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A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples

Published on 14 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 15 September 2023.

Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.

Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list .

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Table of contents

Harvard in-text citation, creating a harvard reference list, harvard referencing examples, referencing sources with no author or date, frequently asked questions about harvard referencing.

A Harvard in-text citation appears in brackets beside any quotation or paraphrase of a source. It gives the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication, as well as a page number or range locating the passage referenced, if applicable:

Note that ‘p.’ is used for a single page, ‘pp.’ for multiple pages (e.g. ‘pp. 1–5’).

An in-text citation usually appears immediately after the quotation or paraphrase in question. It may also appear at the end of the relevant sentence, as long as it’s clear what it refers to.

When your sentence already mentions the name of the author, it should not be repeated in the citation:

Sources with multiple authors

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’ names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sources with no page numbers

Some sources, such as websites , often don’t have page numbers. If the source is a short text, you can simply leave out the page number. With longer sources, you can use an alternate locator such as a subheading or paragraph number if you need to specify where to find the quote:

Multiple citations at the same point

When you need multiple citations to appear at the same point in your text – for example, when you refer to several sources with one phrase – you can present them in the same set of brackets, separated by semicolons. List them in order of publication date:

Multiple sources with the same author and date

If you cite multiple sources by the same author which were published in the same year, it’s important to distinguish between them in your citations. To do this, insert an ‘a’ after the year in the first one you reference, a ‘b’ in the second, and so on:

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A bibliography or reference list appears at the end of your text. It lists all your sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, giving complete information so that the reader can look them up if necessary.

The reference entry starts with the author’s last name followed by initial(s). Only the first word of the title is capitalised (as well as any proper nouns).

Sources with multiple authors in the reference list

As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Reference list entries vary according to source type, since different information is relevant for different sources. Formats and examples for the most commonly used source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal with no DOI
• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Sometimes you won’t have all the information you need for a reference. This section covers what to do when a source lacks a publication date or named author.

No publication date

When a source doesn’t have a clear publication date – for example, a constantly updated reference source like Wikipedia or an obscure historical document which can’t be accurately dated – you can replace it with the words ‘no date’:

Note that when you do this with an online source, you should still include an access date, as in the example.

When a source lacks a clearly identified author, there’s often an appropriate corporate source – the organisation responsible for the source – whom you can credit as author instead, as in the Google and Wikipedia examples above.

When that’s not the case, you can just replace it with the title of the source in both the in-text citation and the reference list:

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Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

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Caulfield, J. (2023, September 15). A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 6 May 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-style/

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What is Harvard Style?

What you need to know, harvard style tutorial.

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Harvard Style

The Harvard referencing system is known as the Author-Date style . It emphasizes the name of the creator of a piece of information and the date of publication, with the list of references in alphabetical order at the end of your paper.

Unlike other citation styles, there is no single, definitive version of Harvard Style. Therefore, you may see a variation in features such as punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations, and the use of italics. 

Always check with your instructor and follow the rules he or she gives you.

• Harvard Style Guidelines Your class handout
• Harvard Referencing Quick Guide From Staffordshire University

Harvard Style will affect your paper in two places:

• In-text citations in the body of your paper, and
• The reference list at the end of your paper
• All in-text citations should be listed in the reference list at the end of your paper.
• Reference list entries need to contain all the information that someone reading your paper would need in order to find your source.
• Reference lists in Harvard Style are arranged alphabetically by first author.
• Begin your Reference list on a new page after your text and number it consecutively.

Sample References List:

Click on the Links Below to See Additional Examples:

• Sample Paper Paper provided by Kurt Olson
• Harvard Citation Examples Document created by The University of Western Australia

Click on the image below to launch this tutorial that was created by the University of Leeds. The section on Citing in Text is especially useful.

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• Next: Other Styles >>
• Last Updated: May 1, 2024 2:04 PM
• URL: https://libguides.mjc.edu/citeyoursources

Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 and CC BY-NC 4.0 Licenses .

Harvard Citation Guide: Getting Started

• Getting Started
• How do I Cite?
• In-Text Citations
• Reference List
• Additional Resources

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What is Harvard Style?

Harvard style is a set of rules for research papers and publications. It is one of the most widely used styles in the world.

In Harvard, you must cite sources that you have paraphrased, quoted, or consulted to write your research paper. Cite your sources in two places:

• In the body of your paper (in-text citation).
• In the Reference list at the end of your paper (full bibliographic reference).

Digital Object Identifiers (DOI)

Also known as a permalink, a DOI, or  digital object identifier , is an article's permanent online location. DOIs are used for a variety of academic and non-academic sources that are located online. 

Include a DOI for all works that have a DOI. If an online work has both a DOI and a URL, include only the DOI; if the source only has a URL, include the URL.

Cite Them Right 11th edition

Many of the disciplines and institutions that favor Harvard style use  Cite Them Right 11th edition  as their primary manual.

Cite Them Right   This is the official website for Cite Them Right.

• Next: How do I Cite? >>
• Last Updated: Jun 24, 2022 12:36 PM
• URL: https://paperpile.libguides.com/harvard

Harvard Citation Style: Introduction

Introduction

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Company Information

Conference Proceedings

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Journal Articles

Lecture Notes

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All Examples

• Writing Support
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In This Guide...

Click on the links below for further information on referencing each material type

Why is Referencing Important?

Getting started.

Reference Formats

• References by Format
• Citing Info Someone Else has Cited

Books/eBooks

• 1, 2 or More Authors
• 1, 2 or More Editors
• Chapters in Books
• Company Reports
• Company Profiles

Internet/Websites

• Web Documents
• Computer Software
• CMO Articles

Multimedia Formats

• Audio-Visual Material

Newspaper Articles

Patents & Standards

• Citing Patents: Examples
• Citing Patents: Standards
• Citing Theses: Examples
• A table of examples in all formats for quick reference

Referencing or citing your sources is an important part of academic writing. It lets you acknowledge the ideas or words of others if you use them in your work and helps avoid plagiarism.

Referencing also demonstrates that you've read relevant background literature and you can provide authority for statements you make in your assignments.

The Harvard citation style can vary in minor features such as punctuation, capitalization, abbreviations, and the use of italics.

Note: Always check with your instructor/professor for which citation style they prefer you to use.

How and When to Cite - GW Writing Center

The Dos and Don'ts of Paraphrasing - GW Writing Center

There are two components to referencing: in-text citations in your paper and the reference list at the end of your paper.

The in-text citation:

Harvard is an 'author/date' system, so your in-text citation consists of author(s) and year of publication.

In-text citation of a book (the same format applies for a journal article)

If you quote directly from an author or to cite a specific idea or piece of information from the source you need to include the page number of the quote in your in-text citation.

The reference list:

All in-text citations should be listed in the reference list at the end of your document. The reference list should include details representing all the works you cite in your document and it should be in alphabetical order by author.

Reference list entry for a journal

Reference list entries contain all the information that someone needs to follow up your source. Reference lists in Harvard are arranged alphabetically by author.

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Quick guide to Harvard referencing (Cite Them Right)

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There are different versions of the Harvard referencing style. This guide is a quick introduction to the commonly-used Cite Them Right version. You will find further guidance available through the OU Library on the Cite Them Right Database .

For help and support with referencing and the full Cite Them Right guide, have a look at the Library’s page on referencing and plagiarism . If you need guidance referencing OU module material you can check out which sections of Cite Them Right are recommended when referencing physical and online module material .

This guide does not apply to OU Law undergraduate students . If you are studying a module beginning with W1xx, W2xx or W3xx, you should refer to the Quick guide to Cite Them Right referencing for Law modules .

Table of contents

In-text citations and full references.

• Secondary referencing
• Page numbers
• Citing multiple sources published in the same year by the same author

Full reference examples

Referencing consists of two elements:

• in-text citations, which are inserted in the body of your text and are included in the word count. An in-text citation gives the author(s) and publication date of a source you are referring to. If the publication date is not given, the phrase 'no date' is used instead of a date. If using direct quotations or you refer to a specific section in the source you also need the page number/s if available, or paragraph number for web pages.
• full references, which are given in alphabetical order in reference list at the end of your work and are not included in the word count. Full references give full bibliographical information for all the sources you have referred to in the body of your text.

To see a reference list and intext citations check out this example assignment on Cite Them Right .

Difference between reference list and bibliography

a reference list only includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text

a bibliography includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text AND sources that were part of your background reading that you did not use in your assignment

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Examples of in-text citations

You need to include an in-text citation wherever you quote or paraphrase from a source. An in-text citation consists of the last name of the author(s), the year of publication, and a page number if relevant. There are a number of ways of incorporating in-text citations into your work - some examples are provided below. Alternatively you can see examples of setting out in-text citations in Cite Them Right .

Note: When referencing a chapter of an edited book, your in-text citation should give the author(s) of the chapter.

Online module materials

(Includes written online module activities, audio-visual material such as online tutorials, recordings or videos).

When referencing material from module websites, the date of publication is the year you started studying the module.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

OR, if there is no named author:

The Open University (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Rietdorf, K. and Bootman, M. (2022) 'Topic 3: Rare diseases'. S290: Investigating human health and disease . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1967195 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

The Open University (2022) ‘3.1 The purposes of childhood and youth research’. EK313: Issues in research with children and young people . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1949633&section=1.3 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

You can also use this template to reference videos and audio that are hosted on your module website:

The Open University (2022) ‘Video 2.7 An example of a Frith-Happé animation’. SK298: Brain, mind and mental health . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2013014&section=4.9.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

The Open University (2022) ‘Audio 2 Interview with Richard Sorabji (Part 2)’. A113: Revolutions . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1960941&section=5.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

Note: if a complete journal article has been uploaded to a module website, or if you have seen an article referred to on the website and then accessed the original version, reference the original journal article, and do not mention the module materials. If only an extract from an article is included in your module materials that you want to reference, you should use secondary referencing, with the module materials as the 'cited in' source, as described above.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of message', Title of discussion board , in Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Fitzpatrick, M. (2022) ‘A215 - presentation of TMAs', Tutor group discussion & Workbook activities , in A215: Creative writing . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/forumng/discuss.php?d=4209566 (Accessed: 24 January 2022).

Note: When an ebook looks like a printed book, with publication details and pagination, reference as a printed book.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title . Edition if later than first. Place of publication: publisher. Series and volume number if relevant.

For ebooks that do not contain print publication details

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title of book . Available at: DOI or URL (Accessed: date).

Example with one author:

Bell, J. (2014) Doing your research project . Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Adams, D. (1979) The hitchhiker's guide to the galaxy . Available at: http://www.amazon.co.uk/kindle-ebooks (Accessed: 23 June 2021).

Example with two or three authors:

Goddard, J. and Barrett, S. (2015) The health needs of young people leaving care . Norwich: University of East Anglia, School of Social Work and Psychosocial Studies.

Example with four or more authors:

Young, H.D. et al. (2015) Sears and Zemansky's university physics . San Francisco, CA: Addison-Wesley.

Note: You can choose one or other method to reference four or more authors (unless your School requires you to name all authors in your reference list) and your approach should be consistent.

Note: Books that have an editor, or editors, where each chapter is written by a different author or authors.

Surname of chapter author, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of chapter or section', in Initial. Surname of book editor (ed.) Title of book . Place of publication: publisher, Page reference.

Franklin, A.W. (2012) 'Management of the problem', in S.M. Smith (ed.) The maltreatment of children . Lancaster: MTP, pp. 83–95.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference.

If accessed online:

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference. Available at: DOI or URL (if required) (Accessed: date).

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326.

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326. Available at: https://libezproxy.open.ac.uk/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/log... (Accessed: 27 January 2023).

Barke, M. and Mowl, G. (2016) 'Málaga – a failed resort of the early twentieth century?', Journal of Tourism History , 2(3), pp. 187–212. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/1755182X.2010.523145

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference if available. Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Mansell, W. and Bloom, A. (2012) ‘£10,000 carrot to tempt physics experts’, The Guardian , 20 June, p. 5.

Roberts, D. and Ackerman, S. (2013) 'US draft resolution allows Obama 90 days for military action against Syria', The Guardian , 4 September. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/04/syria-strikes-draft-resolut... (Accessed: 9 September 2015).

Surname, Initial. (Year that the site was published/last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Organisation (Year that the page was last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Robinson, J. (2007) Social variation across the UK . Available at: https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/articles/social-variation... (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

The British Psychological Society (2018) Code of Ethics and Conduct . Available at: https://www.bps.org.uk/news-and-policy/bps-code-ethics-and-conduct (Accessed: 22 March 2019).

Note: Cite Them Right Online offers guidance for referencing webpages that do not include authors' names and dates. However, be extra vigilant about the suitability of such webpages.

Surname, Initial. (Year) Title of photograph . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Kitton, J. (2013) Golden sunset . Available at: https://www.jameskittophotography.co.uk/photo_8692150.html (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

stanitsa_dance (2021) Cossack dance ensemble . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/COI_slphWJ_/ (Accessed: 13 June 2023).

Note: If no title can be found then replace it with a short description.

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / Harvard Referencing / Harvard Referencing Style Examples

Harvard Referencing Style Examples

What is harvard referencing style.

Citing the work of others helps to make your work more impactful. It could be direct quotes , paraphrases of someone else’s ideas, statistical figures, or summaries of main points. There are different methods for crediting resources; Harvard referencing style (or Harvard style for short) is one such method.  

Harvard style follows the author-date system and includes two types of citations:

• in-text citations  
• references  

In-text citations

In-text citations  are included within the text of the main document. They are placed next to the information you are referencing, so the reader is clear on what information came from another source.

In-text citation example:

(Bloom, 2005) or Bloom (2005) wrote…

Every in-text citation has a corresponding reference in a reference list. A reference includes additional details about each source referenced. This enables the reader to refer to the original source, should they need to.  

The reference list is a detailed list of all the works consulted while writing. It is placed at the end of the document.  

Reference example for the above in-text citation:

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Bloom, H. (2005) Novelists and novels . Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers.

Below are Harvard referencing examples of in-text citations and reference list entries for the different kinds of sources that you might use.  

In-text citation structure and example:  

(Author Surname, Publication Year)

(Ozeki, 2013)  

Reference structure and example:  

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.  

Ozeki, R. (2013) A tale for the time being . New York: Penguin Books.  

Book with two or three authors

For books with two or three authors, the names of all the authors are given in both the in-text citation and the reference entry.  

(1 st Author Surname and 2 nd Author Surname, Publication Year)  

(Lodge and Wood, 2000)

1 st Author Surname, Initials. and 2 nd Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Place of Publication: Publisher.  

Lodge, D. and Wood, N. (2000) Modern criticism and theory: a reader. 2nd edn. Harlow: Longman.  

Book with four or more authors

If the number of authors is four or more, only the first author’s name is used followed by ‘et al.’ , italicised, which is Latin for ‘and others’.

(1 st Author Surname et al., Publication Year)

(Akmajian et al. , 2014)

Reference structure and example:

1 st Author Surname, Initials. e t al. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Akmajian, A. et al. (2014) Linguistics: an introduction to language and communication . 6th edn. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Book with translator  

For books with a translator, only the author’s name is included in the in-text reference.   The translator is given in the reference list entry, along with the language from which it was translated. This comes right after the title.

(Dostoevsky, 1993)

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Translated from the Language by Translator Initials. Surname. Place of Publication: Publisher.  

Dostoevsky, F. (1993) Crime and punishment . Translated from the Russian by R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky. London: Vintage.  

Journal articles

Journal articles are highly credible sources of information. The example below was authored by more than three individuals, so the term ‘ et al. ’ is used in lieu of listing all authors.

In-text citation structure and example:

(Lomolino et al., 2020)

Journal reference list entries often have extra information, such as article title, volume, issue number, page numbers, or a specific date.

With journals, the volume number follows the title. If there are any specific parts of the issue, numbered or organized according to months, these details are mentioned alongside in brackets.  

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) ‘Article title’, Journal Name , Volume(Issue), Page(s). Available at: URL or DOI (Accessed: date).  

Lomolino, M. et al. (2013) ‘Of mice and mammoths: generality and antiquity of the island rule’, Journal of Biogeography , 40(8), pp. 1427-1439. Available at: https://www.jstor/org/stable/23463664 (Accessed: 10 September 2020).

Newspaper or magazine

(Ingle, 2020)

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) ‘Article title’, Newspaper/Magazine Name , Day Month Published, Page(s). Available at: URL or DOI (Accessed: date).  

Ingle, S. (2020) ‘Geraint Thomas insists he has nothing to prove at road world championships’, The Guardian, 24 September. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/sprot/2020/sep/24/geraint-thomas-insists-he-has-nothing-to-prove-at-road-world-championships-cycling (Accessed: 11 October 2020).

  For online articles, you should always include the URL and date of access.

Social media and other online sources

(Author/Poster Name, Publication Year)

(Cramer, 2020)

References for social media posts have a similar format to online articles. However, sometimes they don’t have a true ‘title’. For example, for Twitter posts, the full text of the tweet is used as the title, unless the tweet is overly long.

Author/Poster Surname, Initial(s). [@Handle] (Publication year) Content of Post [Social Media Site] Day Month Published. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).

Cramer, K. [@SenKevinCramer] (2020) Supreme Court vacancies are an important issue to the people I serve [Twitter] 24 September. Available at: https://twitter.com/SenKevinCramer/status/1308915548244398081 (Accessed: 25 September 2020).

The format for citing social media is different than the format for citing regular websites and web pages. This guide on how to cite a website in Harvard style provides details on how to cite web content that is not posted on social media.

(Image Creator or Photographer Surname, Publication Year)

(Pinneo, 2020)

Print reference structure:  

Author, Initial(s). (Year) Title of the Image [Photograph]. Place of Publication: Publisher (if available).

Online reference structure and example:

If the image is on the Internet, then the place of publication and the publisher name are replaced by the image URL and access date.

Author, Initial(s). (Year) Title of the Image .   Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).  

Pinneo, B.J. (2020) Dusty dreams . Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/photo-of-the-day/2020/09/dusty-dreams/ (Accessed: 23 September 2020).

In-text reference structure and example:  

(Film Title , Year Released )

( Pride & Prejudice , 2005)

For films, the title of the film is used in place of the author name.  

Title of the Film (Year Released) Directed by Director Initial. Surname. Available at: Name of Streaming Service (Accessed: Day Month Year).  

Pride & Prejudice (2005) Directed by J. Wright. UK: Universal Pictures. Available at: Netflix (Accessed: 29 September 2020).

Published October 29, 2020.

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Harvard Referencing Guide

There are various referencing styles, such as APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard referencing style. The Harvard style of referencing for citing information sources is one of the most commonly used referencing systems in universities around the world. There are two types of citations included in the Harvard referencing system: the in-text citations and the reference list.

In-text citations are used when directly paraphrasing or quoting a source. In-text citations are placed within the working body and contain the author’s name and the year of publication. On the other hand, reference lists are usually placed at the end of the academic paper and contain complete citations for the researcher’s academic reference resources.

This Harvard referencing guide will help you understand the basics of in-text citations and reference lists in the Harvard style of referencing. It also provides information on compiling references with the Harvard referencing style, cites electronic sources , and cites government publications and conferences and presentations .

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What is the harvard referencing style, a quick guide to referencing, how to compile references in harvard referencing style, how to cite electronic sources in harvard referencing style, how to cite documents, regulations, guidelines, and other sources in harvard referencing style, how to cite an interview in harvard style, how to cite a website in harvard style, how to cite a tweet in harvard style, how to cite a ted talk in harvard style, how to cite a youtube video in harvard style, citing tables, maps, and figures from other sources in harvard style, how to cite a government website or report in harvard style, how to cite a journal article in harvard style, how to cite a dissertation in harvard style, how to cite an encyclopedia article in harvard style, how to cite a dictionary entry in harvard style, how to cite a court case in harvard style, how to cite an image in harvard style, how to cite interviews in harvard style, how to cite a book in harvard style, how to cite a magazine article in harvard style, how to cite a law in harvard style, how to cite a movie, television and radio programs in harvard style, how to cite a newspaper article in harvard style, how to cite a survey in harvard style, how to cite a speech in harvard style, how to cite a press release in harvard style, how to cite a report in harvard style, how to cite a powerpoint in harvard style, how to cite a podcast in harvard style, how to cite a patent in harvard style, how to cite a pdf in harvard style, citing personal communications in harvard style, popular articles in this category.

There are various referencing styles, such as APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard referencing style. In this article, we are going to talk about the Harvard referencing style.

The purpose of a reference or bibliography list is to enable the readers to trace the primary sources easily. Different types of sources require

If you are using any electronic sources such as images, audios, videos, webpages, etc., you need to acknowledge the sources to avoid plagiarism.

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• Census data
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• Book illustration, Figure or Diagram
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• Interview (on the internet)
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• Act of the UK parliament (statute)
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• Published report
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• Unpublished report
• Referencing glossary

To be made up of:

• Author or organisation.
• Year of publication (in round brackets).
• Title of report (in italics).
• Working paper series and/or number (if available).
• Place of publication: publisher (if available).

If accessed on the internet, add:

• Available at: URL/DOI.
• (Accessed: date).

In-text citation:

(Malter, 2014).

Reference list:

Malter, D. (2014). Eclipsed and confounded identities: when high-status affiliations impede organizational growth . Harvard Business School Strategy Unit Working Paper No. 15-019. Available at https://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Pages/item.aspx?num=48092  (Accessed: 10 February 2015).

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Harvard Style & Format: A 5-Minute Guide + Samples

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The Harvard referencing style is a widely used system for citing and referencing sources in academic writing. It provides a consistent and standardized format for acknowledging the works of others that you have used in your research.

Struggling to remember tricky peculiarities of Harvard style referencing and formatting? Don’t worry, you have come across a helpful material. In this article, you will find the basics of Harvard style formatting which would be useful for your academic progress. This easy but detailed Harvard style guide contains all format requirements for a paper and some structural tips. Besides, it covers general rules on how to cite your sources properly in your text. Feel free to use these guidelines for your academic endeavors. Let us go through details of Harvard style referencing and formatting together!  

Reference Harvard Style: Basics

Harvard style is an author-date system of referencing. It’s similar to an  APA paper format  in terms of general formatting of pages and text. But this style follows its own rules for bibliography and in-text citations formatting. Harvard style is typically used for essays in such academic disciplines:  

• Behavioral Sciences
• Philosophy.

But this doesn’t mean you can’t use this paper format in other areas of study. The general rule is to put references to your sources in round brackets. Specify author’s name and publication year. These references should come after your quotes (direct or indirect) in the end of a respective sentence or paragraph. Full details about all sources you have used should be provided at the end of your work. This section should be named ‘Reference List’. Buy coursework or any other type of research paper that will be referenced for you by our experts. 

Harvard Format: General Requirements

Let us explore some general rules for Harvard formatting:

• Font: Times New Roman or Arial
• Size: 12 pt
• Text: double-spaced and left-aligned
• Indent: first line of a paragraph has indent of 0.5 inch
• Margins: 1 inch from each side

A Harvard style citation  must have a Title page, header (or running head), headings and Reference list. We will take a closer look at formatting each section down below.  

Harvard Style Title Page

What are the requirements for a Harvard style cover page? Title page is otherwise known as front page. This is the first page of your paper to be observed by your reader, i.e. your teacher first of all. Therefore, it is highly important to format it properly. Formatting rules for Harvard Title page:  

• Paper title is fully capitalised and centered. Should be placed at approximately 33% of your page counting from its top.
• Your name as an author, centered and placed at the middle of your page.
• Course name at approximately 66% of the page.
• Instructor’s name on a new line.
• University’s name.
• Submission date.

See the sample of a Harvard title page down below.

Formatting a Header in Harvard

An important detail: you are required to use a header in  Harvard referencing  format. This section is repeatedly shown on all pages of your paper except the title page. You have to configure it once. Then, headers will get automatically added on each new page. Headers in Harvard referencing format contains such information:  

• Page number, right aligned
• Shortened title of your paper, not capitalized, right-aligned, to the left of page number.

It is important to use shortened title because there is not too much space in any header. Also, another requirement is putting exactly 5 spaces between your title and a page number in headers.

Harvard Style Heading

Now let us explore some rules of using subheadings in Harvard style, in detail. Typically there are 2 levels of section headings recommended for use in such papers. They have different formatting. This helps to tell one from another, without using different font sizes for them.

• Level-1 subheadings for a bigger section. They must be centered, capitalized, but at the same time not indented, not bold, not underscored, not italicized.
• Level-2 subheading for any subsection, typically 1-2 paragraphs. They must be capitalized, left-aligned, not indented. Besides, they should be italicized.

The plain text of any paragraph should go on a new line after subheadings in Harvard style, be it Level-1 or Level-2 subheading.

Harvard Reference List

Listing all sources you have used for your research in a proper order is a core element of Harvard style. Reference list should be the last part of your paper but absolutely not the least. Now let us explore some critical rules for a reference list formatting. The Harvard-style reference list section has its own subtitle, namely ‘Reference List’. Similarly to a Level-1 subheading, it should be capitalized and centered. The rest of your content in this section goes from a new line after your title. No extra empty lines are to be added. Your references in this list are numbered and sorted alphabetically. No lines are indented. Each item in this list starts from a new line. Below we will describe a format for referencing in detail.  

Harvard Style Bibliography

Sometimes your professor or instructor might ask you to create a Bibliography section instead of a common Reference list. So what is the Harvard Bibliography format? Harvard style bibliography includes not only those sources you have cited in your text but also. It also includes materials which you have read to get ideas for your research and to better understand the context of a selected problem. So, such section would contain more items than a Reference list. Apart of that, the general Harvard Bibliography format is the same:  

• Heading, ‘Bibliography’ is formatted the same way as a Level-1 subheading
• Sources are put into alphabetical order
• List is double-spaced
• Lines do not have any indent
• Each item of this list starts from a new line.

Harvard Style Citations: General Rules

Another crucial element of Harvard style is referring to your sources inside your essay. That’s why you should know how to cite in Harvard style. Keep in mind that the main purpose of a proper format is to ensure your paper is plagiarizm-free. Sometimes, you should cite ideas from books, magazines or newspapers. But you can only refer to such ideas, otherwise it will be considered a form of plagiarism. Below we will show you how to cite in Harvard style, providing general information about published sources. So let us proceed and learn more about shortened quotes and full references.  

How to Quote in Harvard Style

Here are the rules of Harvard format in-text citation:

• Add them in parentheses, usually at the end of quotes.
• Put an author’s last name and a publication year into round brackets, add page number if needed.

• When quoting a web page, give a paragraph number instead of a page since many websites don’t divide text into pages.
• Direct citation requires quotation marks and a page number is mandatory in parenthesis
• If you have mentioned an author’s name in your quote, do not include it into brackets, just leave a year and a page numbers there.

• Sometimes you might need to quote two different sources at once. In such case include both into the same parenthesis and divide them by a semicolon.

Creating References in Harvard Style

And this is how you should be referencing in Harvard style, providing full descriptions of the sources you have used. Let us start with the general book format:

• Last name of the author followed by comma and initials
• If there are multiple authors, their names are separated with comma, except the last one which must be separated by ‘&’
• Year of publication follows, without a comma
• A full title of the book is given, italicized
• Publisher name
• City and country where this book was published are the last to be provided.

Here are several Harvarvard referencing rules for other source types:

• Refer to an edited book by putting ‘(ed.)’ or ‘(eds)’ after the editor name(s)
• If a book was translated, add ‘trans. I Lastname’
• Refer to an article in any book or journal by adding an article name in quotation marks but not italicized
• Refer to a website by adding ‘viewed’ and the date when you’ve opened it, followed by the URL in angle brackets.

Bottom Line

In this article we have explored the Harvard referencing guide, one of the most popular ones for students in the UK. Feel free to use these tips and proceed to writing a winning essay with flawless formatting! Just keep in mind the following key concepts of the Harvard style:

• Title or cover page
• Headers and their contents
• Subheadings of two levels with different formatting
• Reference list with full-detailed description of sources
• In-text citations with lots of different forms for various quote types.

In conclusion, consider our  custom term paper writing solution if you lack the time or got into writer's block.

If you have questions, please visit our FAQ section or contact our expert writers. They will gladly help you create references in line with all requirements. On top of that, our writers are highly experienced in academic writing and can assist you with any type of formatting.  

FAQ About Harvard Format

1. is harvard reference style used in colleges.

The Harvard style can be used in colleges as well as in other educational institutions and even by professional researchers. While it is relatively popular in many countries for research paper referencing, Harvard style is most widespread in universities of the UK nowadays. Other styles (APA, MLA and Chicago) dominate the US educational institutions.

2. What is the difference between Harvard and Oxford referencing styles?

The Harvard style format is a typical example of an author-date system as it requires using author’s names and publication dates for in-text referencing. You should create a complete reference list as a separate section in the end of your research paper. The Oxford style on the contrary uses numbered footnotes for citing sources used on your page. In-text citations on this page consist just from numbers of respective notes.  

Emma Flores knows all about formatting standards. She shares with StudyCrumb readers tips on creating academic papers that will meet high-quality standards.

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Free Harvard Referencing Generator

Generate accurate Harvard reference lists quickly and for FREE, with MyBib!

🤔 What is a Harvard Referencing Generator?

A Harvard Referencing Generator is a tool that automatically generates formatted academic references in the Harvard style.

It takes in relevant details about a source -- usually critical information like author names, article titles, publish dates, and URLs -- and adds the correct punctuation and formatting required by the Harvard referencing style.

The generated references can be copied into a reference list or bibliography, and then collectively appended to the end of an academic assignment. This is the standard way to give credit to sources used in the main body of an assignment.

👩‍🎓 Who uses a Harvard Referencing Generator?

Harvard is the main referencing style at colleges and universities in the United Kingdom and Australia. It is also very popular in other English-speaking countries such as South Africa, Hong Kong, and New Zealand. University-level students in these countries are most likely to use a Harvard generator to aid them with their undergraduate assignments (and often post-graduate too).

🙌 Why should I use a Harvard Referencing Generator?

A Harvard Referencing Generator solves two problems:

• It provides a way to organise and keep track of the sources referenced in the content of an academic paper.
• It ensures that references are formatted correctly -- inline with the Harvard referencing style -- and it does so considerably faster than writing them out manually.

A well-formatted and broad bibliography can account for up to 20% of the total grade for an undergraduate-level project, and using a generator tool can contribute significantly towards earning them.

⚙️ How do I use MyBib's Harvard Referencing Generator?

Here's how to use our reference generator:

• If citing a book, website, journal, or video: enter the URL or title into the search bar at the top of the page and press the search button.
• Choose the most relevant results from the list of search results.
• Our generator will automatically locate the source details and format them in the correct Harvard format. You can make further changes if required.
• Then either copy the formatted reference directly into your reference list by clicking the 'copy' button, or save it to your MyBib account for later.

MyBib supports the following for Harvard style:

🍏 What other versions of Harvard referencing exist?

There isn't "one true way" to do Harvard referencing, and many universities have their own slightly different guidelines for the style. Our generator can adapt to handle the following list of different Harvard styles:

• Cite Them Right
• Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU)
• University of the West of England (UWE)

Daniel is a qualified librarian, former teacher, and citation expert. He has been contributing to MyBib since 2018.

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Harvard Style Guide: Journal article ePublication (ahead of print)

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Journal article epublication (ahead of print)

Reference : Author(s) Last name, Initials. (Year) ‘Article title’, Journal Title (published online ahead of print Day Month). Available at: DOI/URL (Accessed Day Month Year).

Example : Hawke, J., Wadsworth, S., & DeFries, J. (2006) ‘Genetic influences on reading difficulties in boys and girls: the Colorado twin study’, Dyslexia (published online ahead of print 24 September). Available at: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/112098736/PDFSTART  (Accessed 10 October 2006).

In-Text-Citation :

• Author(s) Last name (Year)
• (Author(s) Last name, Year)
• Hawke, Wadsworth and DeFries (2006) argue ….
• Others have shown (Hawke, Wadsworth and DeFries, 2006).... 

Note: In the absence of clear guidelines from the title "Cite Them Right", this is how UCD Library have interpreted online advice on referencing ahead of print journal publications.

Still unsure what in-text citation and referencing mean? Check  here .

Still unsure why you need to reference all this information? Check  here .

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• Last Updated: Mar 22, 2024 9:51 AM
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Leeds Harvard: Figure, table or diagram

Reference examples.

The full reference should direct the reader to the source (eg the book or website ) from which the item was taken.

Citation examples

Image, figure, table or diagram.

You should provide an in-text citation for any photographs, images, tables, diagrams, graphs, figures or illustrations that you reproduce in your work. The citation would normally be given after the title of the figure, table, diagram, etc.

Example: Figure 1, A four pointed star (Jones, 2015, p.54).

A reference within the text to a table, graph, diagram, etc. taken from a source should include the author, date and page number in brackets to enable the reader to identify the data.

Example: (Jones, 2015, p.33)

If you have already named the author in the text, only the publication year and page number needs to be mentioned in brackets.

Jones (2015, p.33) gave a detailed figures on the rapid increase of trade union membership during the twentieth century.

If the source of the data is not the author's own, but obtained from another source, it becomes a secondary reference and needs to be cited as such.

Example: (United Nations, 1975, cited in Smith, 2016, p.33)

If you use a table/graph, etc. from a source and then adapt it to use in your own assignment, you must make that clear in your reference.

We would suggest something along the lines of: Figure 1, Title, based on Smith, 2005, p.22.

Corporate author

If the item is produced by an organisation, treat the organisation as a "corporate author". This means you can use the name of the organisation instead of that of an individual author. This includes government departments, universities or companies. Cite the corporate author in the text the same way as you would an individual author.

According to a recent report, flu jabs are as important as travel vaccines (Department of Health, 2017).  

Common issues

When you're referencing with Leeds Harvard you may come across issues with missing details, multiple authors, edited books, references to another author's work or online items, to name a few. Here are some tips on how to deal with some common issues when using Leeds Harvard.

Skip straight to the issue that affects you:

• Online items
• URL web addresses
• Multiple authors
• Corporate author(s) or organisation(s)
• Multiple publisher details
• Editions and reprints
• Missing details
• Multiple sources with different authors
• Sources written by the same author in the same year
• Sources with the same author in different years
• Two authors with the same surname in the same year
• The work of one author referred to by another
• Anonymising sources for confidentiality
• Identifying the authors’ family name (surname)

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• Introduction
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Models were stratified by age, cohort (sex), and calendar time, and adjusted for Southern European/Mediterranean ancestry (yes/no), married (yes/no), living alone (yes/no), smoking status (never, former, current smoker 1-14 cigarettes/d, 15-24 cigarettes/d, or ≥25 cigarettes/d), physical activity (<3.0, 3.0-8.9, 9.0-17.9, 18.0-26.9, ≥27.0 metabolic equivalent of task–h/wk), multivitamin use (yes/no), history of hypertension (yes/no), history of hypercholesterolemia (yes/no), history of diabetes (yes/no), in women postmenopausal status and menopausal hormone use (premenopausal, postmenopausal [no, past, or current hormone use]), total energy intake (kcal/d), family history of dementia (yes/no), history of depression (yes/no), census socioeconomic status (9-variable score, in quintiles), and body mass index calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared (<23, 23-25, 25-30, 30-35, ≥35). Pooled results were obtained by pooling the datasets of the cohorts. AMED score is without monounsaturated:saturated fats intake ratio component. AHEI score is without polyunsaturated fats intake component. HR indicates hazard ratio.

a Reference value.

b P  < .05.

Substitution analysis of 5 g/d intake of olive oil for the equivalent amount of butter, other vegetable oils, mayonnaise, and margarine. All Cox proportional hazards models were stratified by age and calendar time. Models were adjusted for Southern European/Mediterranean ancestry (yes/no), married (yes/no), living alone (yes/no), smoking status (never, former, current smoker 1-14 cigarettes/d, 15-24 cigarettes/d, or ≥25 cigarettes/d), alcohol intake (0, 0.1-4.9, 5.0-9.9, 10.0-14.9, and ≥15.0 g/d), physical activity (<3.0, 3.0-8.9, 9.0-17.9, 18.0-26.9, ≥27.0 metabolic equivalent of task–h/wk), multivitamin use (yes/no), history of hypertension (yes/no), history of hypercholesterolemia (yes/no), in women postmenopausal status and menopausal hormone use (premenopausal, postmenopausal [no, past, or current hormone use]), total energy intake (kcal/d), family history of dementia (yes/no), history of depression (yes/no), census socioeconomic status (9-variable score, in quintiles), body mass index calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared (<23, 23-25, 25-30, 30-35, ≥35), red meat, fruits and vegetables, nuts, soda, whole grains intake (in quintiles), and trans-fat. Pooled results were obtained by pooling the data sets of the cohorts and Cox proportional hazards model 3 was further stratified by cohort (sex). HR indicates hazard ratio.

eTable 1. Odds Ratios for Dementia-Related Mortality by APOE4 Allelic Dosage

eTable 2. Risk of Death With Dementia (Composite Outcome) According to Categories of Total Olive Oil

eTable 3. Joint Associations of Olive Oil Intake and AMED (A), and AHEI (B) With Dementia-Related Mortality Risk

eTable 4. Risk of Dementia-Related Mortality According to Categories of Total Olive Oil in the Genomic DNA Subsample

eFigure. Subgroup Analyses for 5g/d Increase in Olive Oil Intake With Dementia-Related Mortality Risk

eTable 5. Risk of Dementia-Related Mortality According to Categories of Total Olive Oil Without Stopping Diet Update Upon Report of Intermediate Non-Fatal Events

eTable 6. Risk of Dementia Mortality According to Categories of Total Olive Oil Applying a 4-Year Lag Period Between Dietary Intake and Dementia Mortality

eTable 7. Risk of Dementia-Related Mortality According to Categories of Total Olive Oil Adjusting for Other Covariates

eTable 8. Risk of Mortality From Dementia and Other Causes of Death According to Categories of Total Olive Oil Applying a Competing Risk Model

eReferences

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Tessier A , Cortese M , Yuan C, et al. Consumption of Olive Oil and Diet Quality and Risk of Dementia-Related Death. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(5):e2410021. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.10021

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Consumption of Olive Oil and Diet Quality and Risk of Dementia-Related Death

• 1 Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
• 2 School of Public Health, the Second Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
• 3 Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
• 4 Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
• 5 Department of Public Health and Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

Question   Is the long-term consumption of olive oil associated with dementia-related death risk?

Findings   In a prospective cohort study of 92 383 adults observed over 28 years, the consumption of more than 7 g/d of olive oil was associated with a 28% lower risk of dementia-related death compared with never or rarely consuming olive oil, irrespective of diet quality.

Meaning   These results suggest that olive oil intake represents a potential strategy to reduce dementia mortality risk.

Importance   Age-standardized dementia mortality rates are on the rise. Whether long-term consumption of olive oil and diet quality are associated with dementia-related death is unknown.

Objective   To examine the association of olive oil intake with the subsequent risk of dementia-related death and assess the joint association with diet quality and substitution for other fats.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This prospective cohort study examined data from the Nurses’ Health Study (NHS; 1990-2018) and Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (HPFS; 1990-2018). The population included women from the NHS and men from the HPFS who were free of cardiovascular disease and cancer at baseline. Data were analyzed from May 2022 to July 2023.

Exposures   Olive oil intake was assessed every 4 years using a food frequency questionnaire and categorized as (1) never or less than once per month, (2) greater than 0 to less than or equal to 4.5 g/d, (3) greater than 4.5 g/d to less than or equal to 7 g/d, and (4) greater than 7 g/d. Diet quality was based on the Alternative Healthy Eating Index and Mediterranean Diet score.

Main Outcome and Measure   Dementia death was ascertained from death records. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards regressions were used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CIs adjusted for confounders including genetic, sociodemographic, and lifestyle factors.

Results   Of 92 383 participants, 60 582 (65.6%) were women and the mean (SD) age was 56.4 (8.0) years. During 28 years of follow-up (2 183 095 person-years), 4751 dementia-related deaths occurred. Individuals who were homozygous for the apolipoprotein ε4 ( APOE ε4 ) allele were 5 to 9 times more likely to die with dementia. Consuming at least 7 g/d of olive oil was associated with a 28% lower risk of dementia-related death (adjusted pooled HR, 0.72 [95% CI, 0.64-0.81]) compared with never or rarely consuming olive oil ( P for trend < .001); results were consistent after further adjustment for APOE ε4 . No interaction by diet quality scores was found. In modeled substitution analyses, replacing 5 g/d of margarine and mayonnaise with the equivalent amount of olive oil was associated with an 8% (95% CI, 4%-12%) to 14% (95% CI, 7%-20%) lower risk of dementia mortality. Substitutions for other vegetable oils or butter were not significant.

Conclusions and Relevance   In US adults, higher olive oil intake was associated with a lower risk of dementia-related mortality, irrespective of diet quality. Beyond heart health, the findings extend the current dietary recommendations of choosing olive oil and other vegetable oils for cognitive-related health.

One-third of older adults die with Alzheimer disease or another dementia. 1 While deaths from diseases such as stroke and heart disease have been decreasing over the past 20 years, age-standardized dementia mortality rates have been on the rise. 2 The Mediterranean diet has gained in popularity owing to its recognized, multifaceted health benefits, particularly on cardiovascular outcomes. 3 Accruing evidence suggests this dietary pattern also has a beneficial effect on cognitive health. 4 As part of the Mediterranean diet, olive oil may exert anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects due to its high content of monounsaturated fatty acids and other compounds with antioxidant properties such as vitamin E and polyphenols. 5 A substudy conducted as part of the Prevencion con Dieta Mediterranea (PREDIMED) randomized trial provided evidence that higher intake of olive oil for 6.5 years combined with adherence to a Mediterranean diet was protective of cognitive decline when compared with a low-fat control diet. 6 - 8

Given that most previous studies on olive oil consumption and cognition were conducted in Mediterranean countries, 7 - 10 studying the US population, where olive oil consumption is generally lower, could offer unique insights. Recently, we showed that olive oil consumption was associated with a lower risk of total and cause-specific mortality in large US prospective cohort studies, including a 29% (95% CI, 22%-36%) lower risk for neurodegenerative disease mortality in participants who consumed more than 7 g/d of olive oil compared with little or none. 11 However, this previous analysis was not designed to examine the association of olive oil and diet quality with dementia-related mortality, and therefore the latter remains unclear.

In this study, we examined the association between total olive oil consumption and the subsequent risk of dementia-related mortality in 2 large prospective studies of US women and men. Additionally, we evaluated the joint associations of diet quality (adherence to the Mediterranean diet and Alternative Healthy Eating Index [AHEI] score) and olive oil consumption with the risk of dementia-related mortality. We also estimated the difference in the risk of dementia-related mortality when other dietary fats were substituted with an equivalent amount of olive oil.

Analyses were performed in 2 large US prospective cohorts: the Nurses’ Health Study I (NHS) and the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (HPFS). The NHS was initiated in 1976 and recruited 121 700 US female registered nurses aged 30 to 55 years. 12 The HPFS was established in 1986 and included 51 525 male health professionals aged 40 to 75 years. 13 The cohorts have been described elsewhere. 12 , 13 Lifestyle factors and medical history were assessed biennially through mailed questionnaires, with a follow-up rate greater than 90%. Baseline for this analysis was 1990, which is when the food frequency questionnaires (FFQs) first included information on olive oil consumption.

Participants with a history of cardiovascular disease (CVD) or cancer at baseline, with missing data on olive oil consumption, or who reported implausible total energy intakes (<500 or >3500 kcal/d for women and <800 or >4200 kcal/d for men) were excluded. The completion of the questionnaire self-selected cognitively highly functioning women and men. In total, 60 582 women and 31 801 men were included. The study protocol was approved by the institutional review boards of the Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, which deemed the participants’ completion of the questionnaire to be considered as implied consent. This report followed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline.

Dietary intake was measured using a validated greater than 130-item FFQ administered in 1990 and every 4 years thereafter. The validity and reliability of the FFQ have been described previously. 14 Participants were asked how frequently they consumed specific foods, including types of fats and oils used for cooking or added to meals in the past 12 months. Total olive oil intake was determined by summing up answers to 3 questions related to olive oil consumption (ie, olive oil used for salad dressings, olive oil added to food or bread, and olive oil used for baking and frying at home). The equivalent of 1 tablespoon of olive oil was considered to be 13.5 g. Intakes of other fats and nutrients were calculated using the United States Department of Agriculture and Harvard University Food Composition Database, 15 and biochemical analyses. The nutritional composition of olive oil and other types of fat, as well as trends of types of fat intake in the NHS and HPFS, have been reported previously. 11

Adherence to the Mediterranean diet was assessed using a modified version of the 9-point Alternative Mediterranean index (AMED) score. 16 Adherence to the AHEI (0-110), previously associated with lower risk of chronic disease, was also computed. 17 Higher scores indicated better overall diet quality.

The apolipoprotein E ε4 ( APOE ε4 ) allele is known to interfere with lipid and glucose metabolism such that it increases the risk of dementia. 18  APOE genotyping was conducted in a subset of 27 296 participants. Blood samples were collected between 1989 and 1990 in the NHS and between 1993 and 1995 in the HPFS. NHS participants who had not provided blood samples were invited to contribute buccal samples from 2002 to 2004. DNA was extracted with the ReturPureGene DNA Isolation Kit (Gentra Systems). The APOE genotype was determined using a Taqman Assay (Applied Biosystems) 19 in 5069 participants, and through imputation from multiple genome-wide association studies, 20 which has shown high accuracy, 20 in the remaining subset.

Deaths were ascertained from state vital statistics records and the National Death Index or by reports from next of kin or the postal authorities. The follow-up for mortality exceeded 98% in these cohorts. Dementia deaths were determined by physician review of medical records, autopsy reports, or death certificates. Dementia deaths were those in which dementia was listed as the underlying cause of death, or as a contributing cause of death, or as reported by the family, in the absence of a more likely cause. The International Classification of Diseases, Eighth Revision (ICD-8) was used in the NHS and ICD-9 in the HPFS, which were the revisions used at the inception of those cohorts. Dementia deaths included codes 290.0 (senile dementia, simple type), 290.1 (presenile dementia), and 331.0 (Alzheimer disease). To test the validity of the dementia mortality outcome, we examined the likelihood of dementia mortality by APOE ε4 allelic dosage (eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ). 18 A composite outcome was also created including both participants who reported having dementia during follow-up and later died, with those who had dementia reported on their death certificate.

Participants completed biennial questionnaires reporting updates on body weight, smoking, physical activity, multivitamin use, menopausal status, and postmenopausal hormone use in women, family history of dementia, self-report of chronic diseases, and ancestry. History of depression was identified based on antidepressive medication use and self-report of depression. Socioeconomic status (SES) was established through a composite score derived from home address details and various factors such as income, education, and housing; the composite score methods are described in a previous report. 21 Body mass index (BMI) was obtained by dividing the weight in kilograms by the height in meters squared.

In each cohort, age-stratified Cox proportional hazard models were used to evaluate the association of olive oil intake with dementia-related mortality. Participant person-time was calculated from baseline until end of follow-up (June 30, 2018, in NHS; January 31, 2018, in HPFS), loss to follow-up, or death, whichever came first. The cumulative average (mean) of olive oil intake from all available FFQs, from baseline until 2014 (or loss to follow-up or death), was used as the exposure. Because potential diet modifications following cancer or CVD diagnosis may not represent long-term diet, we ceased updating dietary variables upon report of these conditions. For missing covariates, we carried forward nonmissing values from previous questionnaires and assigned median values for continuous variables.

Participants were categorized by olive oil intake frequency: never or less than once per month (reference group), greater than 0 to less than or equal to 4.5 g/d, greater than 4.5 g/d to less than or equal to 7 g/d, and greater than 7 g/d. P values for linear trends were obtained using the Wald test on a continuous variable represented by the median intake of each category. Multivariable Cox proportional hazard models were used to estimate the hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% CIs for dementia mortality according to categories of olive oil intake, separately in each cohort. Participants were censored at death from causes other than dementia. Model 1 was stratified for age and calendar time. Multivariable model 2 was adjusted for Southern European/Mediterranean ancestry, married, living alone, smoking, alcohol intake, physical activity, multivitamin use, history of hypertension and hypercholesterolemia, in women postmenopausal status and menopausal hormone use, total energy intake, family history of dementia, history of depression, census SES, and BMI. Multivariable model 3 was further adjusted for intake of red meat, fruits and vegetables, nuts, soda, whole grains, and trans-fat, all indicative of diet quality.

In a secondary analysis we used the composite outcome for dementia-related deaths. We also repeated the main analysis in the genotyping subsample. We carried out mediation analyses to calculate the percentage of the association between olive oil intake and dementia-related mortality that is attributable to CVD, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and diabetes. We also performed stratified analyses by prespecified subgroups (eMethods in Supplement 1 ).

A joint analysis was performed to test whether olive oil intake (never or <1/mo, >0 to ≤7g/d, and >7g/d) and the AMED or the AHEI score (tertiles) combined as the exposure was associated with dementia mortality. In substitution analyses, we assessed the risk of dementia-related mortality by replacing 5 g/d of different fat sources, including margarine, mayonnaise, butter, and a combination of other vegetable oils (corn, safflower, soybean, and canola), with olive oil. Both continuous variables as 5-g/d increments were included in a multivariable model 3, mutually adjusted for other types of fat. The difference in the coefficients obtained for olive oil and the substituted fat provided the estimated HR and 95% CI for substituting 5 g/d of olive oil for an equivalent amount of the other fats.

Several exploratory sensitivity analyses were performed including a 4-year lagged analysis, analyses adjusting for other covariates, a cause-specific competing risk model and analyses excluding participants who self-reported having dementia at baseline (n = 12) (eMethods in Supplement 1 ). Analyses were performed from May 2022 to July 2023 using SAS version 9.4 (SAS Institute). All statistical tests were 2-sided with an α = .05.

Over 2 183 095 person-years of follow-up, this study documented a total of 4751 dementia deaths (3473 in NHS and 1278 in HPFS; 37 649 total deaths). Among 92 383 participants included at baseline in 1990, 60 582 (65.6%) were women, and the mean (SD) age was 56.4 (8.0) years. Mean (SD) olive oil intake was 1.3 (2.5) g/d in both NHS and HPFS; the mean (SD) adherence score for the Mediterranean diet was 4.5 (1.9) points in the NHS and 4.2 (1.9) points in the HPFS; and the mean (SD) AHEI diet quality score was 52.5 (11.1) points in the NHS and 53.4 (11.6) points in the HPFS.

Table 1 shows baseline characteristics of participants categorized by total olive oil intake. Participants with a higher olive oil intake (>7 g/d) at baseline had an overall higher caloric intake, but not a higher BMI, had better diet quality, had higher alcohol intake, were more physically active, and were less likely to smoke compared with those never consuming olive oil or less than once per month ( Table1 ). Individuals who were homozygous for the APOE ε4 allele were 5.5 to 9.4 times more likely to die with dementia compared with noncarriers for the APOE e4 allele (χ 2  P  < .001) (eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ).

Olive oil intake was inversely associated with dementia-related mortality in age-stratified and multivariable-adjusted models ( Table 2 ). Compared with participants with the lowest olive oil intake, the pooled HR for dementia-related death among participants with the highest olive oil intake (>7 g/d) was 0.72 (95% CI, 0.64-0.81), after adjusting for sociodemographic and lifestyle factors. The association between each 5-g increment in olive oil consumption with dementia-related death was also inverse and significant in the pooled analysis. The multivariable-adjusted HR for dementia-related death for the highest compared with the lowest olive oil intake (>7 g/d) was 0.67 (95% CI, 0.59-0.77) for women and 0.87 (95% CI, 0.69-1.09) for men ( Table 2 ). Olive oil intake in 5-g increments was inversely associated with dementia-related mortality in women (HR, 0.88 [95% CI, 0.84-0.93]), but not in men (HR, 0.96 [95% CI, 0.88-1.04]). Analyses remained consistent when using the composite outcome for death with dementia (eTable 2 in Supplement 2 ). In the genotyping subsample, the results remained unchanged after further adjusting for the APOE ε4 allelic genotype (multivariable-adjusted pooled HR comparing high vs low olive oil intake, 0.66 [95% CI, 0.54-0.81]; P for trend < .001) (eTable 4 in Supplement 1 ). Pooled mediation analyses found that CVD, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and diabetes did not significantly attenuate the association (unchanged HRs with and without adjusting for the intermediate; data not shown).

In joint analyses, participants with the highest olive oil intake had a lower risk for dementia-related mortality, irrespective of their AMED score (28% to 34% lower risk compared with participants in the combined low olive oil and high AMED) ( Figure 1 A; eTable 3 in Supplement 1 ) and of their AHEI (27% to 38% lower risk compared with participants with low olive oil and high AHEI) ( Figure 1 B; eTable 3 in Supplement 1 ).

Replacing 5 g/d of mayonnaise with 5 g/d of olive oil was associated with a 14% (95% CI, 7%-20%) lower risk of dementia-related mortality in pooled multivariable-adjusted models ( Figure 2 ). As for the substitution of 5 g/d of margarine with the equivalent amount of olive oil, we estimated an 8% (95% CI, 4%-12%) lower risk. Substitutions of other vegetable oils or butter with olive oil were not statistically significant.

Exploratory subgroup analyses (eFigure in Supplement 1 ) showed associations between higher olive oil intake and lower risk of dementia-related mortality across most subgroups. No statistically significant associations were found in participants with a family history of dementia, living alone, using a multivitamin, and in non– APOE ε4 carriers. Results from exploratory sensitivity analyses (eTables 5-8 in Supplement 1 ) were comparable with the findings from the main analysis (eResults in Supplement 1 ).

In 2 large US prospective cohorts of men and women, we found that participants who consumed more than 7 g/d of olive oil had 28% lower risk of dying from dementia compared with participants who never or rarely consumed olive oil. This association remained significant after adjustment for diet quality scores including adherence to the Mediterranean diet. We estimated that substituting 5 g/d of margarine and mayonnaise with olive oil was associated with significantly lower dementia-related death risk, but not when substituting butter and other vegetable oils. These findings provide evidence to support dietary recommendations advocating for the use of olive oil and other vegetable oils as a potential strategy to maintain overall health and prevent dementia.

In the NHS and HPFS, a lower risk of neurodegenerative disease mortality, including dementia mortality, was observed with higher olive oil consumption (HR, 0.81 [95% CI, 0.78-0.84]). 11 Evidence that pertains to cognitive decline or incident dementia is more widely available than it is for dementia mortality. 6 , 22 In the French Three-City Study (n = 6947), participants with the highest olive oil intake were 17% (95% CI, 1%-29%) less likely to experience a 4-year cognitive decline related to visual memory, but no association was found for verbal fluency (odds ratio [OR], 0.85 [95% CI, 0.70-1.03]). 22 Furthermore, participants with a higher intake of olive oil (moderate or intensive vs never) had a lower risk of verbal fluency and visual memory cognitive impairment. Potential sex differences were not investigated. In the PREDIMED trial, which supplemented a Mediterranean-style diet with extra-virgin olive oil (1 L/wk/household) or nuts (30 g/d), 23 the authors investigated cognitive effects and status in 285 and 522 cognitively healthy participants using global and in-depth neuropsychological battery testing. Although the study was not originally designed for cognitive outcomes and the effect of olive oil cannot be isolated, after 6.5 years, the olive oil group exhibited improved cognitive performance in verbal fluency and memory tests compared with a low-fat diet (control), and they were less prone to develop mild cognitive impairment (OR, 0.34 [95% CI, 0.12-0.97]; n = 285). 6 Global cognitive performance was higher in both the olive oil and the nut groups compared with the control post trial (n = 522). 8 These studies were conducted in Europe, in populations with typically higher olive oil intake compared with US populations.

Observational studies and some trials have consistently found associations between following diets such as the Mediterranean, DASH, MIND, and AHEI, and prudent patterns to healthier brain structure, 24 reduced cognitive impairment and Alzheimer risk, and improved cognitive function. 4 In our study, those with the highest olive oil intake (>7 g/d) had the lowest dementia-related death risk compared with those with minimal intake (never or less than once per month), regardless of diet quality. This highlights a potentially specific role for olive oil. Still, the group with both high AHEI scores and high olive oil intake exhibited the lowest dementia mortality risk (HR, 0.68 [95% CI, 0.58-0.79]; reference: low AHEI score and low olive oil intake), suggesting that combining higher diet quality with higher olive oil intake may confer enhanced benefit.

Olive oil consumption may lower dementia mortality by improving vascular health. 18 Several clinical trials support the effect of olive oil in reducing CVD via improved endothelial function, coagulation, lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, platelet aggregation and decreased inflammation. 25 Nonetheless, the results of our study remained independent of hypertension and hypercholesterolemia. Mild cognitive impairment, Alzheimer disease, and related dementias were associated with abnormal blood brain barrier permeability, possibly allowing the crossing of neurotoxic molecules into the brain. 26 Mechanistical evidence from animal 27 - 29 and human studies 9 , 30 have shown that phenolic compounds in olive oil, particularly extra-virgin olive oil, may attenuate inflammation, oxidative stress and restore blood brain barrier function, thereby reducing brain amyloid-β and tau-related pathologies and improving cognitive function. However, incident CVD, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, and diabetes were not significant mediators of the association between olive oil intake and dementia-related death in our study.

The association was significant in both sexes but did not remain in men after full adjustment of the model. Some previous research has reported cognitive-related sex differences. Evidence from trials also showed sex- and/or gender-specific responses to lifestyle interventions for preventing cognitive decline, possibly due to differences in brain structure, hormones (sex) and social factors (gender). 31 Olive oil intake may be protective of dementia and related mortality, particularly in women. Nonetheless, we did not observe significant heterogeneity or interaction of cohort by olive oil intake on the risk of fatal dementia. Sex and gender differences should be carefully considered in future studies examining the association or effect of olive oil on cognitive-related outcomes to improve our understanding.

We found that using olive oil instead of margarine and mayonnaise, but not butter and other vegetable oils, was associated with a lower risk of dementia-related death. At the time of the study, margarine and mayonnaise contained considerable levels of hydrogenated trans-fats. The latter were strongly associated with all-cause mortality, CVD, type 2 diabetes, and dementia, 32 , 33 which may explain the lower dementia-related death risk observed when replacing it with olive oil. The US Food and Drug Administration banned manufacturers from adding partially hydrogenated oils to foods in 2020. 34 Future studies examining intake of trans-fat–free margarine will be informative. Although the substitution of butter with olive oil was found to be associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes, CVD, and total mortality, 11 we did not find an association with the risk of dementia mortality. Although these previous studies did not examine the associations for butter per se, intake of regular fat dairy products, including cheese, yogurt, and milk, was reported to be either not associated or inversely associated with lower cognitive function, cognitive decline, and dementia. 35 - 37

Our cohort analyses include several strengths, namely the long follow-up period and large sample size with a high number of dementia death cases. Also, we included genotyping of the APOE ε4 allele in a large subsample of participants to reduce potential confounding attributed to this well-known risk factor for Alzheimer disease. Additionally, our repeated diet measurements, weight, and lifestyle variables permitted us to account for long-term olive oil intake and confounding factors. Furthermore, the use of dietary cumulative average updates reduced random measurement error by considering within-person variations in intake.

This study has limitations. The possibility of reverse causation cannot be excluded due to the observational nature of our study. However, the 4-year lagged analysis results, consistent with the primary analysis, suggest that olive oil intake is predictive of dementia mortality rather than a consequence of premorbid dementia. While it is plausible that higher olive oil intake could be indicative of a healthier diet and higher SES, our results remained consistent after accounting for the latter. Despite adjusting for key covariates, residual confounding may remain due to unmeasured factors. Also, our study was conducted among health professionals. While this minimizes the potential confounding effects of socioeconomic factors and likely increases reporting due to a high level of education, this may also limit generalizability. Our population was predominantly of non-Hispanic White participants, limiting generalizability to more diverse populations. Additionally, we could not differentiate among various types of olive oil that differ in their polyphenols and other nonlipid bioactive compounds content.

This study found that in US adults, particularly women, consuming more olive oil was associated with lower risk of dementia-related mortality, regardless of diet quality. Substituting olive oil intake for margarine and mayonnaise was associated with lower risk of dementia mortality and may be a potential strategy to improve longevity free of dementia. These findings extend the current dietary recommendations of choosing olive oil and other vegetable oils to the context of cognitive health and related mortality.

Accepted for Publication: March 6, 2024.

Published: May 6, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.10021

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2024 Tessier AJ et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Authors: Anne-Julie Tessier, RD, PhD ( [email protected] ), and Marta Guasch-Ferré, PhD ( [email protected] ), Department of Nutrition, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, 655 Huntington Ave, Bldg 2, Boston, MA 02115.

Author Contributions: Drs Tessier and Guasch-Ferré had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Tessier, Chavarro, Hu, Willett, Guasch-Ferré.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Tessier, Cortese, Yuan, Bjornevik, Ascherio, Wang, Chavarro, Stampfer, Willett, Guasch-Ferré.

Drafting of the manuscript: Tessier.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: Tessier, Cortese, Yuan, Bjornevik, Ascherio, Wang, Chavarro, Stampfer, Hu, Willett, Guasch-Ferré.

Statistical analysis: Tessier, Cortese, Wang, Willett, Guasch-Ferré.

Obtained funding: Chavarro, Stampfer, Hu, Guasch-Ferré.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Cortese, Yuan, Stampfer, Hu.

Supervision: Chavarro, Hu, Guasch-Ferré.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Cortese reported a speaker honorarium from Roche outside the submitted work. Dr Ascherio reported receiving speaker honoraria from WebMD, Prada Foundation, Biogen, Moderna, Merck, Roche, and Glaxo-Smith-Kline. No other disclosures were reported.

Funding/Support: This study is supported by the research grant R21 AG070375 from the National Institutes of Health to Dr Guasch-Ferré. The NHS, NHSII and HPFS are supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health (UM1 CA186107, P01 CA87969, U01 CA167552, P30 DK046200, HL034594, HL088521, HL35464, HL60712). Dr Tessier is supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) Postdoctoral Fellowship Award. Dr Guasch-Ferré is supported the Novo Nordisk Foundation grant NNF23SA0084103.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

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Gaming to the Bottom: Precarity and Freelance Game Design on Fiverr

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Keywords: fiverr, gig economy, game design, pakistan, labor

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Accepted on 30 Apr 2024

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DeJong, S & Iantorno, M. () 'Gaming to the Bottom: Precarity and Freelance Game Design on Fiverr', Media Industries . doi: 10.3998/mij.3870

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DeJong, S & Iantorno, M. Gaming to the Bottom: Precarity and Freelance Game Design on Fiverr. Media Industries. ; doi: 10.3998/mij.3870

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DeJong, S & Iantorno, M. (, ). Gaming to the Bottom: Precarity and Freelance Game Design on Fiverr. Media Industries doi: 10.3998/mij.3870

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