essay on stages of moral development

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Key Takeaways

• Lawrence Kohlberg formulated a theory asserting that individuals progress through six distinct stages of moral reasoning from infancy to adulthood.
• He grouped these stages into three broad categories of moral reasoning, pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of moral development.
• Kohlberg suggested that people move through these stages in a fixed order and that moral understanding is linked to cognitive development . 

Heinz Dilemma

Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget’s (1932) theory of moral development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further.

He used Piaget’s storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas.  In each case, he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some authority and the needs of some deserving individual unfairly treated.

After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg categorized their responses into different stages of moral reasoning.

Using children’s responses to a series of moral dilemmas, Kohlberg established that the reasoning behind the decision was a greater indication of moral development than the actual answer.

One of Kohlberg’s best-known stories (1958) concerns Heinz, who lived somewhere in Europe.

Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford. Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later. The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug. Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?

Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:

• Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
• Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
• What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
• Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman dies?

By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions, Kohlberg hoped to discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older.

The sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10–16 years, 58 of whom were followed up at three-yearly intervals for 20 years (Kohlberg, 1984).

Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas. Kohlberg was interested not in whether the boys judged the action right or wrong but in the reasons for the decision. He found that these reasons tended to change as the children got older.

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional. Each level has two sub-stages.

People can only pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages. 

Disequilibrium plays a crucial role in Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. A child encountering a moral issue may recognize limitations in their current reasoning approach, often prompted by exposure to others’ viewpoints. Improvements in perspective-taking are key to progressing through Kohlberg’s stages of moral development. As children mature, they increasingly understand issues from others’ viewpoints. For instance, a child at the preconventional level typically perceives an issue primarily in terms of personal consequences. In contrast, a child at the conventional level tends to consider the perspectives of others more substantially.

Level 1 – Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the first level of moral development, lasting until approximately age 8. During this level, children accept the authority (and moral code) of others. 

Preconventional morality is when people follow rules because they don’t want to get in trouble or they want to get a reward. This level of morality is mostly based on what authority figures like parents or teachers tell you to do rather than what you think is right or wrong.

Authority is outside the individual, and children often make moral decisions based on the physical consequences of actions.

For example, if an action leads to punishment, it must be bad; if it leads to a reward, it must be good.

So, people at this level don’t have their own personal sense of right and wrong yet. They think that something is good if they get rewarded for it and bad if they get punished for it.

For example, if you get candy for behaving, you think you were good, but if you get a scolding for misbehaving, you think you were bad.

At the preconventional level, children don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, moral decisions are shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.

Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation . The child/individual is good to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange . At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Level 2 – Conventional Morality

Conventional morality is the adolescent phase of moral development focused on societal norms and external expectations to discern right from wrong, often grounded in tradition, cultural practices, or established codes of conduct.

We internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models at the conventional level (most adolescents and adults).

Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the group’s norms to which the person belongs.

A social system that stresses the responsibilities of relationships and social order is seen as desirable and must influence our view of right and wrong.

So, people who follow conventional morality believe that it’s important to follow society’s rules and expectations to maintain order and prevent problems.

For example, refusing to cheat on a test is a part of conventional morality because cheating can harm the academic system and create societal problems.

Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships . The child/individual is good to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others.

Stage 4. Law and Order Morality . The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules to uphold the law and avoid guilt.

Level 3 – Postconventional Morality

Postconventional morality is the third level of moral development and is characterized by an individual’s understanding of universal ethical principles.

Postconventional morality is when people decide based on what they think is right rather than just following the rules of society. This means that people at this level of morality have their own ethical principles and values and don’t just do what society tells them to do.

At this level, people think about what is fair, what is just, and what values are important.

What is considered morally acceptable in any given situation is determined by what is the response most in keeping with these principles.

They also think about how their choices might affect others and try to make good decisions for everyone, not just themselves.

Values are abstract and ill-defined but might include: the preservation of life at all costs and the importance of human dignity. Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice.

According to Kohlberg, this level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get.

Only 10-15% are capable of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around them, and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.

Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights . The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz’s dilemma, the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.

Stage 6. Universal Principles . People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines, which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g., human rights, justice, and equality.  The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people had reached this stage.

Problems with Kohlberg’s Methods

1. the dilemmas are artificial (i.e., they lack ecological validity).

Most dilemmas are unfamiliar to most people (Rosen, 1980). For example, it is all very well in the Heinz dilemma, asking subjects whether Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife.

However, Kohlberg’s subjects were aged between 10 and 16. They have never been married, and never been placed in a situation remotely like the one in the story.

How should they know whether Heinz should steal the drug?

2. The sample is biased

Kohlberg’s (1969) theory suggested males more frequently progress beyond stage four in moral development, implying females lacked moral reasoning skills.

His research assistant, Carol Gilligan, disputed this, who argued that women’s moral reasoning differed, not deficient.

She criticized Kohlberg’s theory for focusing solely on upper-class white males, arguing women value interpersonal connections. For instance, women often oppose theft in the Heinz dilemma due to potential repercussions, such as separation from his wife if Heinz is imprisoned.

Gilligan (1982) conducted new studies interviewing both men and women, finding women more often emphasized care, relationships and context rather than abstract rules. Gilligan argued that Kohlberg’s theory overlooked this relational “different voice” in morality.

According to Gilligan (1977), because Kohlberg’s theory was based on an all-male sample, the stages reflect a male definition of morality (it’s androcentric).

Men’s morality is based on abstract principles of law and justice, while women’s is based on principles of compassion and care.

Further, the gender bias issue raised by Gilligan is a reminder of the significant gender debate still present in psychology, which, when ignored, can greatly impact the results obtained through psychological research.

3. The dilemmas are hypothetical (i.e., they are not real)

Kohlberg’s approach to studying moral reasoning relied heavily on his semi-structured moral judgment interview. Participants were presented with hypothetical moral dilemmas, and their justifications were analyzed to determine their stage of moral reasoning.

Some critiques of Kohlberg’s method are that it lacks ecological validity, removes reasoning from real-life contexts, and defines morality narrowly in terms of justice reasoning.

Psychologists concur with Kohlberg’s moral development theory, yet emphasize the difference between moral reasoning and behavior.

What we claim we’d do in a hypothetical situation often differs from our actions when faced with the actual circumstance. In essence, our actions might not align with our proclaimed values.

In a real situation, what course of action a person takes will have real consequences – and sometimes very unpleasant ones for themselves. Would subjects reason in the same way if they were placed in a real situation? We don’t know.

The fact that Kohlberg’s theory is heavily dependent on an individual’s response to an artificial dilemma questions the validity of the results obtained through this research.

People may respond very differently to real-life situations that they find themselves in than they do to an artificial dilemma presented to them in the comfort of a research environment.

4. Poor research design

How Kohlberg carried out his research when constructing this theory may not have been the best way to test whether all children follow the same sequence of stage progression.

His research was cross-sectional , meaning that he interviewed children of different ages to see their moral development level.

A better way to see if all children follow the same order through the stages would be to conduct longitudinal research on the same children.

However, longitudinal research on Kohlberg’s theory has since been carried out by Colby et al. (1983), who tested 58 male participants of Kohlberg’s original study.

She tested them six times in 27 years and supported Kohlberg’s original conclusion, which is that we all pass through the stages of moral development in the same order.

Contemporary research employs more diverse methods beyond Kohlberg’s interview approach, such as narrative analysis, to study moral experience. These newer methods aim to understand moral reasoning and development within authentic contexts and experiences.

• Tappan and colleagues (1996) promote a narrative approach that examines how individuals construct stories and identities around moral experiences. This draws from the sociocultural tradition of examining identity in context. Tappan argues narrative provides a more contextualized understanding of moral development.
• Colby and Damon’s (1992) empirical research uses in-depth life story interviews to study moral exemplars – people dedicated to moral causes. Instead of hypothetical dilemmas, they ask participants to describe real moral challenges and commitments. Their goal is to respect exemplars as co-investigators of moral meaning-making.
• Walker and Pitts’ (1995) studies use open-ended interviews asking people to discuss real-life moral dilemmas and reflect on the moral domain in their own words. This elicits more naturalistic conceptions of morality compared to Kohlberg’s abstract decontextualized approach.

Problems with Kohlberg’s Theory

1. are there distinct stages of moral development.

Kohlberg claims there are, but the evidence does not always support this conclusion.

For example, a person who justified a decision based on principled reasoning in one situation (postconventional morality stage 5 or 6) would frequently fall back on conventional reasoning (stage 3 or 4) with another story.

In practice, it seems that reasoning about right and wrong depends more on the situation than on general rules. Moreover, individuals do not always progress through the stages, and Rest (1979) found that one in fourteen slipped backward.

The evidence for distinct stages of moral development looks very weak. Some would argue that behind the theory is a culturally biased belief in the superiority of American values over those of other cultures and societies.

Gilligan (1982) did not dismiss developmental psychology or morality. She acknowledged that children undergo moral development in stages and even praised Kohlberg’s stage logic as “brilliant” (Jorgensen, 2006, p. 186). However, she preferred Erikson’s model over the more rigid Piagetian stages.

While Gilligan supported Kohlberg’s stage theory as rational, she expressed discomfort with its structural descriptions that lacked context.

She also raised concerns about the theory’s universality, pointing out that it primarily reflected Western culture (Jorgensen, 2006, pp. 187-188).

Neo-Kohlbergian Schema Model

Rest and colleagues (199) have developed a theoretical model building on but moving beyond Kohlberg’s stage-based approach to moral development. Their model outlines four components of moral behavior: moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral character.

For the moral judgment component, Rest et al. propose that individuals use moral schemas rather than progress through discrete stages of moral reasoning.

Schemas are generalized knowledge structures that help us interpret information and situations. An individual can have multiple schemas available to make sense of moral issues, rather than being constrained to a single developmental stage.

Some examples of moral schemas proposed by Rest and colleagues include:

• Personal Interest Schema – focused on individual interests and preferences
• Maintaining Norms Schema – emphasizes following rules and norms
• Postconventional Schema – considers moral ideals and principles

Rather than viewing development as movement to higher reasoning stages, the neo-Kohlbergian approach sees moral growth as acquiring additional, more complex moral schemas. Lower schemas are not replaced, but higher order moral schemas become available to complement existing ones.

The schema concept attempts to address critiques of the stage model, such as its rigidity and lack of context sensitivity. Using schemas allows for greater flexibility and integration of social factors into moral reasoning.

2. Does moral judgment match moral behavior?

Kohlberg never claimed that there would be a one-to-one correspondence between thinking and acting (what we say and what we do), but he does suggest that the two are linked.

However, Bee (1994) suggests that we also need to take into account of:

a) habits that people have developed over time. b) whether people see situations as demanding their participation. c) the costs and benefits of behaving in a particular way. d) competing motive such as peer pressure, self-interest and so on.

Overall, Bee points out that moral behavior is only partly a question of moral reasoning. It also has to do with social factors.

3. Is justice the most fundamental moral principle?

This is Kohlberg’s view. However, Gilligan (1977) suggests that the principle of caring for others is equally important. Furthermore, Kohlberg claims that the moral reasoning of males has often been in advance of that of females.

Girls are often found to be at stage 3 in Kohlberg’s system (good boy-nice girl orientation), whereas boys are more often found to be at stage 4 (Law and Order orientation). Gilligan (p. 484) replies:

“The very traits that have traditionally defined the goodness of women, their care for and sensitivity to the needs of others, are those that mark them out as deficient in moral development”.

In other words, Gilligan claims that there is a sex bias in Kohlberg’s theory. He neglects the feminine voice of compassion, love, and non-violence, which is associated with the socialization of girls.

Gilligan concluded that Kohlberg’s theory did not account for the fact that women approach moral problems from an ‘ethics of care’, rather than an ‘ethics of justice’ perspective, which challenges some of the fundamental assumptions of Kohlberg’s theory.

In contrast to Kohlberg’s impersonal “ethics of justice”, Gilligan proposed an alternative “ethics of care” grounded in compassion and responsiveness to needs within relationships (Gilligan, 1982).

Her care perspective highlights emotion, empathy and understanding over detached logic. Gilligan saw care and justice ethics as complementary moral orientations.

Walker et al. (1995) found everyday moral conflicts often revolve around relationships rather than justice; individuals describe relying more on intuition than moral reasoning in dilemmas. This raises questions about the centrality of reasoning in moral functioning.

4. Do people make rational moral decisions?

Kohlbeg’s theory emphasizes rationality and logical decision-making at the expense of emotional and contextual factors in moral decision-making.

One significant criticism is that Kohlberg’s emphasis on reason can create an image of the moral person as cold and detached from real-life situations. 

Carol Gilligan critiqued Kohlberg’s theory as overly rationalistic and not accounting for care-based morality commonly found in women. She argued for a “different voice” grounded in relationships and responsiveness to particular individuals.

The criticism suggests that by portraying moral reasoning as primarily cognitive and detached from emotional and situational factors, Kohlberg’s theory oversimplifies real-life moral decision-making, which often involves emotions, social dynamics, cultural nuances, and practical constraints.

Critics contend that his model does not adequately capture the multifaceted nature of morality in the complexities of everyday life.

Bee, H. L. (1994). Lifespan development . HarperCollins College Publishers.

Blum, L. A. (1988). Gilligan and Kohlberg: Implications for moral theory.  Ethics ,  98 (3), 472-491.

Colby, A., Kohlberg, L., Gibbs, J., & Lieberman, M. (1983). A longitudinal study of moral judgment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development , 48 (1-2, Serial No. 200). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Day, J. M., & Tappan, M. B. (1996). The narrative approach to moral development: From the epistemic subject to dialogical selves.  Human Development ,  39 (2), 67-82.

Gilligan, C. (1977). In a different voice: Women’s conceptions of self and of morality. Harvard Educational Review , 47(4), 481-517.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice . Harvard University Press.

Gilligan, C. (1995). Hearing the difference: Theorizing connection. Hypatia, 10 (2), 120-127.

Jorgensen, G. (2006). Kohlberg and Gilligan: duet or duel?.  Journal of Moral Education ,  35 (2), 179-196.

Kohlberg, L. (1958). The Development of Modes of Thinking and Choices in Years 10 to 16. Ph. D. Dissertation , University of Chicago.

Kohlberg, L. (1984). The Psychology of Moral Development: The Nature and Validity of Moral Stages (Essays on Moral Development, Volume 2) . Harper & Row

Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child . London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.

Rest, J. R. (1979). Development in judging moral issues . University of Minnesota Press.

Rosen, B. (1980). Moral dilemmas and their treatment. In, Moral development, moral education, and Kohlberg. B. Munsey (Ed). (1980), pp. 232-263. Birmingham, Alabama: Religious Education Press.

Walker, L. J., Pitts, R. C., Hennig, K. H., & Matsuba, M. K. (1995). Reasoning about morality and real-life moral problems.

Further Information

• BBC Radio 4: The Heinz Dilemma
• The Science of Morality
• Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development

What is an example of moral development theory in real life?

An example is a student who witnesses cheating on an important exam. The student is faced with the dilemma of whether to report the cheating or keep quiet.

A person at the pre-conventional level of moral development might choose not to report cheating because they fear the consequences or because they believe that everyone cheats.

A person at the conventional level might report cheating because they believe it is their duty to uphold the rules and maintain fairness in the academic environment.

A person at the post-conventional level might weigh the ethical implications of both options and make a decision based on their principles and values, such as honesty, fairness, and integrity, even if it may come with negative consequences.

This example demonstrates how moral development theory can help us understand how individuals reason about ethical dilemmas and make decisions based on their moral reasoning.

What are the examples of stage 6 universal principles?

Stage 6 of Kohlberg’s moral development theory, also known as the Universal Ethical Principles stage, involves moral reasoning based on self-chosen ethical principles that are comprehensive and consistent. Examples might include:

Equal human rights : Someone at this stage would believe in the fundamental right of all individuals to life, liberty, and fair treatment. They would advocate for and act according to these rights, even if it meant opposing laws or societal norms.

Justice for all : A person at this stage believes in justice for all individuals and would strive to ensure fairness in all situations. For example, they might campaign against a law they believe to be unjust, even if it is widely accepted by society.

Non-violence : A commitment to non-violence could be a universal principle for some at this stage. For instance, they might choose peaceful protest or civil disobedience in the face of unjust laws or societal practices.

Social contract : People at this stage might also strongly believe in the social contract, wherein individuals willingly sacrifice some freedoms for societal benefits. However, they also understand that these societal norms can be challenged and changed if they infringe upon the universal rights of individuals.

Respect for human dignity and worth : Individuals at this stage view each person as possessing inherent value, and this belief guides their actions and judgments. They uphold the dignity and worth of every individual, regardless of social status or circumstance.

What is the Kohlberg’s Heinz dilemma?

The Heinz dilemma is a moral question proposed by Kohlberg in his studies on moral development. It involves a man named Heinz who considers stealing a drug he cannot afford to save his dying wife, prompting discussion on the moral implications and justifications of his potential actions.

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Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Verywell / Bailey Mariner

• Applications
• Other Theories

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Kohlberg's theory of moral development is a theory that focuses on how children develop morality and moral reasoning. Kohlberg's theory suggests that moral development occurs in a series of six stages and that moral logic is primarily focused on seeking and maintaining justice.

Here we discuss how Kohlberg developed his theory of moral development and the six stages he identified as part of this process. We also share some critiques of Kohlberg's theory, many of which suggest that it may be biased based on the limited demographics of the subjects studied.

Test Your Knowledge

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What Is Moral Development?

Moral development is the process by which people develop the distinction between right and wrong (morality) and engage in reasoning between the two (moral reasoning).

How do people develop morality? This question has fascinated parents, religious leaders, and philosophers for ages, but moral development has also become a hot-button issue in psychology and education. Do parental or societal influences play a greater role in moral development? Do all kids develop morality in similar ways?

American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg developed one of the best-known theories exploring some of these basic questions. His work modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's previous work but was more centered on explaining how children develop moral reasoning.

Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. Kohlberg's theory outlines six stages of moral development within three different levels.

In recent years, Kohlberg's theory has been criticized as being Western-centric with a bias toward men (he primarily used male research subjects) and for having a narrow worldview based on upper-middle-class value systems and perspectives.

How Kohlberg Developed His Theory

Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study subjects. Participants were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments in each scenario.

One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has cancer and her doctors believe only one drug might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local pharmacist and he was able to make it for $200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug.

He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit to pay for it over time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband have done that?"

Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to whether Heinz was wrong or right but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. He then classified their reasoning into the stages of his theory of moral development.

Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each level of moral development, there are two stages. Similar to how Piaget believed that not all people reach the highest levels of cognitive development, Kohlberg believed not everyone progresses to the highest stages of moral development.

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development. It lasts until around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:

• Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment) : The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment are especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at this stage see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid punishment.
• Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange) : At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of social rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents and adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their role models and from society.

This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to the norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of morality:

• Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships) : Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles . There is an emphasis on conformity , being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
• Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order) : This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is maintained. At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding of abstract principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:

• Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights ): The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people. Rules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards.
• Stage 6 (Universal Principles) : Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice , even if they conflict with laws and rules.

Kohlberg believed that only a relatively small percentage of people ever reach the post-conventional stages (around 10 to 15%). One analysis found that while stages one to four could be seen as universal in populations throughout the world, the fifth and sixth stages were extremely rare in all populations.

Applications for Kohlberg's Theory

Understanding Kohlberg's theory of moral development is important in that it can help parents guide their children as they develop their moral character. Parents with younger children might work on rule obeyance, for instance, whereas they might teach older children about social expectations.

Teachers and other educators can also apply Kohlberg's theory in the classroom, providing additional moral guidance. A kindergarten teacher could help enhance moral development by setting clear rules for the classroom, and the consequences for violating them. This helps kids at stage one of moral development.

A teacher in high school might focus more on the development that occurs in stage three (developing good interpersonal relationships) and stage four (maintaining social order). This could be accomplished by having the students take part in setting the rules to be followed in the classroom, giving them a better idea of the reasoning behind these rules.

Criticisms for Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory played an important role in the development of moral psychology. While the theory has been highly influential, aspects of the theory have been critiqued for a number of reasons:

• Moral reasoning does not equal moral behavior : Kohlberg's theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions. Moral reasoning, therefore, may not lead to moral behavior.
• Overemphasizes justice : Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept of justice when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring, and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning.
• Cultural bias : Individualist cultures emphasize personal rights, while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community. Eastern, collectivist cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg's theory does not take into account.
• Age bias : Most of his subjects were children under the age of 16 who obviously had no experience with marriage. The Heinz dilemma may have been too abstract for these children to understand, and a scenario more applicable to their everyday concerns might have led to different results.
• Gender bias : Kohlberg's critics, including Carol Gilligan, have suggested that Kohlberg's theory was gender-biased since all of the subjects in his sample were male. Kohlberg believed that women tended to remain at the third level of moral development because they place a stronger emphasis on things such as social relationships and the welfare of others.

Gilligan instead suggested that Kohlberg's theory overemphasizes concepts such as justice and does not adequately address moral reasoning founded on the principles and ethics of caring and concern for others.

Other Theories of Moral Development

Kohlberg isn't the only psychologist to theorize how we develop morally. There are several other theories of moral development.

Piaget's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg's theory is an expansion of Piaget's theory of moral development. Piaget described a three-stage process of moral development:

• Stage 1 : The child is more concerned with developing and mastering their motor and social skills, with no general concern about morality.
• Stage 2 : The child develops unconditional respect both for authority figures and the rules in existence.
• Stage 3 : The child starts to see rules as being arbitrary, also considering an actor's intentions when judging whether an act or behavior is moral or immoral.

Kohlberg expanded on this theory to include more stages in the process. Additionally, Kohlberg believed that the final stage is rarely achieved by individuals whereas Piaget's stages of moral development are common to all.

Moral Foundations Theory

Proposed by Jonathan Haidt, Craig Joseph, and Jesse Graham, the moral foundations theory is based on three morality principles:

• Intuition develops before strategic reasoning . Put another way, our reaction comes first, which is then followed by rationalization.
• Morality involves more than harm and fairness . Contained within this second principle are a variety of considerations related to morality. It includes: care vs. harm, liberty vs. oppression, fairness vs. cheating, loyalty vs. betrayal , authority vs. subversion, and sanctity vs. degradation.
• Morality can both bind groups and blind individuals . When people are part of a group, they will tend to adopt that group's same value systems. They may also sacrifice their own morals for the group's benefit.

While Kohlberg's theory is primarily focused on help vs. harm, moral foundations theory encompasses several more dimensions of morality. However, this theory also fails to explain the "rules" people use when determining what is best for society.

Normative Theories of Moral Behavior

Several other theories exist that attempt to explain the development of morality , specifically in relation to social justice. Some fall into the category of transcendental institutionalist, which involves trying to create "perfect justice." Others are realization-focused, concentrating more on removing injustices.

One theory falling into the second category is social choice theory. Social choice theory is a collection of models that seek to explain how individuals can use their input (their preferences) to impact society as a whole. An example of this is voting, which allows the majority to decide what is "right" and "wrong."

See how much you've learned (or maybe already knew!) about Kohlberg's theory of moral development with this quick, free pop quiz.

While Kohlberg's theory of moral development has been criticized, the theory played an important role in the emergence of the field of moral psychology. Researchers continue to explore how moral reasoning develops and changes through life as well as the universality of these stages. Understanding these stages offers helpful insights into the ways that both children and adults make moral choices and how moral thinking may influence decisions and behaviors.

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Gibbs J.  Moral Development And Reality . 4th ed. Oxford University Press; 2019.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

• Erikson’s Moral Development Theory Review Words: 616
• Piaget and Kohlberg Views on Moral Development Words: 657
• Kohlberg’s Model of Moral Development Words: 576
• Kohlberg`s Theory of Moral Development Words: 894
• Moral and Religious Development in Adolescents Words: 630
• Cognitive Development Theories and Their Evolution Words: 1193
• Personal Portrait Integrating Developmental Theory, Moral Development, Cultural Influences Words: 2249
• Moral Development and Factors of Influence Words: 1214
• Piaget’s & Kohlberg’s Moral Development in the US Classroom Words: 646
• Children’s Social and Moral Development Words: 1352

Stages of Moral Development in Kohlberg’s Theory

Introduction.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development is an important framework for understanding the personality of an individual. It assumes that people move through the three levels of moral development during their life. At the same time, the moral understanding of every person is associated with cognitive development (Gibbs, 2019).

Kohlberg outlined the three levels of moral reasoning such as pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional (Gibbs, 2019). These stages of morality are characterized by specific features typical for people during different periods of their lives. For instance, during the pre-conventional stage, they do not have a personal code of morality, while the second phase is characterized by the acquisition of social norms regulating good and wrong actions (Gibbs, 2019). Finally, the last stage is characterized by a better understanding of fundamental ethical principles (Gibbs, 2019). In such a way, this division helps to trace the evolution of ethics and morality within an individual.

The theory has its own advantages and disadvantages linked to the proposed classification. Thus, Kohlberg introduced a more detailed, robust, and well-thought-out classification and determination of moral reasoning compared to other frameworks (Gibbs, 2019). For this reason, it became easier to analyze specific actions and motivations. At the same time, the theory has several weaknesses, such as the disregard for cultural issues. The theory considers cultural norms typical for a particular society and vital for developing representations of good and bad actions (Gibbs, 2019).

However, it lacks an understanding of how the same norms can be used in terms of another culture. Additionally, the theory is criticized for the absence of an empirical basis necessary to support the credibility of a certain assumption (Gibbs, 2019). In such a way, Kohlberg’s idea of Moral development has its strengths and weaknesses that should be considered.

Gibbs, J. (2019). Moral development and reality: Beyond the theories of Kohlberg, Hoffman, and Haidt (4 th ed.). Oxford University Press.

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What Is Moral Development? Exploring Kohlberg’s 6 Stages

Key insights.

• Moral development is formed through social interactions and experiences in early life.
• Kohlberg’s theory outlines 6 stages, ranging from external consequences to abstract reasoning.
• Alternative frameworks, such as Gilligan’s “ethics of care” and social learning theory, emphasize relationships and observational learning in moral reasoning.

We do so in response to the moral stance we’ve taken. Most of us reject injustice, brutality, and society’s inhumanity and choose instead to adopt a moral stance on how our world and those within it should be treated.

This article discusses the factors affecting moral development and the stages we pass through as we grow, typically transforming from the self-centeredness of an infant to the skilled social perspective taking of an adult (Gibbs, 2019).

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free . These science-based exercises will explore fundamental aspects of positive psychology including strengths, values, and self-compassion, and will give you the tools to enhance the wellbeing of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains

• What Is Moral Development & Why Is It Important?

9 Factors Affecting Moral Development

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, criticism of kohlberg’s theory, gilligan’s theory of moral development, 3 other moral development theories, applying kohlberg’s theory in practice, positivepsychology.com’s resources, a take-home message, frequently asked questions, what is moral development & why is it important.

Moral development and behavior involve putting ourselves in the place of others and typically require a combination of mutual respect, empathy, and caring (Gibbs, 2019).

Moral judgment begins to form in the early years, taking place in a social context, driven by interactions with peers and adults involving “taking turns, sharing, harming, and responding to harm” (Haidt, 2001, p. 817).

The cultural-developmental approach to moral psychology suggests three vital trajectories in moral development stages (Jensen, 2015):

• Autonomy Emphasizing individuality; focusing on the self, including self-interest, rights, and wellbeing
• Community Focusing on memberships and relationships within social groups, including duties to others and their welfare and adherence to group norms and customs
• Divinity Focusing on the spiritual or religious dimensions or moral reasoning, including the sacredness of moral codes

Together, they form an important framework for understanding how we reason about moral issues from various perspectives. They balance personal, social, and spiritual values while emphasizing purity, sanctity, and spiritual accountability (Jensen, 2015).

Moral reasoning

Moral reasoning is typically highly instinctive and triggered more quickly than rational thinking (Haidt, 2001). It involves a “conscious mental activity that consists of transforming given information about people (and situations) in order to reach a moral judgment” (Haidt, 2001, p. 818).

Such flashes of moral reasoning appear in real-time everyday situations when we are confronted by a situation or event, potentially evoking strong emotional responses such as anger, fear, kindness, or disgust (Gibbs, 2019).

In this video, Phil Temple shares the benefits of teaching moral reasoning to adults with significant neurodevelopmental disorders who have committed serious crimes.

He believes that by helping individuals understand how they can positively shape their world, they can reduce or remove damaging behavior.

Research in moral psychology has identified many diverse factors involved in moral development, including the following (Vera-Estay et al., 2016; Gibbs, 2019):

• Age, which impacts our moral reasoning and decision-making abilities
• Socioeconomic variables, such as income, education, and working conditions
• Cognitive variables, such as intellectual functioning, attentional control, verbal fluency, and inhibition ​
• Social cognition factors, including how we understand and navigate our social environment, affecting our ability to recognize and interpret the emotions of others
• Theory of mind abilities, including how good we are at attributing mental states (beliefs, desires, and intentions) to those around us
• Empathy, such as sharing and feeling another person’s emotional experiences and taking their perspective
• Socio-moral reasoning, including what we perceive as social injustice and inequality
• Parental influences, including their level of education and moral behavior
• Emotion processing, involving recognizing, interpreting, and managing our own and others’ feelings

Taken together, the factors offer an intricate web of developmental influences that underpin moral growth and are shaped by an interplay of personal experiences and broader societal contexts (Vera-Estay et al., 2016; Gibbs, 2019).

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Lawrence Kohlberg’s (2015) theory of stages of moral development has dominated research in moral development for several decades (Gross, 2020).

Influenced by Jean Piaget’s staged model of developmental theory , Kohlberg assessed individuals’ moral reasoning through the lens of moral dilemmas. Subjects were asked to choose between two or more alternative reactions or responses.

Heinz dilemma

The now famous Heinz dilemma created by Kohlberg involves an imaginary scenario where a man called Heinz can only save the life of his wife dying from cancer by getting his hands on a drug sold by a local, greedy pharmacist (Gross, 2020).

Despite all attempts, the husband can’t get all the money needed to buy the drug, so he considers breaking into the pharmacy to save his wife’s life.

Having explained the dilemma to study participants, Kohlberg asked them a series of questions, including (Gross, 2020):

• Should the husband steal the drug? Why or why not?
• If he doesn’t steal the drug, does he truly love his wife? What should he do then?
• What if the person dying wasn’t his wife, but a stranger? What should he do?
• How important is it for people to do all they can for the life of another?
• Should people do everything they can to obey the law?

The results led to Kohlberg’s (2015) suggestion of six qualitatively different stages of moral development across the following three levels of moral reasoning (Gross, 2020):

Level 1: Preconventional morality

External consequences shape moral reasoning.

Stage 1 (punishment and obedience orientation) – What is punishable determines what’s right and wrong. As such, being moral means avoiding punishment.

Stage 2 (instrumental relativist orientation) – What people want and are rewarded for determines right and wrong. Other people’s needs matter, but only in a reciprocal sense.

Level 2: Conventional morality

Moral reasoning is influenced by our strong need to adhere to rules and authority.

Stage 3 (interpersonal concordance or “good boy-nice girl” orientation) – Being moral is determined by what pleases and helps other people — and ultimately what the majority thinks.

Stage 4 (maintaining the social order orientation) – It is our duty to respect authority and maintain social order. As such, this is more important than the needs of our family and loved ones.

Level 3: Post-conventional morality

Moral reasoning is determined by abstract reasoning.

Stage 5 (social contract–legalistic orientation) – While laws are established based on mutual agreement, they can be changed democratically or, at times, overridden. Life is more sacred than the legal principle.

Stage 6 (universal ethical principles orientation) – As society’s rules are arbitrary, our own conscience is the ultimate judge of what is right and wrong. As such, they can be broken when they conflict with “universal” principles.

Researchers have identified and expressed several criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory and stages of moral development (Gross, 2020; Gibbs, 2019).

• Young children’s understanding of moral regulation is more complex than Kohlberg’s stage 1 (typically seen as 9 years old and below), which relies upon punishment and obedience.
• Children do not typically experience the issues raised by Kohlberg’s dilemmas during their moral development. In fact, while their reasoning can be highly complex, it is often unclear and messy.
• Some theorists argue that, as Kohlberg relied on an all-male sample in his research, the theory and stages described are biased toward men. As such, there are conflicting views regarding the suggestion that boys are biased toward preferring a “justice orientation” rather than a “care orientation” (with girls showing the opposite), as when pressed, they can switch between the two.
• Education is a frequently ignored and confounding factor. While college-educated individuals are not morally superior, they may be more verbally sophisticated, influencing the moral stages to which they are attributed.

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Carol Gilligan challenged Kohlberg’s traditional theory of moral development by proposing an “ethics of care” as an alternative framework (Josselson, 2023; Gibbs, 2019).

Her theory emphasizes the importance of relationships, emotions, and responsibilities to the self and others in moral reasoning.

While Kohlberg suggests that women lag behind men in moral development, Gilligan’s theory is more nuanced, embodying a contextual and narrative approach that integrates reason with emotion.

Gilligan’s research and theory were timely, coinciding with “sociocultural readiness to embrace her work as giving voice to an emerging awareness of the suppression and denigration of women’s sensibilities in psychology as well as in the larger culture” (Josselson, 2023, p. 120).

While Kohlberg’s theory of moral development was highly influential, other approaches should be considered.

1. Social learning theory and social cognitive theory

Albert Bandura’s (1997) social learning theory and social cognitive theory offer valuable approaches for considering how children learn through observation, imitation, and modeling without requiring reinforcement (Gross, 2020).

Bandura’s experiments included how children mirror human social behavior witnessed in others, and his theories recognize their importance in aspects of moral development (Gross, 2020).

2. Eisenberg’s theory

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development typically pits one moral choice against another within a legal or ethical setting. Yet, children’s moral decisions are not always as straightforward. Their moral conflicts may involve distinguishing between their needs versus others’ outside of a clear legal, moral, or ethical context (Gross, 2020).

Nancy Eisenberg presented children with illustrated hypothetical stories where the central character could help another at a personal cost. She found that situational variables, context, and cultural factors are crucial to decision-making in children, sometimes leading them to revert to lower-level reasoning (Gross, 2020).

3. Evolutionary psychology

Evolutionary psychology offers a very different perspective on moral development. This relatively recent approach anticipates “that our understanding of the human mind would be aided greatly by knowing the purpose for which it was designed” (Buss, 2009, p. 359).

Moral reasoning involving social and moral emotions such as trust, guilt, anger, gratitude, and sympathy may have evolved to support fairness and reciprocal behavior among individuals.

In doing so, they promote positive (rather than negative) outcomes for all parties involved (Buss, 2016).

Indeed, research has considered its value for social workers, nurses, and legal representatives balancing ethics of care against justice (Groessl, 2013).

Applying Kohlberg’s theory encourages practitioners to consider their own and their clients’ stages of moral development and the factors that have limited or obstructed their development. Health care workers, in particular, are likely to benefit from understanding how burnout , their environment, organization, and workload impact their moral reasoning (Groessl, 2013).

Professionals may make more informed choices by incorporating the following practical activities (Groessl, 2013; Gibbs, 2019; Gross, 2020):

• Ethical decision-making workshops Discuss scenarios and dilemmas within the context of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development to enable practitioners to understand and explore their moral reasoning in a real-world situation.
• Evaluation and feedback systems Incorporate ongoing feedback to help professionals understand their strengths and weaknesses in ethical decision-making.
• Policy development Develop and refine organizational policies to align practices with Kohlberg’s stages of moral development to promote justice and fairness in care.
• Interdisciplinary collaboration Teams combining representatives from multiple disciplines, such as health care, law, and social work , can use Kohlberg’s theory to build a comprehensive and inclusive approach to moral reasoning.

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We have many resources available for counselors, therapists, and coaches to support clients as they navigate the moral challenges of life, equipping them to make more value-led choices.

Several of our favorites include:

• Decision-Making Worksheet for Adults  Sometimes, making the right decisions can be challenging and complex. This worksheet helps individuals make the best choice based on their morals and values.
• Making Good Decisions  Assessing past decisions and their effectiveness can help contrast what went well with what didn’t go well, helping clients make more appropriate choices in the future.
• Good Choices/Bad Choices for Kids  It’s easy for children to make poor choices. In this exercise , they can improve their past decision-making mistakes.

More extensive versions of the following tools are available with a subscription to the Positive Psychology Toolkit© , but they are described briefly below:

• Step one – Identify what needs to be done.
• Step two – Take time to consider the importance of each task and clearly understand its moral impact. Next, label them on a dartboard diagram. The higher priority ones should be placed nearer to the center.
• Step three – Once all the tasks have been added, review their position and priorities and move them if they seem inappropriate.
• Step four – Use the priority dartboard to select the next task to work on and remove them once complete.
• Structured Problem-Solving Life can be challenging. It is easy to lose sight of our values and moral standpoints.

The four steps below help clients implement and practice effective problem-solving techniques:

• Step one – Identify the problem to be solved.
• Step two – Document the problem and consider the following questions:

When and where does this problem occur? Is anyone else involved? What do you think is the main cause of the problem? What effect does this problem have on your life?

• Step three – Identify potential solutions.
• Step four – Evaluate and select the most appropriate solution based on what will solve the problem in line with your moral standpoint and values.

If you’re looking for more science-based ways to help others enhance their wellbeing, this signature collection contains 17 validated positive psychology tools for practitioners. Use them to help others flourish and thrive.

Moral development impacts us all. While it influences how we interact, behave, think about our world, and connect with others, it also shapes how our environment relates to us.

By understanding moral development stages, we can make sense of how individuals develop more helpful attitudes and behaviors toward others in society in response to social and cultural norms and laws.

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development has been incredibly successful, with a long-standing impact on how we think about the progression of moral reasoning from simple to complex levels. It enables better educational approaches and promotes a deeper understanding of ethical behavior.

Kohlberg’s staged approach also encourages us to consider whether we obey rules to avoid punishment or make decisions based on mutually agreed upon, universal, ethical principles.

And yet, we are aware that moral development varies from person to person. Individual experiences, culture, education, and societal influences result in variations in a child’s progression through each stage, resulting in a diverse range of moral reasoning through different individuals.

As counselors and coaches, we can use these tools to work with clients from multiple professions to assess and address ethical dilemmas and conflicts in their respective fields.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Positive Psychology Exercises for free .

Most researchers would agree that babies aren’t equipped to make moral decisions and that, at birth, we are amoral, “lacking any system of personal values and judgments about right and wrong” (Gross, 2020, p. 586).

According to psychologist Albert Bandura’s (1997) Social Cognitive Theory, parents are important models for how children learn behavior, skills, and reasoning, influencing how they progress through their moral development stages (Gross, 2020).

Researchers believe that children begin to understand right from wrong and develop moral reasoning skills during the transition from childhood to pre-adolescence, typically between 8 and 12 years old (Vera-Estay et al., 2016; Gross, 2020).

• Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control . W. H. Freeman.
• Buss, D. M. (2009). How can evolutionary psychology successfully explain personality and individual differences? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4 (4), 359–366. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6924.2009.01138.x
• Buss, D. M. (Ed). (2016). The handbook of evolutionary psychology (vol. 1, 2nd ed.). Wiley.
• Gibbs, J. C. (2019). Moral development and reality: Beyond the theories of Kohlberg, Hoffman, and Haidt (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
• Groessl, J. (2013). Moral development and social worker ethical decision-making [Doctoral dissertation, Marian University] . ProQuest. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/moral-development-social-worker-ethical-decision/docview/1467526721/se-2
• Gross, R. D. (2020). Psychology: The science of mind and behaviour . Hodder and Stoughton.
• Haidt, J. (2001). The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment. Psychological Review, 108 , 814–834. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.4.814
• Jensen, L. A. (Ed.). (2015). Moral development in a global world: Research from a cultural-developmental perspective . Cambridge University Press.
• Josselson, R. (2023). Developing a different voice: The life and work of Carol Gilligan. Journal of Personality, 91 (1), 120–133. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12763
• Kohlberg, L. (2015). Stages of moral development as a basis for moral education. In C. M. Beck, B. S. Crittenden, & E. V. Sullivan (Eds.), Moral education: Interdisciplinary approaches (pp. 23–92). University of Toronto Press.
• Vera-Estay, E., Seni, A. G., Champagne, C., & Beauchamp, M. H. (2016). All for one: Contributions of age, socioeconomic factors, executive functioning, and social cognition to moral reasoning in childhood. Frontiers in Psychology, 7 , Article 227. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00227

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (6 Stages + Examples)

Have you ever wondered why little kids think sharing toys is a rule because "it's nice," while older students might believe it's right because "it's fair"? As we grow up, how we think about right and wrong changes greatly. This isn't just random; there's a pattern to it. A smart guy named Lawrence Kohlberg devised a way to explain this change, calling it the "Stages of Moral Development."

Imagine climbing a set of stairs. At the bottom, we might do things to avoid getting in trouble or to get a reward. As we go higher, we start to think about what others expect from us and what's generally accepted as right in society. And for some, at the very top, they might start to question and think deeply about these rules themselves.

This article will dive into these stages, helping you understand how our thinking evolves at different ages. It's like a roadmap to our moral growth , showing us how and why our views on right and wrong shift as we age. Let's take a journey together and explore these stages!

What Are Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development? 

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development is a theory proposed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987), which outlines the different levels and stages of moral reasoning that individuals go through as they develop their understanding of right and wrong. There are 6 stages of development, divided into 3 levels.

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on and revised the ideas of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget . Piaget’s work suggested that children’s morality changes over time as they move through stages of mental development.

In his interviews, Kohlberg employed Piaget’s method of questioning participants about moral dilemmas. He would tell stories with conflicting ideas representing two moral values and ask children whether these were right or wrong. Kohlberg was less interested in the answers themselves than in understanding the thinking process behind them. 

Based on the children’s responses, Kohlberg classified their moral reasoning into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. He further divided each level into two distinct stages.

Stages of Moral Development and Ages

Like Piaget's theory of moral development , Kohlberg believes that moral development occurs in stages, but he argues that it is a continuous process throughout a person's life. 

Let’s look at the characteristics of each of Kohlberg’s stages.

Pre-conventional Level

At the lowest level of moral development, children under nine have not yet internalized society’s conventions as to right or wrong. Adults fully determine the moral standards of young children. For example, they accept the rules made by authority figures, parents, or teachers. They base their moral reasoning on the external consequences of their actions, such as punishment. 

Heinz's dilemma is often used in the study of moral development, particularly in Kohlberg's theory of moral development. The dilemma goes something like this:

Heinz's wife is dying from a rare cancer; the only medication that can save her is extremely expensive. Heinz cannot afford the medication, so he breaks into a pharmacy to steal it. He is caught by the police and brought to court. The judge must decide what to do with Heinz.

At this level, a child faced with Heinz’s dilemma would say that the man shouldn't steal the drug because stealing is wrong, and he will end up in prison.

Stage 1) Obedience and punishment

The obedience and punishment stage is based on children’s desire to follow the rules created by authority figures. Their motivation is simply to avoid being punished. If an action is perceived as morally wrong, it is because punishment is possible. Morality is, at this stage, external to the self. Children suppose that rules are fixed and must be respected.

At this stage, individuals make moral decisions based on avoiding punishment or seeking reward. They follow rules to avoid physical punishment or loss of privileges but don't understand that rules are based on social norms or the need for social order.

Individuals at this stage may also have a limited perspective, unable to see things from another's point of view, and they may not consider the intentions or circumstances behind someone's actions. For example, a child at this stage might think that stealing a toy from a store is always wrong, regardless of the reason why the person did it or the consequences that might follow.

To identify Stage 1, look for individuals mainly focused on avoiding punishment or seeking rewards who may not yet fully understand the concept of social norms or the importance of considering other people's perspectives. They may also display a rigid and inflexible approach to moral decision-making.

Stage 2) Self-interest

As children mature, their motivation for displaying certain behaviors shifts from seeking external rewards to considering what they personally believe is in their best interest. This stage of moral reasoning is self-centered and shows little or no consideration of the needs of others. Children start realizing that rules are not absolute. People can have different perspectives, and there is more than one correct point of view.

At this stage, individuals make moral decisions based on their own self-interest and the exchange of favors. They begin to understand that others have their needs and wants and may be willing to negotiate to meet them.

Individuals at this stage may also display a more flexible approach to moral decision-making, recognizing that there are different perspectives and that the rules can be changed if they benefit everyone. For example, a child at this stage might think it's okay to take someone else's toy if they offer something else in exchange or convince the other person that it's a fair trade.

To identify Stage 2, look for individuals who are mainly focused on their own self-interest but also aware of others' needs and wants. They may display a more flexible approach to rules and be willing to negotiate to achieve their goals. They may also be more aware of the social exchange of favors and obligations.

Conventional Level

The conventional level of morality is typical of adolescents and adults who internalize moral standards. An individual’s sense of morality is increasingly based on interpersonal relationships. At this level, children continue to conform to the rules of authority figures. But although they understand that there are conventions dictating how they should behave, following the rules is not necessarily related to the prospective punishment. Above all, they wish to ensure good relationships with others.

When presented with Heinz's dilemma, some older children at the conventional level of moral development might argue that while stealing the drug can be justified to save his wife's life, Heinz should still face the consequences and go to prison for his actions.

Stage 3) Conformity

During the conformity stage, children’s actions are motivated by the approval of others. Morality arises from living up to the standards of a group, such as family or community. Older children will often do their best to be good group members. Their moral decisions are based on whether they would win the approval of individuals whose opinions matter to them. The intentions of their actions are important regardless of the outcomes. 

At this stage, individuals make moral decisions based on the expectations and approval of others, particularly those who are important to them. They begin to understand that good behavior is seen as what pleases others, and they want to be seen as a good person in the eyes of those who are important to them.

Individuals at this stage are also more likely to take into account the feelings and perspectives of others and may seek to maintain positive relationships. For example, a child at this stage might think it's important to share toys with others so they will like them and want to play with them.

To identify Stage 3, look for individuals mainly focused on pleasing others and maintaining positive relationships. They may be more aware of social norms and expectations and may be more likely to take the perspective of others into account. They may also seek approval from authority figures and conform to social norms to gain approval.

Stage 4) Law and order

This stage is characterized by accepting rules because they are important in maintaining a functional society. Rules are the same for everyone, and it is essential that all members of society obey them. Moral reasoning goes beyond the need for individual approval of the conformity stage. Instead, morality is determined by what is best for most people. Individuals who obey law and authority and don’t challenge the established social order are perceived as good. 

At this stage, individuals make moral decisions based on a sense of duty to uphold social order and respect for authority. They begin to understand that social order depends on the rule of law and that laws must be respected to maintain social order.

Individuals at this stage are also more likely to consider the broader social context and the greater good rather than just their own personal relationships or interests. For example, a person at this stage might think it's important to follow traffic laws, not just to avoid a ticket or to please others, but because it's necessary for public safety and the greater good.

To identify Stage 4, look for individuals mainly focused on upholding social order and respect for authority. They may have a strong sense of duty and obligation to follow the rules and maintain social order. They may also be more likely to consider the broader social context and the greater good when making moral decisions.

Kohlberg believes that most individuals don’t develop their reasoning beyond this stage of moral development, in which morality is still predominantly dictated from the outside.

Postconventional Level

According to Kohlberg , only 10-15% of the population can achieve the post-conventional level of moral development because abstract principles and values define the sense of morality. 

Those individuals who attain the highest level of moral development question whether what they see around them is good. There is an increasing sense of individuals being separate entities from society. Morality on this level comes from self-defined principles. Laws that are seen as unjust should be removed or changed. Disobeying rules is not necessarily wrong when they are incompatible with personal principles. 

Participants in Kohlberg’s experiment who have reached the post-conventional level would believe that stealing the drug from the chemist’s office was not wrong. For them, saving a life is more important than the law itself.

Stage 5) Social Contract 

Individuals at this stage of moral development understand that society is full of contrasting opinions and values that should be respected. Laws are regarded as flexible social contracts. Laws that don't serve the greater common good should be changed to better align with the collective interests of society. In this context, morality and individual rights take precedence over established laws.

At this stage, individuals make moral decisions based on justice, democracy, and individual rights. They begin to understand that laws and social norms are not set in stone and can be changed if they do not promote the greater good or protect individual rights.

Individuals at this stage are also more likely to consider different groups' perspectives and recognize the need for compromise and negotiation. For example, a person at this stage might think it's important to advocate for policies promoting equality and individual rights, even if it means challenging existing laws or social norms.

To identify Stage 5, look for individuals mainly focused on justice and rights. They may be more likely to challenge authority and advocate for change if they see laws or social norms as unjust or unfair. They may also be more aware of the perspectives of different groups and the need for compromise and negotiation to achieve the greater good.

Stage 6) Universal Ethical Principles

In the final stage of moral development, individuals construct their own moral principles, which might sometimes deviate from societal laws. Their moral reasoning becomes more abstract, rooted in universal ethical principles, as described by Kohlberg. These principles embrace notions such as equality (valuing everyone equally, irrespective of status or background), dignity (recognizing the inherent worth of every person), and respect (upholding others' rights and sentiments).

At this stage, individuals believe that laws should align with these universal principles. If laws are perceived as unjust based on these principles, they feel such laws can and should be challenged or disobeyed. However, Kohlberg believed that very few people consistently operate at this advanced stage.

Individuals at this stage are also more likely to take a principled, ethical approach to decision-making and may see themselves as part of a larger moral community. For example, a person at this stage might think it's important to fight against social injustices such as discrimination or environmental destruction, even if it means going against established laws or social norms.

To identify Stage 6, look for individuals mainly focused on universal ethical principles and willing to take personal risks to uphold them. They may be more likely to challenge established laws or social norms if they see them as unjust or harmful. They may also see themselves as part of a larger moral community and be motivated by a sense of responsibility to uphold ethical principles. It's worth noting that Kohlberg believed that few people actually reached this stage, which he saw as the highest stage of moral development.

Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development's Heinz Dilemma

Consider the following moral dilemma. A man named Heinz has a wife dying of a rare cancer. Heinz learns that a local chemist has invented a new drug that might save his wife's life. But he can’t afford the drug. Although he tries to borrow money from his friends and family, the amount is still insufficient. The chemist is not ready to lower the price either. After trying everything he could think of without success, Heinz breaks into the chemist’s office and steals the drug. Was this the right thing to do? 

Here is an example of how an individual may behave at each stage in Kohlberg's Stages:

Obedience and Punishment Stage 1 : An individual may say that Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is wrong, and he could get arrested.

Self-Interest Stage 2 : An individual may say that Heinz should steal the drug to save his wife because he is important to him, and he would want others to do the same for him if he were in a similar situation.

Conformity Stage 3 : An individual may say that Heinz should steal the drug because he will be viewed as a good husband and respected by others for doing whatever he can to save his wife.

Law and Order Stage 4 : An individual may say that Heinz should not steal the drug because it's against the law, and breaking the law would undermine social order and respect for authority.

Social Contract Stage 5 : An individual may say that Heinz should steal the drug because the right to life and the principle of fairness outweigh the property rights of the pharmacist who owns the drug.

Universal Ethical Principles Stage 6 : An individual may say that Heinz should steal the drug because it's the right thing to do, even if it means breaking the law and risking punishment. They may also argue that the ethical principle of valuing human life is more important than any legal or social norm.

Heinz’s dilemma is a famous example used by Lawrence Kohlberg to assess moral developmental levels. 

Is Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development Theory Still Relevant Today?

Today, people reference Kohlberg's moral development stages when discussing communication, debate, and relating to others. But it's not always accepted in these discussions. 

Take this one Reddit user's take on the Jordan Peterson subreddit : 

"This is one psychologist's take on morality. It uses mortality, ethics and justice interchangeably, and hence lacks cohesion. Which is to be expected as morality is a deeply philosophical topic. It makes sense that a psychologist would have this sort of approach (which everyone acknowledges is just a reformatting of Jean Piaget's stages of childhood development).

I think Maslow's heiarchy of needs would have been a better map, looking at the general requirements in becoming moral, rather than treating morality as an ultimate ontological fact.

To put it more simplistically; knowing what people need to become moral - has more value, than judging others by their current stage of moral development as this chart seems to do.

Either way, systematizing morality may not be the smartest idea. Better to pursue ethics."

With its detailed delineation of children’s moral development, Kohlberg's theory has significantly impacted psychology and education. However, like many pioneering theories, aspects of Kohlberg's framework have been critiqued. Notably, Carol Gilligan , an ethicist and once Kohlberg’s research assistant, presented a key critique. She argued that Kohlberg's stages of moral development were male-centric and might not adequately represent moral reasoning in women.

Gilligan proposed that while men tend to have a justice-based perspective rooted in fairness, women more often adopt a care-based perspective, emphasizing interconnectedness and relationships. In her view, moral development should be understood with these different orientations, suggesting that morality isn't a one-size-fits-all concept but is influenced by gendered socialization and perspectives.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

Kohlberg’s theory has been largely criticized for its gender bias toward the white male American population. For his experiment, Kohlberg interviewed 72 boys in suburban Chicago between 10 and 16 years old. His research was, therefore, inevitably influenced by upper-middle-class male values and perspectives. 

What’s more, Kohlberg’s theory does not consider the role cultural differences might play in the development of moral reasoning. For example, Western cultures may have different moral philosophies than societies that give more importance to the community than personal rights. 

Questions about Age

Some researchers have had doubts about Kohlberg’s general conclusions after he questioned whether older children and adolescents could attain the latest stages of moral reasoning. Some recent studies have shown that children as young as six can already understand vague concepts of universal ethical principles. 

Kohlberg did not always tailor his experiments to present dilemmas relevant to the participant's experiences. The Heinz story might not be relatable to individuals who have never been married. As a result, Kohlberg’s findings might have been different if the situations the participants were asked to analyze were more age-appropriate. 

Lastly, Kohlberg’s theory suggests that certain types of moral reasoning are superior to others. Kohlberg supposes that justice is the most fundamental moral principle. He has been reproached for emphasizing justice while overlooking other values, such as compassion and care for others.

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Understanding Kohlberg's Moral Development Theory

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: Stages & Examples

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

Lawrence Kohlberg devised a theory of moral development which postulates that moral reasoning passes through six stages from early childhood to adulthood.

Kohlberg’s stages are sorted into three discontinuous levels : preconventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality.

Each stage involves a more advanced level of reasoning that coincides with cognitive development and life experiences.

Kohlberg’s theory focuses on a person’s logic about what is (and is not) moral behavior. The actual behavior is not that important. The emphasis is on how a person reaches their conclusion of what is right and wrong. 

To understand a person’s level of moral development, Kohlberg would describe a situation that presents a moral dilemma. By carefully analyzing the reasoning and thought processes of the person’s response, Kohlberg could identify their level of moral development.

Stages of Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

Level 1: preconventional morality.

The preconventional morality level is at the most basic level of moral development. In this level, moral reasoning is based on externally controlled rules that are handed down from authority figures.

The goal in a moral dilemma is to avoid punishment or receive an award. So, if a behavior leads to punishment, then it is bad. If the action leads to a reward, then it is good.

Preconventional morality lasts until around the age of 8 or 9. There is a great deal of variation about when it ends due to the fact that children’s’ cognitive skills develop at different rates and they can have vastly different experiences with adults and other children.

Stage 1: Obedience/Punishment Orientation

At very young ages children define the morality of a behavior as a direct function of its consequences.

In this childish reasoning, behavior that is punished is not moral, and behavior that is rewarded is moral. Children believe that people should obey rules so they can avoid punishment. Rules are absolute and inflexible.

Extraneous factors involved in a situation have no relevance because children simply don’t have the cognitive skills to conduct that reasoning.

In this stage, behaviorist approaches to teaching such as operant conditioning and negative reinforcement are highly effective.

Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange

At this stage, children will begin to understand that different people may have different perspectives regarding the same situation.

Rules are not absolute because there isn’t just one correct point of view. Actions in moral dilemmas are based on self-interest, not just strict adherence to external rules.

Children also begin to understand the benefits of cooperation and positive social relations. By doing something nice for another child, they could benefit by means of reciprocity.

Go Deeper: 10 Preconventional Morality Examples

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Conventional moral reasoning begins to emerge around the age of 10 or 11 and is characterized by accepting the rules of various social groups.

People begin to internalize moral standards from society and respected adults, in addition to various social groups to which the person belongs. Children will stay at this level until they are around 15 years old.

Stage 3: Establishing Good Interpersonal Relationships

At this stage, moral decisions are based on how they affect interpersonal relationships . 

There is an emphasis on meeting the expectations of social groups and being seen as a “good” member of that group. People at this stage consciously engage in prosocial behavior . Conformity and receiving the approval of others are highly valued.

Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order

Individuals now become less concerned about interpersonal consequences and more focused on a broader perspective of maintaining social order.

Rules and laws are seen as valuable because they allow a society to function smoothly. Laws to maintain social order are now considered more important than how behavior affects interpersonal relations.

Children begin to embrace the concept of social roles and start to see where they fit in a social hierarchy.

Go Deeper: 10 Conventional Morality Examples

Level 3: Postconventional Morality

This level of moral reasoning is defined in terms of abstract principles that have much broader relevance to civilization.

The rationale underlying morality is not confined to his or her own society and takes into account the perspective of individuals outside of society.

An understanding of universal ethical principles begins to form. This stage of moral reasoning may emerge in early adulthood, but not all individuals will reach either stage 5, and certainly not stage 6.

Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights

Laws are regarded as a social contract for the greater good, but are not perfect.

A higher-order conception of morality and individual rights may override specific laws. 

People begin to consider the different values and beliefs of others when defining morality. If laws violate human rights, then alternatives should be devised.  

Stage 6: Universal Principles

In this final stage of moral reasoning, people develop their own concept of morality based on abstract reasoning and universal ethical principles.

Society’s laws may or may not be consistent with, or uphold, those universal principles. When they do not, a person at this stage may be willing to go against society and pay severe negative consequences to defend universal principles to see that they are equally applied to all.

Go Deeper: 10 Postconventional Morality Examples

Strengths of Kohlberg’s Theory

1. consistent stage progression.

There have been many studies that have examined moral reasoning from childhood to early adulthood.

Generally speaking, those studies have supported the contention that people progress through the stages in the same sequence prescribed by Kohlberg.

Kohlberg’s own follow-up studies and those of colleagues (Colby et. al., 1983) also supported his contention that most people passed through stages consistently, although most people did not reach stages 5 and 6.

2. A Consistent Research Technique

Kohlberg relied on one particular research technique for a great deal of his work.

This involved reading a description of moral dilemmas and then asking research participants to respond to a series of questions. Although this technique is not perfect and is often described as a flaw, it is also a valuable tool.

By keeping the stories the same across several of his own studies, and by providing those stories to other researchers, Kohlberg’s technique allows for a comparison of results across studies by different researchers. This is a crucial need for scientific replication that should not be overlooked.

3. Supported by Brain Research 

There has been a substantial amount of research linking moral behavior with deficiencies in areas of the brain responsible for executive function , located in the frontal lobe (see Han, 2002 for a review).

Individuals with neurological issues are more likely to commit crimes due to having poor control over their behavior. There is also a clear link between hyperactivity, attentional control disorders, and disruptive behaviors in school settings.

These lines of research support the notion that moral reasoning, or impairment of moral reasoning, is linked to anti-social behavior.

Related: 5 Types of Childhood Development

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

1. western cultural bias.

Kohlberg’s theory of moral development is heavily influenced by an individualistic cultural bias that values individual rights over broader societal norms.

These values are ingrained in many Western cultures. However, Eastern cultures are more collectivist and value the whole of society over the rights of individuals.

Collectivist cultures have different perspectives on morality which are not consistent with Kohlberg’s theory.

2. Gender Bias

Kohlberg only included males in his studies on moral development. This means the sample was biased and not representative of the population.

That is a significant methodological flaw. Furthermore, as Gilligan (1977) has pointed out, men and women have different priorities when making moral decisions. Men base their conception of morality on abstract principles centering on law and justice.

However, women are more likely to make moral decisions based on principles of compassion and social welfare.

See More: Gender Bias Examples

3. Moral Reasoning may not lead to Moral Behavior

Providing rationale for a behavior in the safety of a room where someone describes a moral dilemma is far different from actually being in a situation.

What we think we would do in a situation and what we might actually do in a real situation where emotions are much more intense may be different.

Moral reasoning does not always lead to moral behavior. In the words of Han (2022), “The most fundamental critique is that the result of moral reasoning per se does not necessarily result in moral motivation, and finally, actual moral behavior” (p. 2).

Similarities between Kohlberg and Piaget

There are a number of similarities between Kohlberg’s and Piaget’s theories .

Firstly, both identify moral reasoning as developing in a sequential order where the thinking of younger children is simpler and more concrete than older children and young adults. Both postulate that this sequence is fixed and stable.

Secondly, both scholars relied on similar research techniques that involved analyzing a child’s reaction to a moral dilemma. This is a technique that provides standardization of the research methodology that allows for the comparison of research from various scholars.

Thirdly, both Kohlberg and Piaget are more interested in the rationale and logic that underly the child’s response than the actual behavior they say should be engaged. It is not so much the action chosen that is important as the reason given to justify the action.

In this way, both researchers were able to understand the child’s moral reasoning and develop a much deeper understanding of moral development.

Fourthly, both found similar patterns of moral reasoning across age. For example, Kohlberg’s preconventional level describes the child’s reasoning as being influenced by external rules from authority figures, namely parents and teachers. Similarly, Piaget’s stage of heteronomous morality describes a child’s moral reasoning as being defined externally.

Both scholars found that young children determine morality based on the consequences of an action. A behavior is good if it is rewarded and it is bad if it is punished, regardless of the actual act.

Learn about Four other Social Development Theories

Differences between Kohlberg and Piaget

There are some differences between the two stage-based theories as well.

For instance, Kohlberg believed that very young children internalized rules given by authority figures such as parents and teachers.

However, Piaget stated that internalizing rules and morality does not come until a later age. Younger children simply accept rules as absolutes that must be followed, but do not necessarily accept the rules as their own.

Piaget’s study of the “moral behavior” of children is sometimes described as starting with toddlers, while Kohlberg’s theory of moral development does not begin until the age of 5. 

Although Piaget includes this very early age in his discussion of morality, he does not believe the term “morality” is reflective of a toddler’s actions. In fact, he states clearly that the practice of behavior which looks moral occurs long before the consciousness of morality (Piaget, 1932).

Another difference is in regard to the degree of detail between the two theories. While Piaget identified two stages of moral reasoning, Kohlberg’s theory identifies a total of six.

In this way, Kohlberg’s theory is more elaborate and offers a more nuanced understanding of how moral reasoning develops through the years.

Blasi, A. (1980). Bridging moral cognition and moral action: A critical review of the literature. Psychological Bulletin, 88 , 1–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.88.1.1

Colby, A., Kohlberg, L., Gibbs, J., & Lieberman, M. (1983). A longitudinal study of moral judgment. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development , 48 (1-2, Serial No. 200). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 

Eisenberg, N., Guthrie, I. K., Cumberland, A., Murphy, B. C., Shepard, S. A., Zhou, Q., & Carlo, G. (2002). Prosocial development in early adulthood: a longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 82 (6), 993–1006.

Gilligan, C. (1977). In a different voice: Women’s conceptions of self and of morality. Harvard Educational Review , 47(4), 481-517.

Han, H. (2022). Cerebellum and emotion in morality. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 1378 , 179-194. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99550-8_12

Jorgensen, G. (2006). Kohlberg and Gilligan: duet or duel? Journal of Moral Education , 35 (2), 179-196.

Kohlberg, L. (1958). The Development of Modes of Thinking and Choices in Years 10 to 16. Ph. D. Dissertation , University of Chicago.

Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child . London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co.

Prinz, J. (2006). The emotional basis of moral judgments. Philosophical Explorations, 9 (1), 29-43.  https://doi.org/10.1080/13869790500492466

Sinnott-Armstrong, W. (2008). Framing moral intuitions. In W. Sinnott-Armstrong (Ed.), Moral Psychology, Vol. 2: The Cognitive Science of Morality: Intuition and Diversity . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

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Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

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• Ph.D., Psychology, Fielding Graduate University
• M.A., Psychology, Fielding Graduate University
• B.A., Film Studies, Cornell University

Lawrence Kohlberg outlined one of the best-known theories addressing the development of morality in childhood. Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, which include three levels and six stages, expanded on and revised the ideas of Jean Piaget’s previous work on the subject.

Key Takeaways: Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

• Lawrence Kohlberg was inspired by Jean Piaget’s work on moral judgment to create a stage theory of moral development in childhood.
• The theory includes three levels and six stages of moral thinking. Each level includes two stages. The levels are called preconventional morality, conventional morality, and postconventional morality.
• Since it was initially proposed, Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for overemphasizing a Western male perspective on moral reasoning.

Jean Piaget's two-stage theory of moral judgment marked a divide between the way children younger than 10 and those 10 and older think about morality. While younger children looked at rules as fixed and based their moral judgments on consequences, older children’s perspectives were more flexible and their judgments were based on intentions.

However, intellectual development doesn’t end when Piaget’s stages of moral judgment ended, making it likely that moral development continued as well. Because of this, Kohlberg felt Piaget’s work was incomplete. He sought to study a range of children and adolescents in order to determine if there were stages that went beyond those proposed by Piaget.

Kohlberg’s Research Method

Kohlberg utilized Piaget’s method of interviewing children about moral dilemmas in his research. He would present each child with a series of such dilemmas and ask them their thoughts on each one to determine the reasoning behind their thinking.

For example, one of the moral dilemmas Kohlberg presented was the following:

“In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her… The druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about… half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: ‘No, I discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.’ So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife.”

After explaining this dilemma to his participants, Kohlberg would ask, “Should the husband have done that?” He then continued with a series of additional questions that would help him understand why the child thought Heinz was right or wrong to do what he did. After collecting his data, Kohlberg classified the responses into stages of moral development.

Kohlberg interviewed 72 boys in suburban Chicago for his study. The boys were 10, 13, or 16 years old. Each interview was approximately two hours long and Kohlberg presented each participant with 10 moral dilemmas during that time.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg’s research yielded three levels of moral development. Each level consisted of two stages, leading to six stages in total. People pass through each stage sequentially with the thinking at the new stage replacing the thinking at the previous stage. Not everyone reached the highest stages in Kohlberg's theory. In fact, Kohlberg believed that many didn’t move past his third and fourth stages.

Level 1: Preconventional Morality

At the lowest level of moral development individuals haven’t yet internalized a sense of morality. Moral standards are dictated by adults and the consequences of breaking the rules. Children nine years old and younger tend to fall into this category.

• Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation . Children believe the rules are fixed and must be obeyed to the letter. Morality is external to the self.
• Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange . Children begin to realize that the rules aren’t absolute. Different people have different perspectives and therefore there isn’t just one correct point of view.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

A majority of adolescents and adults fall into the middle level of conventional morality . At this level, people start to internalize moral standards but not necessarily to question them. These standards are based on the social norms of the groups a person is part of.

• Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships . Morality arises from living up to the standards of a given group, such as one's family or community, and being a good group member.
• Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order . The individual becomes more aware of the rules of society on a broader scale. As a result, they become concerned with obeying laws and maintaining the social order.

Level 3: Postconventional Morality

If individuals reach the highest level of moral development , they start to question if what they see around them is good. In this case, morality stems from self-defined principles. Kohlberg suggested that only 10-15% of the population was able to achieve this level because of the abstract reasoning it required.

• Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights . Society should function as a social contract where the goal of each individual is to improve society as a whole. In this context, morality and individual rights like life and liberty may take precedence over specific laws.
• Stage 6: Universal Principles . People develop their own principles of morality even if they conflict with society’s laws. These principles must be applied to every individual equally.

Since Kohlberg initially proposed his theory, many criticisms have been leveled against it. One of the key issues other scholars take with the theory centers on the sample used to create it. Kohlberg focused on boys in a specific United States city. As a result, his theory has been accused of being biased towards men in Western cultures. Western individualist cultures may have different moral philosophies than other cultures. For example, individualist cultures emphasize personal rights and freedoms, while collectivist cultures emphasize what’s best for the community as a whole. Kohlberg’s theory does not take these cultural differences into account.

In addition, critics like Carol Gilligan have maintained that Kohlberg’s theory conflates morality with an understanding of rules and justice, while overlooking concerns such as compassion and care. Gilligan believed the emphasis on impartially judging conflicts between competing parties overlooked the female perspective on morality, which tended to be contextual and derived from an ethics of compassion and concern for other people.

Kohlberg’s methods were also criticized. The dilemmas he used weren’t always applicable to children at the age of 16 and under. For example, the Heinz dilemma presented above might not be relatable to children who had never been married. Had Kohlberg focused on dilemmas more reflective of his subjects' lives, his results may have been different. Also, Kohlberg never examined if moral reasoning actually reflected moral behavior. Therefore, it’s not clear if his subjects’ actions fell in line with their ability to think morally.

• Cherry, Kendra. “Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development.” Verywell Mind , 13 March 2019. https://www.verywellmind.com/kohlbergs-theory-of-moral-developmet-2795071
• Crain, William. Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications . 5th ed., Pearson Prentice Hall. 2005.
• Kohlberg, Lawrence. “The Development of Children’s Orientation Toward a Moral Order: I. Sequence in the Development of Moral Thought.” Vita Humana , vol. 6, no. 1-2, 1963, pp. 11-33. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1964-05739-001
• McLeod, Saul. “Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development.” Simply Psychology , 24 October 2013. https://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html
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