the health care system
• ageism (implicit)
• vaccine roll-out
• government policies and communications:
• politicians
• social, economic, and cultural changes from the pandemic:
• economic challenges posed by the pandemic
• online gaming:
• how to spend time during COVID
• child care:
• better child care is needed
• disproportionate impacts of COVID-19 within society:
• social inclusion
• severity of impact  on developing countries

Main themes: Media

Nine main themes were identified in the media articles. The most salient theme in the media was Neglect in long term care ; this theme occurs in 8 (out of 20) articles. The other themes occurred in 1 to 3 articles (out of 20) and are presented in Figure 2 below.

Subthemes: Media

Seven subthemes were identified in the media analysis. The need to improve the health care system was a subtheme within 9 (of the 20) media articles. Other subthemes are presented in Figure 3 below.

Main arguments: Media

The media analyses also identified main arguments presented in the 20 articles. One of the arguments focused on the need to take better care of older adults. One of the lessons from the pandemic is that society is not treating older adults ethically, and more investment (that is, resources, money, time, etc.) is needed to address this problem. Most articles focused on older adults living in long-term care homes, with little or no mention of older adults living within their own homes. The following 3 quotations provide examples of this argument:

“It is the elderly who are especially vulnerable. Mortality rates for old people are the highest. That was painfully seen in our long-term care facilities. It is not an "old person's disease," but the old are most susceptible to its full force. The elderly were also more exposed in another sense. During the lockdown, those who caught the virus were kept in isolation. Even their closest family members were kept away from them in their dying days. Those who did not contract the illness were also kept in isolation, for fear of catching it from a family member. Some circumstances were akin to an updated tale from Charles Dickens' pathos-filled pen. I know of one 96 year old who was unable to be visited by his 93-year-old wife. The very worst and most emotional time to be alone was the very time they were forced to be alone.”

(Rex Murphy, National Post, October 14th, 2020.)

“ Ce manque de préparation, ce manque d'expertise, fait partie de l'équation quand on voit à quel point les CHSLD – et les résidences pour personnes âgées – ont été des foyers d'éclosion qui s'apparentent à des incendies de forêt. ”

(Patrick Lagacé. (2020, April 10). CHSLD, les brasiers. La Presse+, ACTUALITÉS_4.)

Translation: [This unpreparedness and lack of expertise are part of the equation when we see how many CHSLDs Footnote 7 and retirement residences accounted for outbreaks that spread like forest fires.]

“ How is it possible, in 2020, in Canada, that elders entrusted to a licensed care home can be treated worse than dogs at the city pound? How is it conceivable that vulnerable seniors – some with dementia and severe mobility issues – could be left to fend for themselves?”

(André Picard, Globe and Mail, April 1st, 2020: Opinion.)

Is ageism being discussed or criticized as an issue (in an implicit or explicit way): Media

The media analysis revealed 1 explicit example of ageism being discussed, and 4 implicit examples. Interestingly, the word ‘ageism’ is not used, nor is its impact generally discussed. However, its negative impact in terms of poor health and neglect of older adults is acknowledged; in other words, the ‘ cause à effet ’ is not clearly stated. Some examples are presented below.

Explicit  “ Il serait donc apprécié de cesser de nous considérer comme des « pestiférés » potentiels alors que nous sommes en pleine forme et en pleine santé! ”

(Serge Loriaux. (2020, December 31). Changer de « cible ». La Presse+, débats_1, DÉBATS_5.)

Translation: [We would therefore appreciate no longer being treated as pariahs when we are fit and healthy.]

Implicit “It may be an exaggeration to say Canada's approach to long-term care consists of warehousing the old and: infirm, but we have certainly let standards decline to a point we should be ashamed to acknowledge.”

Does the document contribute to ageism, that is, reflects ageist attitudes (implicitly or explicitly): Media

The media analysis yielded mixed results to the question of whether the media contributes to ageism by reflecting ageist attitudes. Of the 20 media articles, 11 did not contribute to ageism, 8 could be regarded as perpetuating ageist attitudes, and 1 was not classified either way. The following quotation is an example of an article that did contribute to ageism, emphasizing on the deficits (physical, psychological and social) of all older adults in care homes and on their vulnerability.   

“By their very nature, people in care homes aren't able to create the sort of noise required to attract the attention of governments. They are old people, confined to their beds, or dependent on walkers or wheelchairs to get around. They aren't great at social networking, crowdsourcing or virtual campaigning. They are largely dependent on others, either relatives, medical professionals or care staff, for basic needs. Many of them, given the chance, would selflessly insist they don't want to be a bother or a burden.”

(NP View: The COVID-19 crisis has exposed Canada’s shameful treatment of its elderly. (2020, April 17). National Post (Online).)

Are there references to specific chronological age (or age range): Media

Eleven out of 20 media articles did not refer to a specific age range or chronological age, when referring to older adults. There is variety among the other articles where age was mentioned, as can be seen in the following table; the first column shows the age groups represented in the media, and the second column indicates the frequency of articles that used that age grouping.

How is aging, as a process, described or referred to (loss; gain; both; neither): Media

Thirteen out of 20 articles described aging in terms of loss, with references to older adults as the most vulnerable population who are dependent on care. There was 1 exception of an article where the aging process was framed as a gain, referring to active, capable older adults. Two articles referred to aging in a more balanced way (gain and loss), describing older active people going to concerts, but also older people who are ‘warehoused for profit’. Finally, 4 of the articles framed the aging process as neither a gain or loss.

Are there references to older adults’ contribution(s) to society: Media

Of the 20 media articles analyzed, 3 described in vague terms the contributions of older adults to society, in terms of their knowledge or resilience. However, 1 article was particularly positive in its reference to older adults as providing a contribution to society.

“There is no question that Canadians as individuals love and respect those who brought them into the world, raised them and fashioned a society founded in peace, prosperity and mutual respect.”

Are challenges or potential costs posed by aging or older adults mentioned: Media

Of the 20 media articles analyzed, 5 mentioned the increased economic cost or burden of an ageing society on the health care system. The following is an excerpt from an article discussing child care in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. While the article stresses the importance of turning to a “caring economy” to better care for the young and the old, it emphasizes the costs of an aging population:

“Even without a pandemic, Canada was looking at decades of slow growth, the impact of population aging.”… “As we head into an era of slowth (slow or no growth) owing to population aging, the smallest working-age cohort in 50 years will need all the help it can get”. 

(Pandemic realities offer hope of new approach to child care: Opinion. (Globe and Mail, 2020, September 26).)

How are older adults being positioned in relation to other groups: Media

The media analysis explored how older adults are positioned in relation to other age groups. Of the 20 media articles analyzed, 9 did not position older adults in relation to other groups, and the question was not applicable in 7 of the articles. However, 4 positioned older adults against younger generations, or made comparisons between them. The following quotations are examples from the articles that positioned older adults in relation to younger age groups.

“ On est tous d'accord que les effets indirects de la pandémie sur les jeunes sont sérieux. Mais ce n'est pas en exacerbant ses effets directs sur les aînés qu'on les réglera . ”

(Philippe Mercure. (2020, October 17). Les gens vulnérables ne vivent pas dans les nuages. La Presse+, DÉBATS_1, DÉBATS_3.)

Translation: [There is a general consensus that the pandemic’s indirect effects on youth are serious. But amplifying its direct effects on older adults will not mitigate these indirect effects.]

“ Des grands-parents qui jouent avec leurs petits-enfants, mais aussi des aînés qui jouent en club. Et ce sont loin d'être les personnes les plus polies en ligne! Ils se sentent comme au bistro! ”

(Pierre-Marc Durivage. (2020, April 30). Boom des plateformes de jeu virtuel. La Presse (site web).)

Translation: [There are grandparents playing with their grandchildren, but also seniors playing as a club. And they are not the most polite people online! They’re behaving as if they were in a pub!]

“However, “we're all in this together” doesn't ring quite true when you take cognizance of this division, this two-tiered impact of COVID. There needs to be something a little beyond words to give that rally cry force.”

(Murphy, R. (2020, October 14). The full impact of Covid is not borne by all, National Post.)

What is the role of older adults during the pandemic (victims; fighters; neither; both): Media

Message framing can influence ageist attitudes. Therefore, one part of this media analysis was an exploration of how older adults were presented in various roles. More specifically, this media analysis investigated whether older adults were:

• framed in terms of being victims
• framed as fighting back or resisting any challenges imposed by the pandemic
• neither of these perspectives
• both as victims and fighters

While 4 articles did not present older adults in any of these roles, 1 media article (out of 20) presented older adults as fighters, stating

“how many older adults are very aware of health measures and are very capable of following them.”

Domain categorization (employment; health and health care; social inclusion; safety and security): Media

Not surprisingly, the domain represented most in the media articles throughout the time periods covered was health and health care (n=15). Social inclusion was represented in (n=3) articles, employment (n=1), and safety and security (n=1).

Are Indigenous Elders mentioned: Media

Just 1 media article of the 20 reviewed mentioned Indigenous peoples. When mentioned, it was in combination with the key words “older adults” and “Covid-19”. The following quotations are from that article.

“But thorny questions will arise, such as: Who is an essential worker? Public Safety Canada actually has a list, but it's as long as your arm. Grocery store workers? Teachers? Police officers? Truckers? Family caregivers? How do you choose among them? What about people living with homelessness? Indigenous peoples ? COVID-19 has hit racialized and low-income populations hardest. How do we ensure that the inequities exposed by the pandemic are not perpetuated in the vaccine rollout?”

(Picard, A. (2020, December 8). Why we can ignore anti-vaxxers right now: Opinion. The Globe and Mail, A11.)

The findings related to the academic data are based on an analysis of 10 papers published in peer reviewed journals and written by Canadian scholars over the time periods targeted for this report. Eight papers are published in English, and 2 in French. The following section presents the main themes and subthemes within the academic discourse, as well as the answers to the main study questions for this data source.

Figure 4 depicts the main themes and subthemes for the academic discourse. The main themes are shown in blue, with subthemes shown underneath in orange.

The following themes and subthemes emerged from the academic discourse:

• care and health:
• health and health care
• media or social media and ageism:
• intergenerational differences
• research priorities for older adults and COVID-19:
• transition from in-person to virtual work environments:
• government strategies

Main themes: Academic

Similar to the media discourse, scholars focused on the theme of Care and Health. This theme was present in 7 of the 10 papers analyzed. The other main themes are presented in Figure 5.

Subthemes: Academic

Seven subthemes were identified in the analysis of academic articles. Health (physical and mental) and health care was the most prevalent subtheme. Other subthemes are presented in Figure 6 below. Footnote 8

Main arguments: Academic

The analysis of academic articles included identification of main arguments presented in the 10 papers. Similar to the media discourse, one of the main arguments focused on the need to do better and do more for older adults, in terms of funding and policies. However, contrary to the media communications, the academic discourse focused less on long term care and tackled issues such as mental health of all older adults (including those not living in long term care facilities), their capacity to be resilient, and finally, the importance of addressing the problem of ageism.

Is ageism being discussed or criticized as an issue (in an implicit or explicit way): Academic

Four papers (out of 10) explicitly addressed the issue of ageism and the need to tackle it. In these papers scholars argue that, amongst other issues that have been magnified, the pandemic has revealed the prevalence of ageism in our society. They further argue that ageism is a correlated factor of the lack of preparation and prevention in terms of pre-pandemic care for older adults, as illustrated in the following quotes.

" La situation actuelle a fait ressortir la nécessité de repenser le statut et le rôle des personnes âgées dans notre société et celle d’examiner spécifiquement l'impact et l'influence de l'âgisme dans la prise de décision et la prestation des soins ."

(Rylett, R. J., Alary, F., Goldberg, J., Rogers, S., & Versteegh, P. (December 1st, 2020). La COVID-19 et les priorités de recherche sur le vieillissement . Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue Canadienne Du Vieillissement , 39(4), 506–512.)

Translation: [The current situation has highlighted the need to rethink the status and role of older adults in our society and to specifically address the impact and influence of ageism in decision-making and the delivery of care.]

“Unfortunately, the wake of COVID-19 has brought a resurgence of hostile messages on social media, even classifying as hate speech, that exhibit ageism against older adults.”

(Meisner, B. June 24th, 2020. Journal of Leisure Science.)

Does the document contribute to ageism, that is, reflects ageist attitudes (implicitly or explicitly): Academic

The majority of academic papers did not contribute to ageist attitudes (n=9). One document that could be regarded as potentially perpetuating ageist attitudes relates to the usage of age as a criteria (following health condition and frailty) when deciding to give critical care in a pandemic context. International scholars have criticized using age as a primary decision making criteria for critical care provision and consider this practice an expression of ageism.

“The number of patients that can be placed on ECLS is small and should be decided on a case-by-case basis. Definite exclusion criteria include age older than 60 years old.”…

(Development of a framework for critical care resource allocation for the COVID-19 pandemic in Saskatchewan (Valiani, S., Terrett, L., Gebhardt, C., Prokopchuk Gauk, O. & Isinger, M. September 1st, 2020, Canadian Medical Association.).)

Are there references to specific chronological age (or age range): Academic

The majority of academic papers made reference to specific chronological age or age range with the exception of one. Reference to age of older adults varied depending on the scholar, ranging from 50 years old to 90 years old. Of note, such variance was not observed in the media documents.

How is aging, as a process, described or referred to (loss; gain; both; neither): Academic

The academic papers offered a more balanced description of the aging process than media articles, as can be seen in the following table:

In cases where the depiction of the aging process refers to both gains and losses, the former seemed to apply solely to active and healthy older adults while losses referred to those living in long term care homes, as illustrated in the examples below.

“  Nous avons tendance à considérer les personnes âgées comme des personnes vulnérables. Cependant, cette perspective est remise en question lorsque nous tenons compte de leurs points de vue, de leur créativité et de leur résilience, et lorsque nous adoptons une optique plus globale, en fonction de laquelle la santé n’est pas le seul élément à prendre en compte, même en temps de pandémie. ”

(Meisner et al., (December 12th, 2020). La nécessité des approches interdisciplinaires et collaboratives pour évaluer l'impact de la COVID-19 sur les personnes âgées et le vieillissement , Joint statement from Canadian Association of Gerontology and The Canadian Journal of Aging.)

Translation: [Our tendency [...] to see older people as vulnerable is challenged when we take notice of their points of view, creativity, and resilience, and when we take a more holistic view that recognizes that there is more than health to think about even during a pandemic.]

“Canadian older adults are highly diverse, and generally healthy, engaged and active…”

(Wister, A., & Speechley, M. (September 9th, 2020). COVID-19: Pandemic Risk, Resilience and Possibilities for Aging Research. Canadian Journal on Aging.)

Are there references to older adults’ contribution(s) to society?: Academic

Of the 10 academic papers analyzed, only 3 spoke to the contributions of older populations, but in a vague manner:

 “What can we learn – both positive and negative – from societies with large proportions of older persons, such as Italy and Japan?”

(Wister, A., & Speechley, M. (September 9th, 2020). COVID-19: Pandemic Risk, Resilience and Possibilities for Aging Research. Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue Canadienne du Vieillissement .)

Of particular interest is 1 paper that indicated that older workers Footnote 9 had an easier time transitioning to a virtual context compared to younger ones because of their experience:

“Maybe - older practicians actually had an easier time than younger ones transitioning to online therapy sessions”

(Békés, V., Doorn, K.A., Prout, T.A, & Hoffman, L. (June 26th, 2020). Stretching the Analytic Frame: Analytic Therapists’ Experiences With Remote Therapy During COVID-19.)

Corporate memory or experience among a workforce is an asset that can support continuity of operations in a disaster. Adapting or transitioning easily is an example of a strength that contributes to organizational resilience. The above quotation about ease in transitioning to online settings is interesting as it counteracts one of the most prevalent stereotypes: that older workers cannot adapt to new technologies.

Are challenges or potential costs posed by aging or older adults mentioned: Academic

Six of the 10 academic papers did not refer to challenges or potential costs posed by aging or older adults. The 4 remaining papers did focus on the burden on health care (physical and mental) generated by an aging population, as illustrated below:

“Yet, most of the funding for health care, including for long-term care public facilities, come from the provinces, which are increasingly struggling to finance health care costs in a context of accelerated population aging…”

(Béland, D., & Marier, P. (July 1st, 2020). Covid-19 and Long Term Care Policy for Older People in Canada. Journal of Aging & Social Policy.)

How are older adults being positioned in regards to other groups: Academic

In 7 out of 10 papers, scholars discussed and criticized the tendency, in popular discourse (especially on social media), to associate and compare older generations to younger generations. They argued that making COVID-19 mainly a “seniors problem” paved the way and legitimized discriminatory attitudes from younger to older generations. In the following quotation, authors critize expressions of hostile and intrageneratioal ageism in the context of the pandemic:

“Although COVID-19 knows no borders, physical or social, it has clearly become an aging-related disease. On the one hand, gerontologists have already become important contributors to COVID-19 knowledge, practice and research. On the other hand, there is a backlash of younger and working populations, fed by media and political hype, who believe that they are less susceptible, and if they do become infected, the symptoms will be less serious than for older populations. […] Some of these views have been articulated as part of the "ok boomer" movement, which has pitted younger and older generations against each other. Other individuals and groups have expressed the view that the COVID-19 pandemic is largely a “seniors problem” and as such should not shut down the economy and society to the level that has occurred. Some politicians have even gone so far as to suggest that older people ought to consider sacrificing themselves for the health of others, including that of the economy.”

(Wister, A., & Speechley, M. (September 1st, 2020). COVID-19: Pandemic Risk, Resilience and Possibilities for Aging Research. Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue Canadienne Du Vieillissement .)

What is the role of older adults during the pandemic (victims; fighters; neither; both): Academic

Similar to the media discourse reviewed, but to a lesser extent, 5 out of 10 academic papers presented older adults as victims during the pandemic, here again reinforcing the perception of older adults as being “the most vulnerable”. Of the other 5 academic papers, 3 offered a more balanced view and 2 presented older adults in neither of these roles (not victims or fighters).

“Nursing homes have become “ground zero” for the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) epidemic in North America.1 In both the United States and Canada, the first recorded COVID-19 deaths and outbreaks occurred in nursing homes, with case fatality rates in these settings reported to be as high as 33.7%.2 Since that time, more than 25,000 nursing home residents have died of COVID-19 in the United States, whereas more than 80% of all COVID-19 deaths in Canada are among nursing home residents.”

(Stall, N. M., Farquharson, C., Fan‐Lun, C., Wiesenfeld, L., Loftus, C. A., Kain, D., Johnstone, J., McCreight, L., Goldman, R. D., & Mahtani, R. (July 1st , 2020). A hospital partnership with a nursing home experiencing a COVID‐19 outbreak: Description of a multiphase emergency response in Toronto, Canada. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society.)

“The differential mortality risks suggest that this is largely a “gero-pandemic,” which has brought the field of aging into center-stage, in both pathogenic and salutogenic contexts.”

(Wister, A., & Speechley, M. (September 1st, 2020). COVID-19: Pandemic Risk, Resilience and Possibilities for Aging Research. Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue Canadienne Du Vieillissement.)

" La COVID-19 n’est pas une maladie équitable. Bien entendu, les personnes âgées, handicapées et celles souffrant de problèmes de santé sous-jacents sont plus à risque de souffrir de formes plus graves de COVID-19." […] "Nous avons tendance à considérer les personnes âgées comme des personnes vulnérables. Cependant, cette perspective est remise en question lorsque nous tenons compte de leurs points de vue, de leur créativité et de leur résilience, et lorsque nous adoptons une optique plus globale, en fonction de laquelle la santé n’est pas le seul élément à prendre en compte, même en temps de pandémie . "

Translation: [“COVID-19 is not an equitable disease. Of course, older people, people with disabilities, and people with underlying health conditions are at higher risk of contracting more serious forms of COVID-19.” “Our tendency [...] to see older people as vulnerable is challenged when we take notice of their points of view, creativity, and resilience, and when we take a more holistic view that recognizes that there is more than health to think about even during a pandemic.”]

Domain categorization (employment; health and health care; social inclusion; safety and security): Academic

In the 10 academic papers examined, the domains most represented in the articles throughout the time periods covered were health care (n=4) and social inclusion (n=4), followed by employment (n=1), and safety and security (n=1).

Are Indigenous Elders mentioned: Academic

Only 1 paper out of 10 called for more research with Indigenous older adults, especially in reference to their needs, and assessment of these needs. The following quotation is from that paper:

“ En cette période de crise associée à la COVID-19, il est essentiel que les chercheurs mènent des travaux sur le vieillissement qui tiennent comptent des populations autochtones et des autres populations sous-représentées, des facteurs socio-économiques et culturels, de l’accès équitable aux ressources du système de santé et de l’engagement des patients spécialement lorsque ceci concerne les personnes âgées. ”

(Rylett, R. J., Alary, F., Goldberg, J., Rogers, S., & Versteegh, P. (December 12th, 2020). La COVID-19 et les priorités de recherche sur le vieillissement . Canadian Journal on Aging / La Revue Canadienne Du Vieillissement .)

Translation: [“It is crucial during this COVID-19 crisis for investigators carrying out research on aging to consider Indigenous and other under-represented populations, socio-economic and cultural factors, equitable access to health system resources, and patient engagement, particularly as these factors relate to older adults.”]

Main themes: Older adults

The analysis of 20 documents authored by older adults revealed 2 main themes focused on the negative impact of the pandemic on older adults (n=7) and the downfalls of the health care system – especially as it relates to long term care (n=4). It is important to note that the impact of the pandemic is discussed in regards to different groups of older adults (such as, childless older adults, LGBTQ seniors) and, as such, offers a more diverse and heterogeneous analysis of the impact, one that was not reflected in the media or in the academic documents. Other themes were spread equally, as illustrated in Figure 8.

Figure 7 depicts the main themes and subthemes for the older adult discourse. The main themes are shown in blue, with subthemes shown underneath in orange.

The following themes and subthemes emerged from the older adults discourse:

• the impact of the pandemic on older adults:
• the need to provide help to older adults
• death or loss
• the challenges and downfalls of the healthcare system:
• call on action to the governments
• vaccination:
• vaccination
• perceptions of older adults:
• implications of older adults in diverse spheres of society
• perceptions of aging
• resilience:
• the need to develop tools for older adults

Subthemes: Older adults

Seven subthemes were identified in the older adults analysis. The need to provide help and develop tools to support older adults during the pandemic were the most prevalent subthemes Footnote 10 . Other subthemes are illustrated in Figure 9 below.

Main arguments: Older adults

Similar to the media discourse, the main arguments sustained in the older adults’ documents related to the vulnerability of older adults and the call to action from governments and civil society (9 articles out of 20). However, older adults offered a more nuanced argument in that they also focused on the resilience of older adults and provided a more positive view of the process of aging. Moreover, this positive framing of aging targeted independent older adults.

Is ageism being discussed or criticized as an issue (in an implicit or explicit way): Older adults

Eight articles out of 20 written by older adults or their associations criticized ageism as an issue. Ageism was often discussed along with other forms of discrimination, such as racism. When ageism was criticized, it primarily focused on healthy older adults living independently within their own communities, not older adults who are residents of long term care homes or similar communal care facilities.

“ Le Réseau FADOQ souhaite sincèrement que 2020 changera à jamais la façon dont on considère les aînés dans la société. J'en appelle à la compassion et au sens du respect des Québécois. Chérissons les aînés. Soyons bienveillants. Mais forçons aussi la main des gouvernements qui négligent d'accorder à de trop nombreux aînés des revenus minimalement décents. ” .

(Gisèle Tassé-Goodman, Réseau FADOQ , December 8, 2020, La Presse .)

Translation: [The Réseau FADOQ Footnote 11 sincerely hopes that 2020 will forever change how older adults are viewed in society. I call on the compassion and respect of all Quebecers. Let's cherish our seniors. Let's remember to be kind. But let's also force the hand of governments that often fail to provide too many seniors with minimally decent incomes.]

" Tout ça pour des vieux blancs malades. Ce monsieur semble ignorer qu'aux États-Unis, une très forte proportion des personnes touchées sont des Noirs, surtout des vieux sans doute, ayant de fortes préconditions découlant essentiellement de la ségrégation raciale, c'est-à-dire du racisme. Et bien sûr, l'âgisme et le mercantilisme sont les pierres d'assise du raisonnement de M. Le Boucher ."

(Simone Landry, retired professor, May 23rd, 2020, Le Devoir .)

Translation: [All this for sick old white people. This gentleman seems to be unaware that in the United States, a very high proportion of people with COVID-19 are blacks, presumably most of them seniors, with serious preconditions stemming essentially from racial segregation, that is racism. And of course, ageism and commercialism are the cornerstones of Mr. Le Boucher's reasoning.]

“ La pensée a besoin de petites cases pour classifier les gens. Une fois classés, tout devient plus simple. On est un boomer, un millénial ou autre chose et nous sont associées certaines valeurs, certains défauts typiques de cette catégorie (ou qu'on leur prête sans analyse trop approfondie). ”

(Pierre Cliche, May 30th, 2020, Opinion, La Presse .)

Translation: [Thought needs to categorize people into little boxes. Once people are categorized, everything becomes easier. We're a boomer or a millennial or anything else, and some typical values and flaws are associated with each category (or the way each category is perceived, without in-depth analysis.]

Does the document contribute to ageism, that is, reflects ageist attitudes (implicitly or explicitly): Older adults

There were 6 articles out of 20 that used language or ideas that could be interpreted as contributing to ageism. The analysis revealed the presence of self-ageism, indicating that older adults have integrated existing negative stereotypes based on age (for example, the presumed non-productivity of older adults).

“Dear editor, When the vaccine for COVID-19 rolls out, it should not start with us old folk.” […] “We old folk are not productive members of society and can shelter at home if concerned.”

(Ian Kimm, December 3rd, 2020, BC Local News.)

Are there references to specific chronological age (or age range): Older adults

There was great variety in references to age ranging from 50 and above to 85 and above. The most frequent age categories were either 65 and above (n=3) or 70 or above (n=2):

“High-dose flu vaccines are covered for all older adults over 65 years of age, but only through a physician or via public health.”

(Canadian Association for Retired Persons, CARP, April 2nd, 2020.)

Interestingly, a survey conducted by Age-Well (a Canadian technology and aging network), referred to adults in their 80s as fully capable of using technologies. 

“ Olive Bryanton, 83 ans, de Hampshire à l’Île-du-Prince-Édouard, n’imagine pas la vie pendant la pandémie de COVID-19 sans technologie. ”

(Age-Well, September 29th, 2020; survey was also reported by the Canadian Association for Retired Persons, CARP on April 2nd, 2020.)

Translation: [Olive Bryanton, 83, of Hampshire, Prince Edward Island, can't imagine life during the COVID-19 pandemic without technology.]

How is aging, as a process, described or referred to (loss; gain; both; neither): Older adults

Eleven out of 20 articles written by older adults or their associations described aging in terms of loss, with references to older adults as the most vulnerable population to COVID-19. Some of these articles reflected self-ageism whereby older adults seemed to identify with and accept negative age-based stereotypes. On the other hand, a total of 6 articles offered a more balanced view of the aging process, describing it either in terms of gains (n=3) or both in terms of losses and gains (n=3). The following are examples of framing aging as a loss, followed by an example of a gain.

“I will probably have died or become too feeble to take. While I wait for a successful COVID-19 vaccine to be found, I find myself becoming an angry, bitter old lady.”

(Mary Moir, 82 years old; October 23rd, 2020, Branpton News.)

“Learn to use facetime or skype on your phone or computer so you can watch a show or a movie on one while video chatting on the other, simultaneously.”

(Canadian Associations for Retired Persons, CARP, April 2nd, 2020.)

Are there references to older adults’ contribution (s) to society: Older adults

Of the 20 papers analyzed, 4 clearly illustrated older adults calling for governments to acknowledge what they contribute or bring to society. The following quotation is an example of such framing: 

“ Je veux bien que l'on fasse de nous des sages ou des bâtisseurs, mais je préférerais qu'on nous considère comme des citoyens actifs, participant encore de plein droit au développement de la société et capables d'assumer leur part du fardeau collectif.  ”

(Pierre Cliche, May 30th, 2020, La Presse .)

Translation: [I don't mind us being turned into elders or builders, but I would prefer us to be perceived as active citizens who are still full participants in the development of society and able to bear their share of the collective burden.]

Are challenges or potential costs posed by aging or older adults mentioned: Older adults

The analysis revealed that out of 20 articles, 4 focused on the costs and challenges posed by an aging population, precisely on the increased economic costs or burden of an aging society on the health care system. The remaining 16 articles did not discuss the potential challenges or costs posed by aging.

How are older adults being positioned in regards to other groups: Older adults

In these documents, older adults were positioned in relation to other age groups, by older adults themselves. Of the 20 articles analyzed, 8 positively positioned older adults in relation to other groups, 2 did so in a negative manner, while the question was not applicable in 10 of the articles. The following quotations are examples where older adults were positively compared to younger age groups:

“ En ce qui concerne les médias sociaux, si populaires auprès des jeunes, ils sont également très utilisés par les personnes âgées.  ”

( Le Réseau de Centres d’excellence , AGE-WELL, Prince Edward Island, September 29th, 2020.)

Translation: [Social media, which is so popular with young people, is also widely used by older adults.]

“Some older adults can manage the stress related to Covid-19 better than younger adults. Their life experience enhances the ability to put difficult times into perspective.”

(Alberta Council on Aging, Newsletter Summer 2020 Edition.)

What is the role of older adults during the pandemic (victims; fighters; neither; both): Older adults

Similar to the media discourse, it was common for older adults to focus on their role as victims (11 out of 20). Five articles offered a more balanced view; 2 articles did not present older adults as victims nor fighters. Two articles presented older adults as fighters.

Domain categorization (employment; health and health care; social inclusion; safety and security): Older adults

Health and health care (n=8) were the domains most frequently discussed among the 20 articles, followed by safety and security (n=7), equity and inclusion (n=4) and employment (n=1).

Are Indigenous Elders mentioned: Older adults

None of the 20 articles discussed aging in relations to Indigenous Elders or Indigenous communities.

4.4 Government communication discourse (n=60) 

This section of the analysis is divided into 2 main sections: press briefings and ministry or department communications. The findings for the press briefings are presented first, in full, followed by the findings for the ministry or department communications. The analyses are based on 60 government communications, including 32 press briefings and 28 ministry or department communications. All Canadian provinces and territories, and the federal government, are represented in this part of the dataset.

4.4.1 Press briefings (n=32)

Main themes: press briefings.

The analysis of 32 press briefings revealed 6 main themes and 9 subthemes. Figure 10 depicts the main themes and subthemes for the press briefings. The main themes are shown in blue, with subthemes shown underneath in orange.

The following themes and subthemes emerged from the press briefings:

• investment and services to protect growing population of vulnerable older adults:
• progress at increasing the safety and support measured in LTC homes
• investments in an aging population
• everyone has a responsibility to protect older adults:
• negative impacts on mental health
• solidarity of communities
• COVID-19 highlights chronic problems in LTC homes:
• the situation is fragile
• frontline workers portrayed as heroes
• psychosocial impact of PH restrictions or plans (vaccination, restrictions, limits on socialization):
• impact of COVID-19 on holiday plans
• older adults are a high-risk group and must be protected or prioritized:
• prioritized in vaccine strategy
• balance between protecting older adults and maintaing social supports:
• staying connected with older adults

Main themes are shown in Figure 11 below. The most salient theme, which appeared in 15 press briefings, was the presentation of older adults as a high-risk group which must be protected and prioritized. Other main themes are presented in Figure 11.

Subthemes: Press briefings

Nine subthemes were identified in the analysis of the press briefings. The predominant subtheme, which appeared in 16 (of the 32) press briefings, was the focus on the fragility of the situation in long term care homes. The other subthemes are illustrated in Figure 12.

Main arguments: Press briefings

The bulleted list below shows the main arguments identified through the analysis of the 32 press briefings. Two arguments stood out from the others, as they were evident in the majority of the press briefings. The first is the need to protect and prioritize older adults who are vulnerable. The second is the need for a careful and cautious approach to ensure safety and quality of life in long term care. Other main arguments in the press briefings are detailed in the list below.

• Need to protect and prioritize older adults who are vulnerable: 15
• Careful and cautious approach to ensure safety and quality of life (visitation, social support, testing) in long-term care homes: 9
• We all need to follow public health guidelines (that is, reducing social contact with older adults) and adjust to changes: 3
• We are all responsible for protecting older adults who are vulnerable: 2
• We need to make investments in the long-term care sector and programs to meet the needs of older adults: 2
• Older adults should be celebrated for the ways that they contribute to our society: 1

Is ageism being discussed or criticized as an issue (in an implicit or explicit way): Press briefings

The analysis revealed ageism was criticized as an issue implicitly in 6 of the 32 press briefings. The first 2 quotations below are examples of this implicit discussion indicating long term care is failing to meet basic standards. The third and fourth quotations set out below are related to calls for change.

“Are you going to bring back the idea of having a national standard in [LTC] facilities?”… “No Canadian wants to see their loved ones not well-cared for. I don't think […] some of the regions should offer better or worse protection to elders than others and now is the time to have conversations between the federal government and the provinces on establishing norms for long term care across the country so that all Canadians can be reassured we will take care of elders who deserve the very best from all of us.”

“We have 2 new healthcare outbreaks as well at the [LTC home] and [LTC home] and 2 which are not over, including at the [LTC home]. We know how challenging that outbreak has been and we want to do everything we can to make sure that never happens again.”

“25 million dollars to community groups that deliver mental health and addiction recovery services, many of these groups specialize in helping people with unique needs in our society including seniors, homeless families and Indigenous people and others who may be suffering due to the pandemic and the economic crisis.”

“We've seen over the past many months far too many terrible tragedies in seniors' residences. We need to do better.”

Does the document contribute to ageism, that is, reflects ageist attitudes (implicitly or explicitly): Press briefings

In the press briefings, there were 3 implicit examples of discourse that contributes to ageism (or reflects ageist attitudes). In the first example, the discourse suggests that if society does not protect older adults, they will become a burden and take away the capacity of the system to care for others later. The implication is that protecting older adults now will prevent further burden on our healthcare system.

“Our only protection from COVID-19 is each other and we all share the responsibility of protecting our communities and our fellow [citizens]. The second reason that this approach is not right for [this province] is that death from COVID-19 is not the only severe outcome in [this province] over the past 6 months. One in every 67 people between the ages of 20 and 39 diagnosed with COVID has needed hospital care. That rises to 1 in 18 for those aged 40 to 69 and 1 in 4 for those aged 70 and over. If we let the virus spread freely our health system could be overloaded and caring for other patients which would challenge our ability to provide all the other health services that we need. Babies are still being born, car crashes are still occurring and our health system still must support [citizens] in countless other ways.”

The discourse in the second example emphasizes protecting older adults, which implies that this age group is homogenous and needs protecting; it does not acknowledge that older adults have assets that support resilience.

“The elderly, particularly those with underlying health conditions, are at grave risk from the COVID-19 virus,” [they] said. “We will maintain our vigilance on their behalf.”

In the third example, the speaker differentiates between ‘being healthy’ (and therefore not at risk) and ‘others’ who live with functional limitations due to health conditions. This is an example of both ‘othering’ and ‘ableism’, and reflects a deficit-oriented attitude Footnote 12 toward others who are in the same age category, based on their functional ability.

“When you look at the 216 deaths that we've had up until now, 90% of the people were 70 years of age and over and 9% were between 60 and 69 years of age. That means that 99% of those deaths are people of 60 years of age and over, so that does mean on the one hand that it's reassuring for the younger people, but obviously it also shows us where we have to put our attention, that is we have to put our attention on the older people. I include myself in that because I'm 62 and, however that is good news, that's what I'm being told. Those people who die between 60 and 69 years of age, almost all of those people had chronic illnesses so that means that if you are in good health as I am, between 60 and 69 years of age there's no reason to worry.”

Are there references to specific chronological age (or age range): Press briefings

Of the 32 press briefings we reviewed, 11 made references to specific age groups. The following table shows the age groups used.

How is aging, as a process, described or referred to (loss; gain; both; neither): Press briefings

Within the press briefings analyzed, the aging process was described in different ways. The majority of the press briefings (25 out of 32) framed aging in terms of loss only, with references to older adults as having many health risks and needing protection. Six press briefings used neither the loss nor gain frames to describe the aging process, 1 referred to both losses and gains, and none of the press briefings referred to the aging process solely in terms of gains. Two examples below show how aging is framed primarily in terms of loss.

“We're facing an ageing population - a population that has more needs and more requirements and we're really just at the very very beginning of an ageing population which will go on for a number of decades so we are looking at how we can reform long term care”

“We'll take into consideration also the age of the population, as I said before 99% of the deaths we had already are all people over 60 years old, so of course it's different when you talk about being close to somebody older and somebody younger. So it's all the kind of discussion we hope soon to be able to present a plan of reopening with different sectors”

Are there references to older adults’ contribution (s) to society: Press briefings

In the analysis of the 32 press briefings, older adults were mostly viewed through a deficit-lens, with few (n=4) acknowledgements of their contributions to society. In the press briefings where there was an acknowledgement of the contributions of older adults, these acknowledgements often referred to past contributions made when people were younger, as exemplified in the first quotation below. The second and third quotations provided are examples of acknowledgement of general or current contributions of older adults (not time-stamped to the past). Instances where the positive contributions of Indigenous Elders were acknowledged were most often in press briefings from the Territories.

“Every Canadian deserves to be safe and that includes the seniors who helped build this country.”

“Elders in our communities are such an essential part of our rural and urban communities as well, but also in the bigger facilities that we do have in [this city]. Making sure they are protected and feel safe which is an extremely important part of eldercare.”

“Older [citizens] are leaders in the province. They are business owners and entrepreneurs, volunteers, mentors, caregivers and have a wealth of knowledge and expertise to share with other generations.” […] “Older [citizens] are the backbone of our communities and make valuable contributions through their work, interests and volunteerism.”

Are challenges or potential costs posed by aging or older adults mentioned: Press briefings

Of the 32 press briefings reviewed, 16 referenced the challenges or potential costs of an aging population. The quotations below show examples of how the press briefings referenced monetary costs for housing and personal protective equipment or resources, a shared responsibility for protecting older adults, and necessary expenses.

“COVID-19 is obviously unbelievably harmful, potentially harmful to people living in long-term care, so we have to continue in a methodical and safe way to take the actions required. It's why we invested $165.4 million in our single site proposal to keep people safe, it's why we integrated long-term care home in our PPE supply chains before anyone else did in Canada, why we have dramatically increased infection control and invested $160 million now in attracting more staff to long-term care, all of this will help us over the next year and potentially longer as we deal with these situations.”

“We've seen over the past many months far too many terrible tragedies in seniors' residences. We need to do better. Through the safe restart agreement, the federal government has already provided $740 million to help provinces and territories address the immediate needs of vulnerable populations like those in long-term care and this week. Deputy PM Freeland presented the fall economic statement in which we are committing up to $1 billion for a safe, long-term care fund. This fund will help provinces and territories and carry out infection prevention, improve ventilation and hire staff or top-up existing employees' wages. We are ready to keep doing our part of seniors and for all Canadians.”

“Even if we could perfect protections in place for those who live in congregate settings like long-term care while letting the virus spread freely elsewhere, we cannot simply dictate where and how the virus will spread. The more community transmission that we see the greater the risk of it spreading to older and at-risk [citizens]. In [this province], about 30% of those over 80 who have been diagnosed with COVID-19 and who live in long-term care have died. For those over 80 living in the community it is a bit lower but still very high. The lives of people with chronic conditions and our elders are very important.”

“ Donc pour aller voir exactement si la situation est sous contrôle il faut revenir sur la situation dans les CHSLD et les résidences pour aînés de façon générale. D'abord c'est important de se rappeler qu'avant même la crise, depuis des années, on avait des pénuries de personnel dans les résidences pour aînés. On avait, je pense, peut-être le problème le plus important sur un problème de salaires donc on n'arrive pas même si on a affiché beaucoup de postes à combler les postes c'est encore plus difficile dans certaines résidences privées qui payent moins cher mais même dans un secteur public très difficile d'aller attirer tout le personnel. ”

Translation: [So, to see whether the situation is really under control, we need to review the situation in CHSLDs and seniors' residences as a whole. First of all, it is important to remember that, even before the crisis, seniors' residences had been short-staffed for many years. Perhaps the biggest problem was related to wages. Therefore, we were unable to hire, although we advertised many vacant positions. The situation is even worse in some private residences that pay less, but attracting staff is a challenge even for the public sector.]

How are older adults positioned in regards to other groups: Press briefings

The analysis examined how older adults are positioned in relation to other age groups. Of the 32 press briefings analyzed, 22 positioned older adults against younger generations, or made comparisons between them. The comparisons included positioning older adults as ‘at-risk or vulnerable’, younger populations as having responsibility for or towards older adults, and in some cases grouping older adults with children. The following quotations are examples from the articles that positioned older adults in relation to younger age groups.

“We know that people who are over the age of 80 are more likely to have severe illness or to die from COVID.”

“This is just a reflection of high transmission rates in the community. No one intentionally wants to take COVID into these facilities but staff [and] visitors can unintentionally bring it in because you may not be symptomatic for up to 2 days before but you’re still infectious and with all the layers of protection most use and other layers, you may still inadvertently introduce COVID. So we really need to protect our most vulnerable, especially in long-term care facilities, personal care homes but also people living independently who are our parents and grandparents. Be extra cautious if you do need to visit to assist them with something.”

“If there is a child that is living 1 or 2 in a home and they need help for example or an elderly family member that needs help, what we're asking you to do is to keep that help coming from 1 household.”

“Because as soon as you contact someone with COVID-19 and you have it, you want to go home and hurt your children? I don't know anyone who wants to hurt their children or parents or grandparents.”

What is the role of older adults during the pandemic (victims; fighters; neither; both): Press briefings

The discourse in the press briefings primarily presented older adults as victims in the pandemic (28 out of 32 press briefings), rather than fighters resisting impacts of the restrictions or the virus (n=0). One press briefing presented them as neither victims or fighters, and 3 presented them as both. The first 3 quotations below are examples of how older adults were presented as victims. The last quotation is an example of how they were given the roles of both victims and fighters, battling isolation but needing help from others.

“What I have heard sometimes suggested for COVID-19 is that because younger people are generally at low risk of experiencing severe outcomes, we should protect older [citizens] but otherwise let the virus spread as quickly and freely as possible so that we can build up a collective immunity to it. This suggestion however, does not take into account the drawbacks of this approach. It is true that COVID-19 is rarely fatal in young people in [this province], the risk of death for a person diagnosed with COVID-19 is about 18% for those over 70, less than half a percent for those between 40 and 69, and vanishingly small for those under the age of 40.”

“Our seniors, particularly vulnerable to the consequences of COVID-19.” […] “Protect your parents, grandparents. Put an iron ring around the long-term care.”

“We want to get at the most vulnerable population and then get at the health workers across [the province] who really are vulnerable just in a different way. And in some cases, those 2 priorities are going to mesh somewhat because for example, when we go with the most vulnerable, and we go into a long term care facility to look after the residents there who have suffered so badly from this horrible, horrible epidemic, we are obviously not just going to do the residents that were there with the vaccination program, we are [going] to have [it] available for the people who work there, the personal care workers, the healthcare workers, and those essential visitors that are required to look after the people in those homes.”

“For the personal care homes, designated family caregivers will continue to have access to their loved ones. These are family members or loved ones who are directly involved in the care needs of the residents there. They will be screened and provided with PPE as appropriate which is our current situation, but general visitors and non essential services will now be suspended in the PCHs exceptions will exist for the end of life compassionate reasons and we understand how distressing this will be for many residents and their loved ones. We encourage virtual visits, phone calls and we must empathize that this is essential to protecting our most vulnerable population it's not forever but it's necessary right now in the hospitals.”

Domain categorization (employment; health and health care; social inclusion; safety and security): Press briefings

In this analysis, there were references to 2 of the 4 domains. Health and health care were referred to in 29 of 32 press briefings. Social inclusion was referenced in 3 press briefings.

Are Indigenous Elders mentioned: Press briefings

As previously mentioned, press briefings from the Canadian territories most often referred to Indigenous Elders and their contributions to their communities. An example is provided below.

Ministry or department communications (n=28)

Main themes: ministry or department communications.

The 28 ministry or department communications analyzed included those generated by ministries, departments, and bureaucracies. Within this part of the dataset, 8 main themes and 12 sub-themes emerged. Figure 13 shown below is a depiction of the main themes and subthemes for the ministry or department communications. The main themes are shown in blue, with subthemes underneath them in orange.

The following themes and subthemes emerged from the ministry or the department of communications:

• need for government investments to support programming for older adults:
• situation in LTC homes is fragile
• frontline workers are portrayed as heroes
• need for government investments to support caregivers of older adults:
• caregivers plan an integral role in supporting older adults
• older adults are contributors to our society:
• older adults are adaptable
• input from National Seniors’ Council is necessary to understand the needs of older adults:
• important to represent the diversity of older adults
• volunteers play an important role in supporting older adults:
• solidarity of communities, we are all in this together
• public health restrictions are impacting older adults
• older adults are vulnerable
• protection from elder abuse
• supporting an aging population
• older adults are a significant proportion of our population
• protecting older adults must be balanced with maintaining quality of life:
• aging in place with social connections and dignity will prevent early admission to LTC
• balance between social distancing and social support

The most salient theme in the ministry or department communications was the need for government investments to support programming for older adults. All main themes are listed in Figure 14.

Subthemes: Ministry or department communications

Twelve subthemes were identified in the analysis of the ministry or department communications. The predominant subtheme, which appeared in 8 of the 28 ministry or department communications was that older adults are vulnerable. The other subthemes are illustrated in Figure 15.

Main arguments: Ministry or department communications

Several main arguments were made in the 28 ministry or department communications. One argument that stood out from the others was the need for a careful and cautious approach to ensure safety and quality of life (visitation, social support, testing) in long-term care homes. This argument was made in 9 ministry or department communications. The other main arguments are:

• careful and cautious approach to ensure safety and quality of life (visitation, social support, testing) in long-term care homes: 9
• need to protect and prioritize older adults who are vulnerable: 5
• need to make investments in the long-term care sector and programs to meet the needs of older adults: 5
• caregivers are essential during COVID-19 and require more support: 2
• need to create an inclusive society for our growing population of diverse seniors: 2
• we all need to follow the public health guidelines and adjust to changes: 2
• older adults should be celebrated for the ways that they contribute to our society: 1
• take action on engaging with older adults and key stakeholders to support the health and wellbeing of older adults: 1
• importance of volunteers to support older adults: 1
• provide education for families or caregivers on conditions affecting older adults (that is, dementia): 1
• aging in place with social connections and dignity: 1

Is ageism being discussed or criticized as an issue (in an implicit or explicit way): Ministry or department communications

Ageism was criticized as an issue explicitly in 1 out of the 28 ministry or department communications reviewed. It was discussed in the context of preventing abuse during the pandemic.

“Another area of concern for seniors is protection from elder abuse. We continue to support and fund the efforts of the [territory’s] Seniors’ Society to raise awareness about this issue, deliver community public awareness workshops and lead the Network to Prevent Abuse of Older Adults. We are currently considering the possible need for changes in legislation or programs that will improve protection of seniors from abuse.”

Does the document contribute to ageism, that is, reflects ageist attitudes (implicitly or explicitly): Ministry or department communications

While ministry or department communications did not explicitly reflect ageist attitudes, the focus on the vulnerability of older adults as well as aging mainly as a process of loss suggests the prevalence of implicit ageism in this discourse.

Are there references to specific chronological age (or age range): Ministry or department communications

Of the 28 ministry or department communications reviewed, 4 made references to specific age groups. The following table shows the age groups used.

How is aging, as a process, described or referred to (loss, gain, both, neither): Ministry or department communications

Within the ministry or department communications analyzed, the aging process was described in different ways. Precisely, of the 28 documents, 15 framed aging in terms of loss, with references to older adults as having many health risks and needing protection, while 10 ministry or department communications were neutral in their description of the aging process. Two referred to the aging process in terms of gain and referred to both losses and gains.  

The first 2 quotations below show examples of how aging is framed as a loss. The third quotation provides an example of how aging was framed as a gain. The fourth quotation is an example where both loss and gain frames were used.

“Seniors are more at risk of developing severe complications from COVID-19 because of their age and underlying medical conditions. For seniors living together in facilities, there is an even greater risk of infection and transmission due to proximity.”

“Having those strong networks of your longtime friends and family around you has impacts on your health as you age. Having the supports to age-in-place in your home community will improve the quality of life for seniors and may prevent early admission to long-term more-intensive care facilities.”

“Older [citizens] are leaders in the province. They are business owners and entrepreneurs, volunteers, mentors, caregivers and have a wealth of knowledge and expertise to share with other generations.”

Both loss and gain

“The aging population continues to make major contributions to society through volunteer work, transmitting their experience and knowledge, helping their families and participating in the workforce.”[…] “Public health measures also exacerbate challenges with isolation, leaving seniors and vulnerable adults isolated and at a greater risk of abuse or neglect.”

Are there references to older adults’ contribution (s) to society: Ministry or department communications

In the analysis of the 28 ministry or department communications, there were 10 documents which included acknowledgements of older adults’ contributions to society. Some, for example, spoke to the importance of giving back to older adults for the wisdom they have contributed throughout their lives. The quotations below illustrate some examples.

“Mr. Speaker, seniors are the bedrock of our lives. They have been there for us since the day we were born. They have given so much to us. Their knowledge, their guidance and their love. As such, we needed to take the time and use the necessary resources to ensure that these units were built to the best standard available. It is important that we give back to the ones that have given us so much.”

“The aging population continues to make major contributions to society through volunteer work, transmitting their experience and knowledge, helping their families and participating in the workforce.”

“Work has also begun on a program that will provide more opportunities for Indigenous residents of long-term care homes to participate in programming that honours and celebrates First Nations history, culture and traditional practices.”

“Elders counselling will be working a modified schedule with volunteer/casual Elders on a case-by-case basis. Approvals will take into consideration the risk of exposure to the Elder or facility and will be in the secure visiting area.”

Are challenges or potential costs posed by aging or older adults mentioned: Ministry or department communications

Of the 28 ministry or department communications reviewed, 11 referenced the challenges or potential costs of an aging population, primarily as it relates to human resources, caregivers, and the necessity for these expenses. Here are a few examples.

“We are here to help these incredible caregivers making sacrifices every day with emotional support, access to tools and resources, and to assist them to navigate our complex health system.”

“Currently, close to $90,000 in grant funding has been provided to 50+ clubs and seniors’ organizations throughout the province. Through this application-based program, seniors’ groups may apply for funding of up to $2,000 each to organize and promote activities and programs that support social inclusion, healthy aging, mental wellness, and overall well-being.”

“[Our province’s] senior population will almost double within 20 years, which will put increased pressure on the province’s long-term care system…Improvements to the long-term care system must be considered to meet the needs of our aging population.”

How are older adults positioned in regards to other groups: Ministry or department communications

Of the 28 ministry or department communications analyzed, 4 positioned older adults against younger generations, or made comparisons between them. The comparisons included positioning older adults as needing protection. The following quotations are examples that positioned older adults in relation to younger age groups.

“All Canadians have a role to play in helping to protect seniors and medically vulnerable people, who are at greatest risk of severe health complications from COVID-19.”

“[Our] most vulnerable families, seniors and youth will receive additional support for food, shelter, basic necessities and staying connected during the province’s response to the COVID-19 pandemic.”

What is the role of older adults during the pandemic (victims, fighters, neither, both): Ministry or department communications

The discourse in the ministry or department communications primarily presented older adults as victims (n=17), more so than fighters (n=1). Seven ministry or department communications presented them as neither victims or fighters, and 3 presented them as both. Some examples of these different roles are presented below.

“Seniors and persons with a weakened immune system or underlying medical conditions are at a higher risk of developing complications from COVID-19. The Provincial Government is asking that seniors, persons with disabilities that may affect their immunity, and organizations serving both seniors and persons with disabilities consider ways to support social distancing.”

Both fighters and victims

“From delivering box lunches and treat baskets, to organizing socially distance hiking and bowling, to sending flowers and greeting cards, seniors’ groups have been finding creative ways to help keep seniors connected in spite of challenges related to COVID-19.”

“Older adults continue to show their strength, especially in difficult times and their ability to adapt and lead.”

Domain categorization (employment, health and health care, social inclusion, safety and security): Ministry or department communications

In the ministry or department communications, there were references to all 4 domain categories: employment (n=2), health and health care (n=16), social inclusion (n=9), and safety and security (n=1).

Are Indigenous Elders mentioned: Ministry or department communications

There was limited data specifically focused on Indigenous populations. However, similar to the press briefings, ministry or department communications from the territories made several references to the important roles of Elders, and the need to honour their contributions. Examples of this discourse include:

“Elders counselling will be working a modified schedule with volunteers/casual Elders on a case-by-case basis. Approvals will take into consideration the risk of exposure to the Elder or facility and will be in the secure visiting area.”

5.1 Main findings across the 4 types of discourse (see Table 5 )

5.2 similarities and differences across discourses.

Using a sample of 110 publications from 4 types of discourses (media, academic research, older adults, and government communications), this case study explored how ageism emerged in Canada during the COVID-19 pandemic. While the small sample on which the study is based does not allow generalizations of findings, nor does it allow comparisons across jurisdictions, results can be validated (or triangulated) across the different data sources.

• Ageism was raised as an issue throughout the 4 types of discourses, in 1 of 2 ways, either contributing to ageism or criticizing ageism
• Similar themes and arguments were made throughout the data sources regarding the neglect in long-term care and the values of caring and protecting older adults during the pandemic
• Older adults were mainly perceived as “victims” during the pandemic (50% to 88% of the 4 discourse content)
• The aging process was described as a process of “loss” in more than half of the 4 discourse content, that is, 54% to 78% of all documents
• In general, older adults’ contributions to society were rarely acknowledged; 13% to 36% of documents across the 4 types of discourse, highlighted older adults’ contributions as workers, volunteers, and caregivers
• Costs and challenges were more prominent than older adults’ contributions throughout the 4 types of discourse
• Communication that referenced Indigenous Elders were some of the few examples where older adults’ contributions were recognized
• Few documents gave a voice to older adults, that is, they spoke on behalf of them but not with them. For example, the media rarely included excerpts of interviews with older adults
• While the 4 domains of employment, health and healthcare, social inclusion, and safety and security were identified in all data sources, the most prominent domain was health and healthcare
• Older adults (and associations of older adults) also criticized ageism and recognized its negative impact, however they mostly focused on healthy older adults who lived independently within their own homes or communities, not older adults residing in long term care
• Ministry or department communications and older adults themselves were the least likely to associate aging with loss (at 54% and 55%, respectively)
• Academics and older adults shifted the “need to care” discourse to the “need to do more” for the older population by calling for action from governments and civil society. In other words, both groups went beyond criticizing ageism and called for solutions to end it
• Press briefings and ministry or department communications from territories made reference to Indigenous Elders in a positive manner

Note: this table was modified for accessibility reasons.

* While the 4 domains were present, the main one for each data source was health and health care.

The following policy recommendations are based on the findings from this case study of 110 documents (media articles, academic articles, articles written by older adults or their associations, and government communications).

This case study is not without limitations. First, this report is based on a sample of 110 documents. A greater sample of media articles, academic articles, articles written by older adults or their associations, and government communications would be needed to further validate the findings. Second, with this small sample, it was also not possible to explore changes in the discourse across time. Third, considering the main key words used for this study were COVID-19 and pandemic, there was an expectation that the discourse would speak about long-term care. However, the findings suggest an overemphasis on protecting older people and that, too often, older people are not given a voice. Finally, considering that this report highlights examples of age-based discriminatory discourse, general policy recommendations were provided rather than recommendations for specific provincial and territorial governments. In light of these limitations, this case study revealed the prevalence of ageism in the Canadian discourse during the COVID-19 pandemic and provides key suggestions to help remediate the situation.

Documents were selected according to 3 points in time during periods of lockdown and reopening. The 3 points in time covered (when possible): April; mid-September to mid-October; and early December.

A. Media articles or editorials, comments, op-eds (20)

• 7 papers selected in April (3 Globe and Mail; 2 National Post; 2 La Presse )
• 7 papers selected from mid-September to mid-October (3 Globe and Mail; 2 National Post; 2 La Presse )
• 6 papers selected in early December (3 Globe and Mail; 2 National Post; 1 La Presse )

B. Academic papers (10)

• 3 papers selected in June to July
• 3 papers selected in September to October
• 4 papers selected in December

Note: Academic research focused mainly on the Canadian context (n=6) but included international publications as well (n=4).

C. Older adults or associations of older adults (20) or published in Canadian print media

• 7 papers selected in April (ideally, 3 Globe and Mail; 2 National Post; 2 La Presse )
• 7 papers selected from mid-September to mid-October (ideally, 3 Globe and Mail; 2 National Post; 2 La Presse )
• 6 papers selected in early December; (ideally, 3 Globe and Mail; 1 National Post; 2 La Presse ) 

D. Government communications (60)

• A total of 32 press briefings and 28 communications generated by ministries and departments (in the 13 provinces and territories, in addition to the federal jurisdiction) were selected for analysis. Further, these documents were selected according to the 3 time points targeted (April; mid-September to mid-October; and December 2020) which amounts to approximately 2 to 3 press briefings and ministry or government communications per province and territory

Our analysis focused on documents generated in a Canadian context (that is, by Canadian scholars, associations of older adults, governments (be it provincial, territorial or federal)).

• Main keywords: Covid-19 or COVID-19 or coronavirus or Coronavirus or pandémie or pandemic

In combination with (in English): older adults or elder or elders or elderly or boomer or old age or older age or aging or ageing or seniors or senior citizens or ageism or ageist or grandparents or grandparents or young

• In combination with (in French): personnes âgées ou personnes aînées ou aîné(e) ou aîné(s) ou vieux ou vieille ou vieilles ou vieillissement ou âgisme ou âgiste ou grand-parent ou grands-parents ou jeunes
• Advanced search will include combination with (in English): employment or work or workforce or older worker or older workers or health or healthcare or caregiver or caregivers or senior residence or senior residences or long-term care or safety and security or social inclusion
• Advanced search will include combination with (in French): emploi ou emplois ou travail ou travailleur âgé ou travailleurs âgés; santé ou soins de santé ou soignant ou soignants ou professionnel de la santé ou professionnels de la santé ou résidence pour personnes âgées ou résidences pour personnes âgées ou soins de longue durée ou santé et sécurité ou inclusion sociale

Medias (n=20)

• Boom des plateformes de jeu virtuel
• Send in the crowds : What we miss the most from our prepandemic lives
• Globe and Mail
• Un autre coup dur pour les ainés
• The world must act before COVID-19 shatters Africa
• Navigating a path back to prosperity after the coronavirus pandemic
• National Post
• Let’s not get distracted by immunity passports
• CHSLD, les brasiers
• Seniors’ care shouldn’t be a horror show, even postpandemic
• Ontario’s COVID-19 testing nightmare
• Care-home is our national shame
• Why we can ignore anti-vaxxers right now
• Rex Murphy: The full impact of COVID is not borne by all
• Les gens vulnérables ne vivent pas dans les nuages
• Changer de « cible »
• La tragédie silencieuse
• The COVID-19 crisis has exposed Canada’s shameful treatment of its elderly
• Opinion on Covid-19: An opportunity to re-examine how we provide health care
• Pandemic realities offer hope of new approach to child care
• Now comes the hard part: Only masses doses of vaccine get us back to normal
• It’s that time of the year for scarecrows; Fearmongering will not ease enduring crisis

Academics (n = 10)

• Elderly people and responses to COVID-19 in 27 countries
• The Mental Health Benefits of Physical Activity in Older Adults Survive the COVID-19 Pandemic
• The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry
• Stretching the analytic frame: Analytic therapists’ experiences with remote therapy during COVID-19
• Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association
• Are You OK, Boomer? Intensification of Ageism and Intergenerational Tensions on Social Media Amid COVID-19
• Leisure Sciences
• COVID-19 and Long-Term Care Policy for Older People in Canada
• Journal of Aging & Social Policy
• A hospital partnership with a nursing home experiencing a COVID‐19 outbreak: Description of a multiphase emergency response in Toronto, Canada
• Journal of the American Geriatrics Society
• La COVID-19 et les priorités de recherche sur le vieillissement
• Canadian Journal on Aging / La revue canadienne du vieillissement
• Development of a framework for critical care resource allocation for the COVID-19 pandemic in Saskatchewan
• Canadian Medication Association Journal
• COVID-19: Pandemic Risk, Resilience and Possibilities for Aging Research
• La nécessité des approches interdisciplinaires et collaboratives pour évaluer l'impact de la COVID-19 sur les personnes âgées et le vieillissement: déclaration conjointe de l'ACG / CAG et de la RCV / CJA

Older adults (n=20)

• Un autre coup dur pour les aînés
• Selon un sondage, la Covid-19 a amené les personnes âgées du Canada à accroître considérablement leur utilisation de nombreuses technologies
• Le réseau de Centres d’excellence AGE-WELL
• Pour éviter une nouvelle hécatombe en CHSLD
• Réjean Hébert, Le Collectif Action COVID
• J’ai 72 ans et je suis en bonne santé. Est-ce un tort?
• Pierre Cliche
• Vieillir et mourir au temps du coronavirus
• Simone Landry, professeur retraitée
• Vaccine plan must treat all B.C. seniors equally
• BC Seniors Living Association
• We need action, not studies to improve health care now
• Antonieta Soares
• The Canadian Association for Retired Persons (CARP) implores all provincial governments to ensure that the highdose flu vaccine is publicly funded for as many seniors as possible
• Canadian Associations for Retired Persons (CARP)
• Stay (emotionally) close with your grandchildren, while maintaining good (physical distance)
• Older adults and COVID-19: Does the WHO need to prioritize those most vulnerable to the virus?
• International Federation on Aging (IFA)
• Letter: Priority to COVID
• Older aged and all alone. What is the impact of being childless in the time of Covid-19
• Aging population and historically high spending pre-COVID means no balanced budget for the next 30 years
• Fraser Institute
• Peterborough letter: Being able to use the YMCA during the pandemic
• Louise Greene and Gay Bell
• Please follow the COVID rules
• Canada’s long-term care system needs to change, human rights advocate says
• Margaret Gillis, President of the International Longevity Centre-Canada
• Equity under pressure: Does the burden of Covid-19 threaten progress made?
• Covid-19 Highlights Need for National Seniors Strategy
• National Institute on Aging
• How older adults can protect their mental health during Covid-19
• Mental Health Commission of Canada
• How Covid-19 has shaped service delivery for SSBC
• Seniors Service Society

Government communications

• Ontario Allows the Redeployment of Staff to Better Care for Vulnerable People During COVID-19
• Ontario Providing Over Half A Billion Dollars to Protect Vulnerable Seniors against Second Wave of COVID-19
• A Mobile Hospital to Increase Treatment Capacity for COVID-19 Patients
• The Québec Ombudsman’s 2019-2020 Annual Report – News Release 1
• Additional Measures to Help Vulnerable Nova Scotians
• Recognizing Older Nova Scotians
• No new cases of Covid-19; new rules for visiting patients nearing end of life
• International Day of Older Persons
• Province announces additional income relief, stricter screening measures for traverlers
• Influenza seasons arrives in PEI
• Temporary changes to licensing requirements for certain Yukon drivers
• Government increasing supports for Yukon seniors and Elders
• COVID-19 GN Update – April 6, 2020
• COVID-19 GN Update – November 20, 2020
• More support for family caregivers during COVID-19 – Punjabi, Farsi, French, Tagalog and Chinese translations available
• Culturally safe long-term care beds coming to Surrey
• Public Health Agency of Canada releases interim guidance for infection prevention and control of COVID-19 for long-term care homes
• Government of Canada seek applicants for National Senior Council
• Call for action for COVID-19 volunteers
• Greater care, flexible options for Canmore seniors
• Province invests $300,000 in education programs for people with dementia and their caregivers
• Governments invest in new affordable housing project for seniors in Gimli
• Temporary Wage Supplement for Lower Income Essential Workers for Vulnerable Citizens
• Additional Influenza Vaccine Ordered to Accommodate Anticipated Increase in Demand
• Paulie Chinna: Fort Good Hope Senior Complex, Minister’s Statements and Speeches
• Julie Green: YK Seniors Society Annual General Meeting, Ministers’ Statements and Speeches
• Public Adivsory: Advice for Seniors and Persons with Disabilitiese
• Minister Warr Provides Update on Seniors’ Social Inclusion Initiative

Press briefings (n=32)

• Apr 02: Premier Ford provides a COVID-19 update
• Apr 24: Premier Doug Ford and Ontario ministers provide COVID-19 update
• Sep 29: Premier Ford makes an announcement at Queen's Park
• Dec 07: Premier Ford provides an update at Queen's Park
• Apr 09: Quebec update on COVID-19
• Apr 13: Mise à jour du Québec sur la COVID-19
• Oct 13: Le point sur la pandémie de COVID-19 au Québec
• Dec 03: COVID-19 : Québec annule les rassemblements des Fêtes en zone rouge
• Apr 05: Update COVID-19 for Nova Scotians
• Sep 22: Update COVID-19 for Nova Scotians
• Apr 13: Update on COVID-19 (New Brunswick)
• Oct 08: Update on COVID-19 (New Brunswick)
• Apr 30: COVID-19, 1:30pm Update (PEI)
• Sep 15: COVID-19, 11:30am Update (PEI)
• Apr 8: COVID-19 update (Yukon)
• Oct 7: COVID-19 update (Yukon)
• Apr 22: COVID-19 Premier’s Update (BC)
• Sep 14: COVID-19 BC Update
• Dec 23: COVID-19 BC Update
• Apr 28: Federal officials release updated COVID-19 modelling
• Oct 13: PM Trudeau provides update on federal response to COVID-19
• Dec 04: COVID-19 update: Trudeau addresses Canadians
• Apr 15: Update on COVID-19 (Alberta)
• Sep 28: Update on COVID-19 (Alberta)
• Apr 03: COVID-19 (Coronavirus) measures (Manitoba)
• Oct 30: COVID-19 Update (Manitoba)
• Apr 03: Update with Premier Moe and Dr. Shahab (Saskatchewan)
• Nov 17: COVID-19 Update (Saskatchewan)
• Dec 22: Northwest Territories update on COVID-19
• Apr 15: COVID-19 Update (Newfoundland and Labrador)
• Oct 21: COVID-19 Update (Newfoundland and Labrador)
• Dec 21: COVID-19 Update (Newfoundland and Labrador)

Page details

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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