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Air Quality Scenario of the World’s Most Polluted City Kanpur: A Case Study

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• Sarah Khan 11 &
• Quamrul Hassan 11  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering ((LNCE,volume 58))

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Rapid industrialization and urbanization are paving a way for emerging economies to become more advanced, but these activities also trigger environmental problems. Among many of these problems, the biggest and the most persistent is the air pollution. According to the WHO database, Indian cities are leading the list of world’s most polluted cities, with 14 of the 15 cities featuring in the list are Indians, which has been declared badly affected due to air pollution, and the worst among them is Kanpur. Years of studies and research have recognized the industrial sector as mainly responsible for polluting the city. As reported by Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, during winter months, the major contributor to air pollution is particulate matter like dust and soot accounting for around 76%, 15% has been contributed by biomass burning and about 8% by emissions from vehicle, whereas, in summer season, the percentage contribution of particulate matter came down to 35% with equal contribution from vehicular emissions. Meteorological data reveals that 20–80% part of the day mostly during winter months, the average wind speed remains between 2 and 4 m/s. This shows that the dispersion of pollutants in the winter season is very less, trapping particulates and toxic metals in the atmosphere to remain persistent for months. The exposure to these pollutants resulted in harmful diseases linked to the cardiovascular system, respiratory systems, nervous system, premature birth, mortality, and illness. Various efforts have been initiated by the authorities to control the increasing level of pollution, like constructing new roads and pavements, mass rapid transit service to cut car pollution, planting more trees and promoting battery-operated transport. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change is also making a budgetary allocation of about 7 billion rupees ($104 million) for installing more systems to monitor air quality in cities and installing equipment to settle the dust like water sprinklers. Despite all these efforts, the Air Quality Index of the city has remained much below the national average. In this scenario, this paper focuses on the studies made so far associated with the causes, sources, impacts, and outcomes related to air pollution levels in the city from the available literature. This paper has also highlighted the air pollution scenario of neighboring country China and its policies intervention in battling against a similar situation.

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Khan, S., Hassan, Q. (2020). Air Quality Scenario of the World’s Most Polluted City Kanpur: A Case Study. In: Ahmed, S., Abbas, S., Zia, H. (eds) Smart Cities—Opportunities and Challenges. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, vol 58. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2545-2_57

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Air pollution and human health in kolkata, india: a case study.

1. Introduction

2. study area, 2.1 sources of air pollution in kolkata, 3. database and methodology, 3.1. monitoring stations and criteria pollutants, 3.2. air quality assessment.

• Critical pollution (C): when EF is more than 1.5;
• High pollution (H): when the EF is between 1.0–1.5;
• Moderate pollution (M): when the EF between 0.5–1.0; and
• Low pollution (L): when the EF is less than 0.5.

3.3. Health Assessment

3.4. data analysis, 4. results and discussion, 4.1. concentration and trends of ambient air quality, 4.2. interpreting health outcomes of surveyed dispensaries in kolkata, 4.3. outdoor pollution-averting activities, 4.4. diseases analysis, 5. conclusions, acknowledgments, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

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Haque, M.S.; Singh, R.B. Air Pollution and Human Health in Kolkata, India: A Case Study. Climate 2017 , 5 , 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli5040077

Haque MS, Singh RB. Air Pollution and Human Health in Kolkata, India: A Case Study. Climate . 2017; 5(4):77. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli5040077

Haque, Md. Senaul, and R. B. Singh. 2017. "Air Pollution and Human Health in Kolkata, India: A Case Study" Climate 5, no. 4: 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli5040077

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Suggested citation: Khan, Adeel, Uday Suryanarayanan, Tanushree Ganguly, and Karthik Ganesan. Improving Air Quality Management through Forecasts: A Case Study of Delhi’s Air Pollution of Winter 2021. New Delhi: Council on Energy, Environment and Water.

This study assesses Delhi’s air pollution scenario in the winter of 2021 and the actions to tackle it. Winter 2021 was unlike previous winters as the control measures mandated by the Commission of Air Quality Management (CAQM) in Delhi National Capital Region and adjoining areas were rolled out. These measures included the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) and additional emergency responses instituted on the basis of air quality and meteorological forecasts. Given that the forecasts play a major role in emergency response measures, the study assesses the reliability of different forecasts. Further, it gauges the impact of the emergency measures on Delhi’s air quality levels. It also discusses the primary driver of air pollution in winter 2021.

Key Findings

• While air quality forecasts picked up the pollution trends, they are not yet very accurate in predicting high pollution episodes ('very poor' and 'severe' air quality days)
• When the restrictions were in place like ban on entry of trucks, construction & demolition activities and others, air quality did not descend into the ‘severe +’ category. Moreover, air quality improved from ‘severe’ to ‘poor’ when all the restrictions were in place simultaneously, aided by better meteorology.
• However, when the restrictions were finally lifted, the air quality spiralled back into the ‘severe’ category resulting in the longest six days ‘severe’ air quality spell of the season.
• There has been no significant improvement in Delhi's winter air quality since 2019. In winter 2021, air quality was in the ‘very poor’ to ‘severe’ category on about 75 per cent of days.
• In the winter of 2021, transport(∼ 12 per cent), dust (∼ 7 per cent) and domestic biomass burning (∼ 6 per cent) were the largest local contributors.
• About 64 per cent of Delhi’s winter pollution load comes from outside of Delhi’s boundaries.

HAVE A QUERY?

Executive Summary

With every passing winter, the need to address Delhi’s air pollution grows more urgent. During the winter of 2021, the Supreme Court, the Delhi Government, and the Commission for Air Quality Management in the NCR and Adjoining Areas (CAQM), all sprang into action to arrest rising pollution levels in Delhi. The interventions ranged from shutting down power plants and restricting the entry of trucks into Delhi to school closures and using forecasts to pre-emptively roll out emergency measures. However, the impact of these interventions on Delhi’s air quality begs further investigation.

Through this study, we intend to examine what worked and what did not this season. As is the case every year, meteorological conditions played an important role in both aggravating and alleviating pollution levels. To assess the impact of meteorological conditions on pollution levels, we analysed pollution levels during the months of October to January vis-a-vis meteorological parameters. To understand the driving causes of pollution in the winter of 2021, we tracked the changes in relative contribution of various polluting sources as the season progressed.

While pre-emptive actions based on forecasts was a step in the right direction, an assessment of forecast performance is a prerequisite to integrating them in decision-making. We also assessed the performance of forecasts by comparing them with the measured onground concentrations. We also studied the timing and effectiveness of emergency directions issued in response to forecasts.

We sourced data on pollution levels from Central Pollution Control Board’s (CPCB) real-time air quality data portal and meteorological information from ECMWF Reanalysis v5 (ERA5). For information on modelled concentration and source contributions, we used data from publicly available air quality forecasts, including Delhi’s Air Quality Early Warning System (AQ-EWS) (3-day and 10-day), the Decision Support System for Air Quality Management in Delhi (DSS), and UrbanEmissions.Info (UE).

Figure ES1 In Delhi, 75% of Winter 2021 saw 'very poor' to 'severe' air quality

Source: Authors’ analysis, data from Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). Note: Air quality index (AQI) for the day is calculated using the PM2.5 concentration at the same stations with a minimum of 75 per cent of the data being available.

A. 75 per cent of days were in ‘Very poor’ to ‘Severe’ air quality during winter 2021

The number of ‘Severe’ plus ‘Very poor’ air quality days during the winter has not decreased in the last three years (Figure ES1). During the winter of 2021 (15 October 2021 - 15 January 2022), about 75 per cent of the days, air quality were in the ‘Very poor’ to ‘Severe’ category. Interestingly, despite more farm fire incidents in Punjab, Haryana, and Uttar Pradesh in 2021 compared to 2020, Delhi’s PM2.5 concentration during the stubble burning phase (i.e., 15 October to 15 November) was lesser in 2021. This was primarily due to better meteorological conditions like higher wind speed and more number of rainy days during this period.

B. Regional influence predominant; Transport, dust, and domestic biomass burning are the largest local contributors to air pollution

We find that about 64 per cent of Delhi’s winter pollution load comes from outside Delhi’s boundaries (Figure ES2(a). Biomass burning of agricultural waste during the stubble burning phase and burning for heating and cooking needs during peak winter are estimated to be the major sources of air pollution from outside the city according to UE (Figure ES2(b). Locally, transport (12 per cent), dust (7 per cent), and domestic biomass burning (6 per cent) contribute the most to the PM2.5 pollution load of the city. While transport and dust are perennial sources of pollution in the city, the residential space heating component is a seasonal source. However, this seasonal contribution is so significant that as the use of biomass as a heat source in and around Delhi starts going up as winter progresses, the residential sector becomes the single-largest contributor by 15 December (Figure ES2(b)). This indicates the need to ramp up programmes to encourage households to shift to cleaner fuels for cooking and space heating.

Figure ES 2(a) Transport, dust, and domestic biomass burning are the largest local contributors to the PM2.5 pollution load in Delhi

Source: Authors’ analysis, source contribution data from DSS and UE. Note: Modelled estimates of relative source contributions retrieved from UE and DSS.

Figure ES 2(b) Both local and regional sources need to be targeted for reducing Delhi’s pollution

Source: Authors’ analysis, source contribution data from UE. Note: Source contribution data retrieved from UE district products which have larger geographical cover and lower resolution.

C. Forecasts picked up the pollution trend but could not predict high pollution episodes

The availability of multiple forecasts provides decisionmakers with a range of options to choose from. At the same time, this is an obstacle to effective onground action. To streamline the flow of relevant information from forecasters to decision-makers, it is important to analyse the forecasts and assess their reliability. We found that all the forecasts identified pollution trends accurately (Figure ES3) but their accuracy in predicting pollution episodes (‘Severe’ and ‘Very Poor’ air quality days) decreases with future time horizon.

D. Though forecasts were used to impose restrictions, the lifting of the curbs was ill-timed

In November–December 2021, apart from the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) coming into effect in DelhiNCR, the CAQM introduced several emergency response measures through a series of directions and orders. The Supreme Court also stepped in from time to time to direct the authorities to act on air pollution.

As a first, the CAQM used air quality and meteorological forecasts to time and tailor emergency response actions. The first set of restrictions was put in place on 16 November 2021, and all were lifted by 20 December 2021, save the one on industrial operations.

Figure ES3 All the forecasts can predict the trend accurately

Source: Authors’ analysis, data from Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), AQ-EWS, and UE. Note: r represents correlation.

During this period, all the forecasts except AQ-EWS (3-day) underpredicted PM2.5 levels. Therefore, by looking at the difference between forecasted and measured concentrations, it is not possible to gauge the effectiveness of the restrictions conclusively. Hence, multiple models or different modelling experiments are needed to estimate the impact of the intervention.

It should be noted that during the restriction period, air quality did not descend into the ‘Severe +’ category. Further, when all the restrictions were in place along with better meteorology, air quality did improve from ‘Severe’ to ‘Poor’. The first prolonged ‘Severe’ air quality period in December was witnessed between 21 December and 26 December. While the forecasts sounded an alarm for high pollution levels during this period, all restrictions barring those on industrial activities were lifted. Subsequently, PM2.5 levels remained above 250 µgm -3 for six straight days resulting in the longest ‘Severe’ air quality spell of the season. (Figure ES4).

Figure ES4 The lifting of the restrictions was ill-timed with high pollution levels forecasted in the following days

Source: Authors’ analysis, data from Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). Note: C&D stands for construction and demolition activities. Work from home (WFH) stands for the 50% cap on employee attendance in the office. Industrial restrictions stand for compulsory switching over to Piped Natural Gas (PNG) or other cleaner fuels within industries and non-compliant industries being allowed to operate restrictively.

The discussion above highlights that despite the emergency measures taken in winter 2021, the air quality conditions were far from satisfactory. Calibrating emergency responses to forecasted source contributions may result in a greater impact on air quality. Our study recommends the following to help the Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi ( GNCTD) and CAQM plan and execute emergency responses better:

• GRAP implementation must be based strictly on modelled source contributions obtained from forecasts and timed accordingly. This will eliminate the need for ad-hoc emergency directions to restrict various activities. For instance, restrictions on private vehicles can be brought in when the air quality is forecasted to be ‘Very poor’ as transport is a significant contributor.
• Surveys or assessments are required in the residential areas across NCR to explore the prevalence of biomass usage for heating and cooking purposes. Based on this, a targeted support mechanism is required to allow households and others to use clean fuels for cooking and heating. There is also a need to assess and promote alternatives for space heating.
• Air quality forecasts should be relayed to the public via social media platforms to encourage them to take preventive measures such as avoiding unnecessary travel and wearing masks when stepping out. This will help reduce individual exposure and activity levels in the city.
• Ground level data and insights need to be incorporated in forecasting models. Data from sources like social media posts (text and photos), camera feeds from public places, and pollution related grievance portals like SAMEER, Green Delhi, and SDMC 311 can provide near-real time information on pollution sources. Then aggregated representation of polluting activities based on recent days or weeks can be used as an input in models. Ultimately, a crowd-sourced emissions inventory for NCT/NCR will benefit modellers and policymakers alike while also making pollution curtailment efforts transparent.
• Combining the available air quality forecasts through an ensemble approach can help improve the accuracy of the forecasts and prompt better coordination within the modelling community.

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Four IUCN economic case studies show the impacts of plastic pollution in the marine environment on biodiversity, livelihoods, and more in Africa and Asia

Research into the economic aspects of the Marine Plastics and Coastal Communities project, to contain and reduce plastic pollution in the ocean, delivers insight into the true costs of plastic pollution on communities, livelihoods, coasts, and the global ocean.

The objective

The Marine Plastics and Coastal Communities (MARPLASTICCs) project goal was to assist governments and regional bodies in Eastern and Southern Africa and Asia to promote, enact, and enforce legislation and other effective measures to contain and reduce plastic pollution in the ocean. Part of the research completed included defining an economic assessment approach and producing economics case studies that reflected the impacts of plastic pollution on the marine environment, on coastal livelihoods, and more.

National case studies

Four national level economic case studies are available: for Mozambique, South Africa, Thailand, and Viet Nam. The important economic sectors of fisheries and tourism were studied, using different lenses to examine how plastic pollution causes detrimental economic impacts at national and local levels. Each assessment differs and explores wide-ranging economic dimensions that should be considered when creating a national plan of action to mitigate marine litter and plastic pollution in the environment. From impacts upon export revenue, employment and food security, to the economic efficiency of beach cleaning in conjunction with deposit refund schemes, and the impact of ghost gear on fisheries, these four case studies take a reader into the true costs of plastic pollution on our global ocean and coastal communities.

Mozambique Economic Report

What is the impact of plastic pollution on fisheries – including the broader economic dimension relating to export revenue, employment, food security, and marine ecosystems, and biodiversity? This economic policy brief explains these impacts within the Republic of Mozambique.

South Africa: Efficiency of beach clean-ups and deposit refund schemes (DRS) to avoid damages from plastic pollution on the tourism sector in Cape Town, South Africa (2021)

What are the impacts of plastic pollution on tourism revenue and tourism employment? What is the efficiency of beach cleaning with the implementation of a DRS? What is the impact on employment after DRS implementation? This economic policy brief explains these impacts within the context of the city of Cape Town, South Africa.

Case study on net fisheries in the Gulf of Thailand

This issues brief presents the results of a study that estimated the impact of marine macroplastic on Thai net fisheries operating in the Gulf of Thailand. The study has estimated the reduction in the net fisheries’ revenue due to the plastic stock and annual flow into the fishing zone/Thai Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (Gulf of Thailand).

The economic impact of marine plastics, including ghost fishing, on fishing boats in Phước Tinh and Loc An, Ba Ria Vung Tau Province, Viet Nam (2022)

What are the impacts of plastic pollution caused by abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear (ALDFG), also known as ‘ghost gear’? What are the costs to biodiversity of ghost gear? This economic policy brief explains the impacts on fishing boats in Phước Tinh and Loc An, Ba Ria Vung Tau Province, Viet Nam.

On-the-ground work

The work IUCN is doing on the impacts of plastic pollution, especially on tourism, fisheries, and waste management aims to identify the plastic applications and polymers and the waste management gaps that are contributing to the global problem.

IUCN works on-the-ground with partners from NGOs, the private sector, and national governments, in order to determine the priority problems and the most effective interventions, to advise countries how to stop the problem within their specific national context. IUCN bring science and knowledge together with policy, for action, in this case economic policies can be examined for their role in dealing with plastic pollution.

As the world is now focused on the establishment of a global plastic pollution treaty , understanding the scope of the impacts and prioritising interventions – including economic interventions – will be needed.

Acknowledgments and Support

The Marine Plastics and Coastal Communities project (MARPLASTICCs), generously supported by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), provided  support for the research and production of these Economic Case Studies.

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Case Studies: Creating a clean, safe environment

Accurate data is essential for monitoring and managing the environment and enabling the design and implementation of effective environmental regulation. Recognising the hazards posed by pollution, the EU has developed an extensive body of legislation which establishes health-based standards and objectives for pollutants in air, water and soil. Key to the successful implementation of these policies is an underpinning measurement infrastructure that ensures that environmental data is robust and consistent across monitoring networks, across national borders and over time.

As allowable pollutant levels decrease, and new types of pollutant are identified, measurement capabilities must be constantly improved to support robust and fit-for-purpose pollutant monitoring and mitigation. This requires both improved measurement accuracy across the measurement infrastructure – at National Measurement Institutes, in accredited laboratories and in environmental monitoring networks – and the development of innovative, practical and cost-effective measurement technologies.

New measurement capabilities to protect the marine environment

Underwater noise from man-made activity, such as shipping or construction work, can have a profound effect on marine organisms such as whales, damaging their hearing or driving them from their native habitats. European directives are in place to protect the most vulnerable species, but no validated calibration methods were available for underwater measurement instruments in the sound range of greatest environmental concern.

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Improving inner city air quality

Small particles from petrol and diesel engine exhausts create major hazards in city air, especially for those with asthma or other breathing problems. The EU’s Air Quality Directive requires monitoring of airborne pollution which is important for assessing the effectiveness of strategies such as London’s ultralow emission zone. Ensuring the accuracy of instruments used for measuring vehicle particle emissions in city air relies on introducing standardised aerosols and testing regimes.

Supporting the Water Framework Directive

Water pollution has a significant negative impact on human health and the environment. Increasing demand from citizens and environmental organisations for cleaner rivers and lakes, groundwater and coastal beaches has led the European Commission to make water protection one of its priorities. The European Water Framework Directive (WFD) was established to protect and improve water quality and prevent further deterioration through legal limits on a wide range of known pollutants.

Protecting Europe’s water resources

Improving the quality of indoor air

Air pollution is harmful to public health, damages biodiversity and contributes to climate change. The EU has developed legislation to improve health and environmental quality. However, while significant progress has been made in improving outdoor air quality, indoor pollutants have received less attention. Given that many people spend the majority of their time indoors, research is urgently needed to enable the regulation, assessment and improvement of indoor air quality.

Accurately measuring indoor pollutants

Many manufactured products in homes and offices, such as building materials and furnishings, can emit chemical vapours which make people feel ill. EU directives require samples of these materials to be tested to ensure emissions stay within safe limits. But this process is complex, and testing labs need more sophisticated reference materials to confirm their instruments are accurately measuring the wide variety of chemical vapours that these materials can emit.

Formaldehyde emissions monitoring

Formaldehyde, emitted from furnishing and construction materials and from the combustion of organic materials, can cause health problems. Regulations govern safe limits, and monitoring systems check these are not exceeded. Gas standards – cylinders with accurate formaldehyde amount fractions – are used to calibrate these systems, but as air quality limits become stricter, new methods are required for producing standards with lower, stable amount fractions to confirm the performance of monitoring instrumentation.

Accurately monitoring trace pollutants

Man-made and naturally occurring volatile organic compounds, such as methanol or acetone, affect air quality and the climate by the formation of ozone and aerosols. The World Meteorological Organization’s Global Atmosphere Watch monitoring network tracks these trace compounds and aerosols to increase our understanding of climate trends and the success of mitigation strategies. Improving the accuracy of networks monitoring data requires improved links between lab-based calibrations and networked instruments.

Supporting reduced exhaust emissions

Air pollution continues to be responsible for more than 430,000 premature deaths each year in Europe. Automotive vehicles are a major source of air pollution, particularly fine and ultrafine particles emitted by diesel engine exhausts. To improve public health and environmental quality the EU regulates pollution from road vehicles.All new passenger cars must meet European emission standards for particle number (defined in the Euro 5b and Euro 6b regulations) before they can be type approved for sale in the EU.

Measuring roadside air pollution

Air pollution, such as that generated by road vehicles, is known to harm public health, damage biodiversity and contribute to climate change. In response, Europe has made air pollution one of its main concerns and developed an extensive body of legislation, establishing limit values for major air pollutants such as NO 2 and particulate matter, to improve human health and environmental quality.

Improved air pollution monitoring

Air pollution, such as that generated by road vehicles, is known to harm public health, damage biodiversity and contribute to climate change. In response, the EU has made air pollution one of its main concerns and developed an extensive body of legislation to improve human health and environmental quality. Central to this regulatory framework is the European Air Quality Directive (2008/50/EC), which establishes limit values for major air pollutants such as NO 2 and particulate matter.

Improved exhaust monitoring

Air pollution continues to be responsible for more than 430,000 premature deaths each year in Europe. Automotive vehicles are a major source of air pollution - of particular concern are the fine particles emitted by diesel and direct injection petrol engines. To improve public health and environmental quality, the EU regulates pollution from road vehicles and new passenger cars must meet the European emission standards (the standard currently in force is known as Euro 6 ) before they can be type approved.

Improving gas plant leak detection

Supporting global efforts to reduce greenhouse and polluting gas emissions, the EU’s Industrial Emissions Directive introduces new limits and reporting rules. Europe’s gas plant operators are expected to identify and measure leaks, but tougher limits require greater measurement accuracy beyond that of current authorised methods. Advanced optical measurement techniques exist but these need robust performance evaluation and protocols for use before consideration as methods for demonstrating compliance with the Directive.

Industrial emissions mapping

The EU’s Industrial Emissions Directive, which aims to protect human health and the environment, requires pollution reporting from oil and gas plant operators against regulated emissions limits. Strict standards are being established for monitoring total plant emissions, but current measurement techniques lack the required accuracy to meet new lower emission limits. Optical measurement techniques can meet requirements, but to be authorised for use, must first be rigorously validated.

Traceability for mercury measurements

Mercury, a highly toxic metal, can be released into the environment from human sources. European and international treaties are in force to limit its emission, introducing the need for reliable mercury monitoring. Cheap and easy to use sensors that can be deployed anywhere in the world and capable of operating without power supplies are needed for monitoring atmospheric mercury levels.

Better digestion for mercury analysis

Mercury is highly toxic and once released into the environment bioaccumulates into fish and seafood. Released from burning fossil fuels and broken fluorescent light fittings its emissions are regulated by international treaties and EU Directives. For industrial polluters to demonstrate regulatory compliance mercury emissions are carefully monitored. But the continuing use of an empirical equation for calibration and non-optimised chemical analysis methods hinder a robust measurement hierarchy.

Detecting contaminants in soil

Companies building on sites contaminated by previous industrial use, must first perform soil analyses to identify pollutants. Measurement traceability is underpinned by reference materials that need to closely match real-world samples. Increasing the capability of National Metrology Institutes (NMI) in emerging EU member states to produce these materials and perform proficiency exercises is essential to harmonise SI traceability in environmental monitoring throughout Europe.

Detecting new pollutants in the air

Atmospheric greenhouse gases are driving global warming. Amongst the most damaging are those containing fluorine and other halogens, frequently used as refrigerants. Per molecule, these are many times more potent than carbon dioxide. Whilst international treaties regulate many of these gases, new variants are continually entering use. To determine their source and atmospheric trends, networks of monitoring instruments need robust calibration standards for measurement accuracy.

Monitoring ammonia

Ammonia is a harmful pollutant, which damages ecosystems, harms human health and contributes to global warming. The EU has set targets for its reduction and introduced Directives for its regulation, verifying compliance requires accurate ammonia sensors that do not interact with the gas they measure. Improved material test and calibration facilities with robust links to SI units are needed to support the development of sensors based on ammonia inert materials.

Ammonia monitoring networks

Agriculture is responsible for 94 % of all ammonia emissions, 75 % of which is from intensive livestock farming, contributing to wide-ranging environmental problems. The EU’s National Emission Ceilings Directive sets ammonia reduction goals, and the UK is developing strategies to support farmers to reduce emissions. To assess their effectiveness and track reductions against targets, with high measurement accuracy are needed.

Greater accuracy for ammonia monitors

Ammonia is a harmful pollutant produced by intensive farming which damages ecosystems. Monitoring networks assess environmental ammonia levels and the success of strategies for meeting EU emissions targets. Performing spot checks and ensuring test exercises supply specified ammonia concentrations to the samplers used requires accurate real-time measurements. Optical gas measurement technologies could provide these, but first ways to compensate for effects created by water vapour in the sample are needed.

Monitoring exposure to UV radiation

The World Health Organization estimates that a 10 % increase in surface UV radiation could cause an additional 300,000 skin cancers and at least 1.6 million more cases of cataracts worldwide every year. Balancing the risks and benefits of solar UV radiation is a challenge for policymakers and health advisors, and improved UV measuring instrumentation is needed to produce reliable measurements on which to identify long-term trends and base decisions.

Better optics for UV monitoring

The ozone layer protects us from the harmful effects of solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation, such as increased incidences of skin cancer and cataracts. International treaties such as the Montreal Protocol have been put in place to reduce the use of ozone depleting chemicals such as CFCs. Changes in ozone and UV radiation are monitored across Europe to improve understanding of the recovery of the ozone layer and the effects of UV exposure.

Fingerprinting nuclear waste

Nuclear power accounts for more than a quarter of the EU’s electricity supply and will continue to play a major role in the energy sector as Europe tries to meet growing energy demands while reducing carbon emissions. Over the next 25 years, around 250 nuclear facilities across Europe are scheduled for decommissioning. To protect public health and the environment, the millions of tonnes of waste generated needs to be sorted and appropriately stored according to the level of radioactive contamination.

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Nuclear incident alerts

In the event of a nuclear incident, authorities need to know how to respond to protect the public. A pan-European monitoring network, using Geiger-Mueller counters, stands ready to detect sudden increases in ionising radiation. These counters measure radiation levels accurately, but cannot distinguish between different photon energies, originating from different radionuclide. Modern instruments can make this distinction but need better characterisation before they can be deployed in monitoring networks.

Fibre-optics for structural integrity

Ensuring the integrity of large nuclear structures such as waterways supplying coolant or geological disposal facilities for high level long lived radioactive waste is important for our safety and that of the environment. Temperature measurements based on optical sensing could provide key information on long-term structural integrity but generating confidence in a monitoring system that will operate for tens of years relies on rigorous testing of all its constituent parts.

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Environmental Pollution and Control: A Case Study of Delhi Mega City

2003, Population and Environment

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Unpublished

kalpana panwar

From past few years the capital of India is setting records in terms of rising levels of air pollution. The city in the non-monsoon months have reported dangerous levels on Air Quality Index (AQI), averaging above 700 in first week of November, 2019. After harvest of paddy by farmers in Punjab and Haryana in the months of October-November and before the preparation of field for next crop of wheat, the incidents of stubble burning and the movement of wind towards east aggravates the impact of air pollution in Delhi region. In India as Diwali the festival of lights also coincides with these developments thus exposing the city to recipe of disaster. The government have emphasised on micro-ecological measures to manoeuvre the situation practices like odd-even number car days, free public transport for women, intensifying the penalties may have scratched the huge monster but certainly not solved it completely. Pollution in cities is a much deeper and older problem. Somewhere it is demanding us to travel to the roots of India’s economic reform stories back in 1970s, when policy landscapes were redefined to embrace faster growth. Has India reached a point where it needs to rethink and re-reform those economic policies to experience sustainable growth in next 4-5 decades?

Gayatri Munappy

Air pollution in India has increased rapidly due to population growth, increase in the numbers of vehicles, use of fuels , bad transportation systems , poor land use pattern, industrialization, and most importantly, ineffective environmental regulations. Thus there arises a need to develop an efficient and effective air quality which will be hospitable for mankind. This paper analyze and describes the air pollution and its implications on human population in mega cities like Delhi in India.

IAEME Publication

The main purpose of this study is to highlight the problems faced by the residents of Delhi due to the rising Air Pollution by considering the variety of factors such as increasing population, depletion of green cover, vehicular emissions, etc. The study also enlists the various causes, effects and harmful Impacts of Air Pollution to both environment and humans. This study was conducted to examine the overall Impact of Air Pollution on the lives of individuals by conducting a survey and thereby obtaining a total of 400 responses from the people of Delhi which were used for further analysis. Using various statistical tools, the findings which were observed through Karl Pearson's Correlation Test, a negative correlation was obtained between Population and Green Cover (r=-0.93), signifying an Inverse relationship between the two parameters. Further, Z-Test was performed which indicated that all people irrespective of gender get equally affected due to the rising air pollution. (Calculated value Z = 0.036 ~ 0.04, which is less than the table value). Also, a dependency between the number of construction sites and the increasing respiratory problems among the people (p=0.019624) was observed, by using the Chi-Square test. The mean value of humidity was calculated, by taking an average of the values obtained, with the mean value of humidity being 7.2225 (Out of a range of 0 to 10). The findings and suggestion given were based on the responses submitted by the residents of New Delhi of all age groups, occupations and mind-sets. Further necessary changes with the support of the government can make a huge difference in solving this problem of Air Pollution.

Dr.Narendranath Guria

Rizwan SA , Baridalyne Ccm

Urban Pollution: Science and Management

Manoj Shrivastava

The environmental issues are unplanned settlements, waste management, natural disaster preparedness, traffic management, and degradation and pollution of water and land resources and air quality. Urbanisation, inadequate treatment capacity, and disposal of untreated wastes cause severe pollution in urban and peri‐urban areas. Vehicle emissions produce over 90 percent of air pollution in urban areas in developing countries. The air quality index of million plus cities of India showed that more than 50 percent of cities have moderate to poor air quality. Ever‐increasing population along with swift industrialisation, urbanisation, and agricultural growth has caused water quality deterioration in India. In India, with expanding vehicular population, traffic noise levels have increased, which can cause serious health effects. The chapter also summarizes the ways to reduce urban pollution in India.

Tim Chatterton

Delhi National Capital Region (Delhi NCR) is facing serious challenges linked to worrying levels of air pollution (mainly NO2, PM10 and PM2.5). The CADTIME prject (Clean Air in Delhi through Implementation, Mitigation and Engagement) aims to understand what is required to deliver significant reductions in levels of air pollution. This paper presents the results of the first stage of the project: it firstly contextualises the challenges of air quality management in Delhi within the broader evolution of environmental policies and governance in India, with particular consideration to the tensions between environmental protection and the country’s development objectives. Secondly, it sets out how CADTIME will combine multiple source qualitative and quantitative data to develop an air quality action plan and an implementation strategy. In particular, through two workshops with local and national experts and stakeholders, and two rounds of focus groups with citizens of Delhi we will contr...

Vikrant Yadav

American Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture

Dr. Mohammad Arif Kamal

Urbanization has advanced many lives but at the same time, it has degraded the natural environment in many layers be it air, water, or land. One such consequence has been air pollution. Air pollution has plagued the cities and has been one of the biggest obstacles to sustainability. Hence, it is crucial to understand, manage and mitigate the challenges associated with air Pollution in the development of sustainable cities. The study will begin by understanding air pollution, the correlation between the environment and sustainable development, and the current scenario of air pollution in India and the world. Further, it shall dig deeper into the challenges associated with air pollution along with Resource Planning and Mitigation and comprehend the case studies of New Delhi and New York. The paper shall later present the modes to improve the present and future scenarios of air pollution and conclude via an equitable solution for battling air pollution in India which shall involve both government reforms and the living style of people. This study stands valuable in perceiving the adversities of air pollution which affect sustainable city planning and development and will be helpful in suggesting mitigation strategies by the researchers.

Kala Seetharam Sridhar

This paper focuses on air and water pollution in India’s cities, provides empirical evidence to demonstrate the seriousness of the challenges, discusses the relevant policies of national and local government that are used to address the challenges, discusses relevant political economy issues related to introducing pollution taxes or other policies which are aimed at “green” cities.

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Ganga Pollution Case: A Case Study

This article is written by Abhinav Anand , a student pursuing B.A.LL.B(Hons.) from DSNLU, Visakhapatnam. The article deals with the Ganga pollution case and the peruses into reasons behind the pollution. It also discusses some of the schemes of the government to purify the river and critically analyses its impact. It further suggests changes that should be done to make the effective implementation.

Table of Contents

Introduction

Water Pollution has become a global crisis. The perennial threat of the water crisis is exacerbating because of uncontrolled and unbalanced development of the allied sectors such as industries and agriculture. According to the reports of NITI Aayog, 21 major Indian cities, including Delhi will completely run out of groundwater. This article deals with reasons behind the pollution of the river Ganga and it examines the effective measures taken by the government. It also suggests changes to expedite the cleaning process of the river.

Reasons behind the Pollution of Ganga

There are 4600 industries in Uttarakhand out of which 298 are seriously polluting industries. There are many industries which have not taken permission from the Uttarakhand pollution control board for their operations and they started their operation based on the advisory of the government in which the government exempted certain classes of industries from taking permission. The sewage treatment and advanced technology for the treatment of the wastes are not used despite government strict regulations.

Sewage is an important source of pollution and contributes 75% to the pollution caused by all sources of pollution. Urban development of different sizes contributes to sewage pollution in the river. The considerable efforts by the Ganga Action Plan are not able to improve the situation.

The report says that despite the failure of the Ganga Action Plan there is no disapproval on the part of the citizens as well as their representative living in urban areas on the banks of the river. The failure is on the part of the government agencies responsible for the effective implementation of the plan. 

The urban citizens residing near the river show a lack of interest in the cleanliness of the river. The representatives of the urban areas are not receiving enough complaints from the citizens and as a result, they refrain from raising this issue to the higher authorities. Based on the analysis done by the independent authorities, the political parties show reluctance to increase the taxes because they may lose the support of their voters. The taxes will help the authorities to have financial validity. The Kanpur Nagar Nigam has to pay operation and management taxes to the Uttar Pradesh Jal Nigam for the operation and maintenance of the services in the Ganga Action Plan. 

However, the Kanpur Nagar Nigam is unable to collect taxes from the users of the services of Ganga Action Plan to pay to the Uttar Pradesh Jal Nigam. So, the government directly transfers the money to the Uttar Pradesh Jal Nigam by cutting the share of the Kanpur Nagar Nigam. 

It has been contended that the decentralisation of funds and functionaries will help in improving the condition of the governance at Urban Level. But, it is evident that the urban local bodies are neither motivated nor passionate to do the assigned duty. 

Municipal Corporation

These are the following factors contributing to the waste in the river:

The use of plastic by people at large and its improper disposal ultimately reach in the river. Plastic pollution has been considered as one of the significant reasons for the pollution in the river. The government has failed in the implementation of Management and Sewage Waste Rules to curb the menace of plastic pollution.

The state should declare a complete ban on the use of plastic. The authorities pay no attention to the rampant use of plastics and the improper treatment of wastes before releasing them in the river. The pollution level of water has exponentially risen because of plastic wastes. The Tribunal while dealing with the matter of pollution on the ghats has banned the use of plastic in the vicinity of ghats.

However, the ban imposed by the tribunal has no effect on the ground level and the plastics are used rampantly. The plastic bags can be replaced by the jute bags which are nature friendly.

The Ghats are also one of the major sources of pollution in the river. Ganga is one of the important parts of our Indian culture due to which different kinds of pujas and other religious tasks are performed on the ghats, and the materials used are disposed of in the river. The materials are non-decomposable, highly toxic and hence pollute the river. 

Agriculture Waste

Agricultural water pollution includes the sediments, fertilizers and animal wastes. The unbalanced use of inorganic fertilizers and other fertilizers have immensely contributed to water pollution. The fertilizers rich in nitrates create toxic composition after reaching several other entities. Large quantities of fertilizers, when washed through the irrigation, rain or drainage to the river, and pollutes the river. The fertilizers rich in nitrate content are used to get more productivity from the land. This led to pollution in the entire food chain wherever the by-product of the produce is consumed. When these fertilisers wash away due to rain or other factors and pollute the river.

Effective Measures by Government to stop the Pollution

Ganga Action Plan

The Ganga Action Plan was started in 1986 for control of water pollution in the river Ganga. The main function of this plan was to make Ganga River free from the pollution from the disposal of waste from the cities settled on the banks of the river. The plan was to make Ganga pollution free from Rishikesh to Kolkata. The central pollution control board had prepared a plan of 5 years in 1984 to make Ganga pollution-free. The central Ganga authority was formed in 1985 and a Ganga action plan was launched in 1986 to make the Ganga pollution free. 

The first phase of the Ganga action plan was inaugurated by late Rajiv Gandhi at Rajendra prasad ghat of Banaras. The National Protection Agency was constituted for its implementation. During the first phase of Ganga Action Plan 256 schemes of 462 crores were undertaken in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. Special stations have been created to check the quality of water.

The experts from Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited and National Environment Engineering Research Institute were appointed to check the quality of the water. Despite so much effort, the Ganga action plan failed miserably and crores of money were spent on the Ganga action plans. The failure of such a big plan has led to economic pollution.

The government launched the second phase of the Ganga Action Plan in 2001 wherein the central pollution board, central public works department and public works department are the bodies to carry out the plan. 

Namami Ganga Programme

A flagship Namami Ganga Programme was launched under separate union Water Ministry created under river rejuvenation programme. The project aims to integrate Ganga conservation mission and it is in effect to clean and protect the river and gain socio-economic benefits by job creation, improved livelihoods and health benefits to the population that is dependent on the river.

The key achievement of the Namami Ganga projects are:

• Creating sewage treatment capacity- 63 sewerage management project under implementation in the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal. 12 sewerage management projects launched in these projects.
• Creating riverfront development: 28 riverfront development projects and 33 entry-level projects for construction, management and renovation of 182 ghats and 118 crematoria has been initiated.
• River surface cleaning: The river surface cleaning is the collection of solid floating waste on the ghats and rivers.after collection, these wastes are pumped into the treatment stations.
• Public Awareness: Various activities such as seminars, workshops and conferences and numerous activities are organised to aware the public and increase the community transmission.
• Industrial Effluent Monitoring: The Grossly Polluting Industries monitored on a regular basis. Industries are following the set standard of the environmental compliances are checked. The reports are sent directly to the central pollution control board without any involvement of intermediaries.

Suggestions

These are the following suggestion for making the existing machinery robust to expedite cleanliness process of the Ganga:

Development of a comprehensive and basic plan

We need to develop a plan by which we can reach the problem in a holistic way. The already devised plans involve many intermediaries wherein the transparency factor is cornered and only paper works are shown to the people at large. 

The strategy should be formulated for different areas according to their demand. The people having apt knowledge of that area should be involved to know the actual problem of pollution in the river. A thorough check should be done and a customer-friendly platform should be formed wherein the views of every individual should be considered.

Measurement of the quality

The apt instruments are required to measure the quality of the water. We have many schemes for the cleanliness of the Ganga but the officials assigned the duty of measuring the quality of water either have authoritarian pressure or lack of knowledge to assess the quality of water. The quality of water should be measured by a recognised testing agency. Further, the research should be made to evolve better machinery for precision in quality measurement.

Getting the institutions right

The main task is to get the involved institution on the right path. The river cleaning task demands leadership, autonomy and proper management. The cities need to be amended. Ultimately they will be the custodians of the networks developed for the cleanliness process. Many cities have weak financial powers and their revenue generation is also weak so they should be given extra incentives. An awareness campaign should be launched in small cities where people have no idea about the pollution of the river and how it affects the environment. 

Engaging and mobilising all the stakeholders

The inhabitants of the river Ganga are people, elected representatives, and the religious leaders who consider the river as a pious and clean river. The mass awareness campaign can launch only when these people will be under sound financial conditions. So, if a portion is invested in these people, then it will help to develop their thinking on a large scale. 

A similar situation has arisen in Australia where the government has invested 20% of the funds in creating mass awareness among the people for the cleanliness of the Murray river basin. It has shown a great impact on the productivity of the programmes implemented in Australia. So, when we promote all the stakeholders in one or the other way we can see a holistic development in the situation.

Rejuvenation requires equal attention to quality and quantity

The rejuvenation of rivers requires quality and quantity at the same time. The old adage of “ solution to pollution is dilution” should be kept in mind while making any kind of plan. 

The improvement of water quality in Ganga during the Kumbh Mela is the result of the release of water barrage of the water upstream. The water in the upper stream is used in the agriculture process by the respective states. So, if the water is released on a regular basis it will also help to improve the quality of the water and reduce the pollution level in the water. 

Ganga is considered a pious river in the religious scriptures. The current situation demands holistic accountability from the authorities and people to make it clean. The global image is projected by the cleanliness of our rivers. The river Ganga is a part of our culture and it is our duty to maintain its sanctity. The government should formulate a more stringent policy to develop the quality of the water in the river. The environmental laws should be strictly followed and the violators should be punished. 

•   https://www.theigc.org/blog/ganga-pollution-cases-impact-on-infant-mortality/

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• Published: 27 August 2024

Air pollution, health status and public awareness of environmental problems in China

• Chen Wang 1 , 3 &
• Juanjuan Cao 2  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  19861 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental economics
• Sustainability

Understanding public awareness of environmental problems is vital for effectively formulating sustainable policies. This paper aims to investigate the impacts of two perspectives—external air pollution and individual health status—on public awareness by leveraging panel data from two waves of the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) conducted between 2018 and 2020. The model integrates provincial-level PM2.5 concentration indicators and SO 2 , PM s , and NO x emissions. The results reveal a significantly positive correlation between air pollution and public awareness of environmental problems in China. Additionally, this study examines the impact of self-assessed health shock by categorizing it into worse and better health. The influence of better health is insignificant. Conversely, when individuals experience worse health, they may perceive it as a psychological loss, leading to a significant increase in public awareness of environmental problems. This study provides valuable insights for mitigating air pollution and reinforcing public health in developing countries.

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Introduction.

With the growing emphasis on sustainability, there is a heightened focus from both governments and scholars on enhancing public awareness of environmental issues. This awareness forms a crucial foundation for individuals' responses and serves as a primary subjective metric for assessing local ecological performance. While environmental problems encompass various dimensions, aspects of external air pollution, such as visibility, concentration, comparability, and reliability 1 , are more readily perceived by individuals through environmental information disclosure. For example, a study by Xiang et al. 2 further emphasizes the significance of individuals' subjective perceptions of the environment. Many respondents gather visible evidence from physical concentrations near pollution sources 3 . Individuals primarily rely on their direct experiences to evaluate the severity of environmental problems, and these experiences are often influenced by their individual characteristics. This stands in contrast to relying solely on technological instruments for detecting air pollutants and objectively assessing existing air pollution levels, as conducted by the scientific community 4 .

However, much remains unknown about the role of air pollution and health status in shaping public awareness of environmental problems in China—two interconnected aspects providing external and internal information. Consequently, this paper aims to bridge this knowledge gap on two fronts: the disclosure of air pollution and individual self-assessed health status. Individual and provincial data are integrated to explore their respective effects on public awareness of environmental problems in China. Recently, smog has posed a critical crisis in China, prompting the government to prioritize environmental pollution control. The real-time monitoring and disclosure of air pollution have increased public awareness of environmental issues 5 . As a significant environmental challenge, air pollution has become a decisive factor influencing sustainability 6 . Exposure to polluted air is a substantial risk factor for noncommunicable human diseases 7 . The annual average population-weighted PM2.5 concentration in China exceeded 52 μg/m 3 in 2013, significantly surpassing the air quality standards set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 8 and the WHO's Air Quality Guidelines (10 μg/m 3 ). In response, the Chinese government implemented comprehensive policies to reduce PM concentrations by 10% within five years to combat air pollution. The population-weighted annual average PM2.5 concentration calculated in this study for 2018 was less than 37 μg/m 3 , indicating a nearly 29% reduction compared to the 2013 levels and partial alleviation of objective public exposure to air pollution.

Investigating the consistency of the relationship between subjective perceptions and objective air pollution indicators, especially in developing countries, is crucial. This study emphasizes that individual public awareness of environmental problems becomes more pronounced when PM2.5 concentrations are higher in their respective provinces. Robustness analysis further reveals a significant correlation between higher emissions of SO 2 , PM s , and NO x and individual perceptions of environmental problems. This finding underscores the substantial impact of objectively measured air pollution on subjective perceptions of environmental problems. While previous studies often explored the relationship between national economic development and environmental quality using the Environmental Kuznets Curve, our paper takes a different approach by investigating the interaction between GDP growth and actual air pollution. Moreover, this paper introduces climate productivity indicator to underscore the vital role of environmental protection in the benefits of economic growth. When done efficiently and effectively, the growth of climate productivity reduces individuals' perception of the severity of environmental problems.

Direct experiences shape individuals' perceptions of environmental problems 9 . Health status undoubtedly plays a significant role 10 , and the sensitivity of one's physical health directly influences the individual's assessment of the severity of environmental problems 11 . Validating this, Peng et al. 4 demonstrated that higher self-rated health satisfaction corresponds to a lower perceived severity of air pollution. The saying, "As long as you are healthy, you do not give a damn, but as soon as you are sick, you are prepared to sacrifice everything to restore your health" 12 , encapsulates that health becomes a paramount concern when it is compromised. Therefore, this paper aims to explore whether individuals' perceived changes in health affect their evaluation of environmental pollution and whether different health states, deterioration or improvement, have distinct effects.

The subjective evaluation of individuals' health shocks may impact their perception of environmental problems. The results highlight that the effect is primarily associated with worse health, significantly increasing the perceived severity of environmental problems. In contrast, better health status does not significantly influence individuals’ perceptions, and individuals' self-assessed health status does not notably impact their environmental perceptions. A decrease in individuals' self-assessed health status may represent a psychological loss, significantly heightening their perception of the severity of environmental problems. This phenomenon is more pronounced among those under 40 years of age, indicating that declining health status greatly amplifies the perceived severity of environmental problems, especially among younger individuals.

This paper contributes to research on public awareness of environmental problems in three key aspects. Firstly, in contrast to most studies focusing on individual air pollutants, this research simultaneously estimates the impacts of multiple key air pollutants. The empirical literature on how air pollution affects public perception relies primarily on small-scale survey data from specific residents, necessitating more systematic evidence from representative samples. By doing so, this study provides a comprehensive view of geographically diverse regions with varying levels of air pollution. Secondly, while numerous studies in developed countries suggest a disparity between actual air pollution and perceived air pollution 13 , this study addresses the unique context of China, where air pollution is one facet of broader environmental problems. It investigates whether provincial-level air pollution influences individual public awareness of environmental problems. Finally, previous research on the perception of environmental problems has predominantly emphasized the influence of poverty and knowledge 10 . This study strongly emphasizes the impact of subjective health status, revealing the asymmetric effect of health status changes on environmental perception. This aspect deserves more attention in environmental perception research. Given the prevalence of air pollution in developing countries, the insights drawn from this research on China may offer valuable perspectives for other developing nations.

Related literature and research hypotheses

The relationship between objective air pollution and public awareness of environmental problems.

In terms of the correlation between actual air pollution and subjective perceptions of environmental problems, existing research has consistently demonstrated a significant connection, primarily focusing on the subjective perception of air pollution problems. The visibility of air pollution and unpleasant odors have been identified as crucial factors shaping public perception, independent of individual characteristics 14 . Flachsbart et al. 15 utilized physical data on air pollutants and meteorological indicators, employing multiple averaging periods to examine the correlation between these data and perceived and expected air quality indicators. Their findings indicated that ozone and visibility levels were more closely related to perceived air quality, among other pollutants, across all periods.

Baseline conditions influence human perception, and individuals form their perceptions based on long-term air quality trends. Oglesby et al. 16 discovered that perceived outdoor air quality significantly correlates with the actual measured air quality provided by monitoring stations, increasing with increasing concentrations of suspended particles within specific size ranges 17 and dust deposition 18 . Subjective perceptions of air quality are formed based on broader environmental pollution levels due to atmospheric pollution 3 , 9 . Grossberndt et al. 19 demonstrated that simulated annual pollution concentrations are associated with individuals' subjective perceptions of air quality; their findings indicate that the spatial pattern of perceived air quality is not entirely random but rather follows, to some extent, the patterns expected due to pollution emissions.

Barwick et al. 5 correlated respondents' subjective perceptions of environmental problems with the average PM2.5 concentration in their cities from 2015 to 2016, revealing a robust positive correlation between public awareness of environmental problems and pollution following the implementation of environmental monitoring policies. Peng et al. 4 estimated the significant consistency between various objective air pollution indicators and perceived air pollution and found that in China, there is a significant association between public perceptions of air pollution and actual air pollution. Due to the highly tangible and visible nature of air pollution, which often affects human senses, air pollution problems are particularly severe in many parts of China, making the public more sensitive to environmental concerns. People residing in cities with poorer air quality express increased concern about pollution problems, while those in cleaner cities express less concern. Therefore, this paper posits Hypothesis 1 (H1):

Hypothesis 1 (H1) Public awareness of environmental problems significantly correlates with actual air pollution levels. Individuals living in provinces with high air pollution levels may be aware of more serious environmental problems.

The relationship between subjective health status and public awareness of environmental problems

Relying solely on objectively measured air pollution does not automatically translate into individual perceptions of environmental problems, as perception is socially constructed and influenced by personal characteristics. It is embedded with goals, values, and direct experiences related to pollution, such as proximity to pollution sources, physical health, and sensitivity 3 , 11 . When pollution, such as smoke or strong odors, is more easily noticeable and its health impacts are more severe, resulting in difficulty breathing or lung pain, respondents are more likely to be able to link health and environmental problems. Individuals with health problems, such as respiratory symptoms, are more likely to be aware of the implications of air quality problems 20 .

Health shocks include information like health history. When an individual experiences a negative health shock, perceiving a decline in their health compared to the previous year, they tend to be more attuned to external environmental factors. This heightened sensitivity stems from the belief that environmental pollution may have directly contributed to their health deterioration. Furthermore, those who find their health declining often feel a stronger need for clean air, as they rely on it for their well-being and survival.On the other hand, a positive health shock, such as feeling healthier than the previous year, often coincides with higher productivity and greater workforce participation, potentially boosting an individual's income. With this increased financial capability, it becomes easier to counteract the effects of environmental problems by investing in higher-quality environmental services or implementing extra precautionary measures. After experiencing such health gains, individuals tend to overlook the less obvious impacts of environmental issues on their daily routines. They may view themselves as living a healthier and more comfortable life, in which the effects of environmental problems on their quality of life are minimal. Consequently, they might not perceive the seriousness of environmental challenges as acutely as those who are in worse health.Moreover, subjective evaluation of self-assessed health can be influenced by various psychological factors. Some individuals may report lower levels of self-assessed health yet maintain a positive outlook, whereas others who rate their health higher may still express dissatisfaction with their overall quality of life. These disparities in subjective assessments could potentially weaken the observable correlation between self-assessed health and the perception of environmental problems. It is important to note that self-assessed health is a relatively subjective metric, which can be shaped by personal attitudes, life experiences, and access to medical care. Conversely, public awareness of environmental issues is likely to be influenced more heavily by factors such as education, information dissemination, and a sense of social responsibility. Therefore, this paper posits Hypothesis 2 (H2):

Hypothesis 2 (H2) Public awareness of environmental problems significantly correlates with individual health shock; individuals with worse health are aware of more serious environmental problems. In contrast, self-rated health is not significantly associated with an individual's awareness of environmental problems.

Materials and methods

Based on the background and research questions outlined above, the framework of the research content in this article is illustrated in Fig.  1 . Traditionally, government policies aimed at improving air quality have relied solely on scientific measurements of air quality outcomes. However, this approach often neglects the subjective factors related to air quality, particularly the perceptions of air users, or public awareness. In order to address this gap, this article advocates for a more holistic approach to policy formulation. It argues that effective policy-making should take into account both objective and subjective factors. By incorporating public awareness as a crucial consideration, policies can be more accurately tailored to address the needs and concerns of the community. By adopting this comprehensive approach, not only can air quality be improved, but it can also have a positive impact on subjective well-being. Enhancing public awareness and involvement in the policy-making process may lead to better outcomes for air quality as well as boost the overall physical fitness and well-being of the population.

Schematic overview of this study. Note : The air pollution figure shows the annual trend in the national concentration of PM2.5 in China from 1998 to 2021. This population-weighted and geographic-mean PM2.5 concentration series is obtained, computed, and calibrated based on the Atmospheric Composition Analysis Group's data collections and corresponding algorithms. See Sect. 3.1 for further details. Figure 1 is created by the corresponding author.

Air quality has emerged as a pivotal indicator of sustainable development. Traditionally, government initiatives aimed at enhancing air quality have relied on monitoring data, offering a targeted and highly significant approach to improving air quality. This paper introduces a novel dimension by incorporating public awareness of air quality and employing diverse measurement approaches. By adopting this investigative method, the government can gain a more comprehensive perspective when crafting policies. The resultant plan has a broader impact, not only contributing to enhanced air quality but also positively influencing the regulatory framework for survival, as well as the physical and mental health of residents. This multifaceted approach represents an innovative aspect of this paper.

Data source

This study aims to deepen the general understanding of public awareness of environmental problems and, within the context of China, investigate the impact of provincial-level air pollution indicators and individual-level characteristic variables on the perception of subjective environmental problems. The individual data used in this paper are derived from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS), funded by Peking University (source). The CFPS survey is conducted every two years and covers 25 provinces/municipalities/autonomous regions in China. It is a nationally representative survey of Chinese communities, households, and individuals and holds theoretical and practical significance for research in China. The CFPS data collection includes individual attitudes and opinions about environmental problems, enabling the systematic identification of key factors influencing public awareness of environmental problems in China.

The annual provincial PM2.5 concentration data used in this paper are sourced from the Atmospheric Composition Analysis Group. ( Atmospheric Composition Analysis Group, Washington University in St. Louis, https://sites.wustl.edu/acag/datasets/surface-pm2-5 .) This dataset is derived from instantaneous data records obtained from the Chinese Ministry of Environmental Protection website. Aerosol optical depth (Aerosol et al., AOD) retrievals from NASA MODIS, MISR, and SeaWiFS instruments are combined with the GEOS-Chem chemical transport model. Based on annual variations between GM (general monitoring) and non-GM observation periods, as detailed in Hammer et al. 21 , these data are gridded at the finest resolution of 0.01° × 0.01°, allowing users to aggregate the data according to their specific needs. Other provincial-level data, such as per capita GDP, GDP growth rate, sulfur dioxide emissions, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter, are sourced from the China National Bureau of Statistics.

Variable selection and definition

Dependent variable.

This study utilized data from two waves of surveys conducted in 2018 and 2020. The dependent variable, 'Public awareness of environmental problems', is based on responses to the following question: 'How would you rate the severity of the environmental problem in China?' The respondents could choose a rating on a scale from 0 to 10, ranging from 'not exist' to ‘very serious', with higher values indicating a perception of more severe air pollution. Overall, most individuals in the sample believed that China faced environmental problems and could perceive a certain level of severity. The descriptive statistics for these dependent variables in our sample that individuals from 18 to 80 years old are presented in Table 1 , with the most common response being 'very severe', accounting for 22.32% of the answers in general. Different regions face distinct environmental challenges, from air pollution in industrialized areas to water scarcity in arid regions. Hence, examining the regional distribution of public awareness of environmental problems in China is vital for developing targeted and effective environmental policies. Table 1 also serves as a valuable tool for understanding these regional differences and for guiding future efforts to raise environmental awareness across the country. It can be seen that compared with residents in the central and western regions, a higher proportion of residents in the eastern region believe that China's environmental problems are very serious, with 23.43% rating it as 10, and a lower proportion of people believe that there are no environmental problems in China, with 4.38% rating it as 0.

Independent variable

The key independent variables employed in this study encompass two levels of variables: (a) provincial-level objective air pollution and (b) individual-level subjective health status.

Air pollution : Vehicle emissions, encompassing a substantial quantity of ultrafine particles with a diameter of less than 2.5 µm (PM2.5), are implicated in cardiovascular and respiratory complications. These particles can persist in the atmosphere for an extended period and traverse long distances, amplifying their impact on human health and air quality. Additionally, the transportation sector serves as a prevalent source of other air pollutants, including sulfur dioxide (SO2), a common byproduct of the combustion of fossil fuels in power generation and heating furnaces, as well as NOx. All these pollutants fall within the category of "criteria air pollutants". This study primarily focused on the particulate matter (PM2.5) indicator, using its annual average value as a proxy for air pollution, as it has become one of the major pollutants in many cities in recent years 4 . PM2.5 is highly perceptible and visible, often impacting human senses, and is associated with public awareness of environmental problems 7 . This study matches air pollution data from multiple monitoring points in each province. Weighted estimates are carried out by considering population and geography, ensuring that daily fluctuations in air quality are largely unrelated to the individual characteristics of respondents. This approach helps maintain the randomness of individuals' exposure to air pollution.

The variable ' Population-Weighted PM2.5 ' represents the annual concentration of ground-level delicate particulate matter ( PM2.5 ) calibrated using Population Weighted Regression ( PWR ), while the variable ' Geographic-Mean PM2.5 ' represents the yearly average concentration of ground-level PM2.5 calibrated using Geographically Weighted Regression ( GWR ), with units in micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m 3 ). In this study, the PM2.5 concentration is categorized into three intervals based on air quality standards. For instance, PM2.5 ≤ 35 μg/m 3 is considered to indicate good air quality in China 7 , aligning with the first interim target set by the WHO. This standard is 1.4 times the European Union standard, 2.3 times that of Japan and South Korea, and 2.9 times that of Singapore and the United States. The variables pop25, pop35, and pop45 represent the population coverage percentages for PM2.5 concentrations greater than or equal to 25 μg/m 3 , 35 μg/m 3 , and 45 μg/m 3 , respectively. In the robustness checks, the emissions of sulfur dioxide ( SO 2 ), particulate matters ( PM s ) and nitrogen oxides ( NO x ) are measured per 10,000 tons/10,000 square kilometers ( t/km 3 ). In order to have a detailed understanding of the changes in the core indicator of The Variable 'Population Weighted PM2.5' in China, the trend of its changes from 2018 to 2020 is shown in Fig.  2 :

Air pollution indicators based on population-weighted PM2.5 and geographic mean PM2.5 in 2018 and 2020. Note : The first row, from left to right, represents the population-weighted annual average concentration of PM2.5 for the years 2018 and 2020, respectively. The second row, also from left to right, represents the geographic mean annual average concentration of PM2.5 for the same years. A darker color indicates a higher concentration.

As depicted in Fig.  2 , from 2018 to 2020, in China, both the population-weighted PM2.5 concentration and the geographic mean PM2.5 concentration indicators exhibited a slight downward trend, albeit not significant. Throughout this period, China's air quality remained largely unchanged and consistently fell within the category of severe pollution. The data suggest that improving air quality is a gradual and long-term process. Current policies focusing solely on-air quality improvement, without considering public awareness, may not be optimal. Therefore, China's policies for air quality improvement should take into account individuals' perceptions of environmental pollution.

Health status : Health shock is measured through responses to the following question: 'How would you rate your current health status compared to a year ago?' Responses are coded as follows: 1 represents 'Worse', 2 represents 'No change', and 3 represents 'Better'. Based on the respondents' answers, two binary variables are created: 'Worse Health' is defined as one if the respondent's answer is 1 and 0 otherwise. Similarly, 'Better Health' is defined as one if the respondent answers 3 and 0 otherwise. Additionally, this study considers self-rated health, assessed based on responses to the following question: 'How would you rate your health status?' where 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = good, 4 = very good, and 5 = excellent. The statistical results of the subjective health status variables are presented in Table 2 .

To gain a deeper understanding of the factors influencing individual perceptions of environmental problems, urban social issues are often considered to be correlated with the economic development level of a region. This study introduces a series of individual-level control variables while controlling for provincial-level economic development indicators.

Relative income : This variable is constructed based on individuals' responses to the following question: 'What is your relative income level in your local area?' The ordinal scale ranges from 1 to 5, with higher values indicating a greater perception of relative income. The public awareness of environmental problems studied in this paper is also an important aspect of individual subjective well-being. Meanwhile, the impact of relative income level on subjective well-being (SWB) is a topic of great concern. Boyce et al. (2010) 22 proposed the income rank hypothesis, stating that an individual's subjective well-being depends not only on their absolute income level but more on their position within the income hierarchy. Absolute income has no direct impact on subjective well-being, whereas the relative income rank when compared to a social reference group plays a significant role. This provides a good explanation for why increasing everyone's income does not necessarily improve everyone's subjective well = being: if an individual's absolute income grows at the same rate as the rest of society, their relative income position remains unchanged, and thus subjective well-being may not improve. Individuals tend to focus more on their status within the income group, making the relative income position within the reference group more important than the absolute one (Clark and Oswald, 1996 23 ; Luttmer, 2005 24 ). Zhang et al. 25 argued that individuals with lower incomes are more vulnerable to the impacts of air pollution. Lo (2014) 26 suggests that there exists an inverse relationship between income and their perception of long-term environmental risks related to climate change, genetic modification of crops, and the use of nuclear energy. Compared to high-income individuals, low-income earners perceive the potential environmental consequences of these human interventions as significantly more hazardous. Wealthier individuals, on the other hand, are relatively less concerned about long-term environmental risks. A plausible explanation for this disparity is that material insecurity heightens people's sensitivity to risks and dangers. Generally, higher-income groups have more choices when dealing with environmental problems, such as purchasing air cleaners or even relocating to areas with better environmental conditions. Therefore, as relative income increases, individuals may have a decreasing perception of environmental problems.

Education : The level of education is closely linked to individuals’ ability to understand environmental problems and is measured on a scale ranging from 1 to 8, with the following corresponding categories: 1 for illiterate or semiliterate; 2 for primary school; 3 for junior high school; 4 for senior high school/vocational school/technical school/junior college; 5 for college; 6 for undergraduate; 7 for master's degree; and 8 for doctorate. In general, a higher level of education is expected to influence the subjective perception of environmental-mental problems positively.

Gender : This is a dummy variable, with 0 representing females and 1 representing males. According to Stewart et al. (2021) 27 , there is a preponderance of males over females in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) disciplines. They discern pronounced gender imbalances in career aspirations and lifestyle preferences, accompanied by subtler distinctions in cognitive abilities—with some advantages favoring men and others women. These disparities become more pronounced as one ventures beyond the norm. Moreover, there is persuasive evidence indicating that these gender variations are not merely societal constructs but also possess a substantial biological or genetic component. Males tend to gravitate towards science, engineering, and technology-related fields, which frequently align with environmental preservation efforts. Furthermore, in certain societies, males may wield greater social and economic influence, thereby enhancing their propensity to engage in environmental policymaking and advocacy. Consequently, this study hypothesizes that males are anticipated to perceive the gravity of environmental issues to a greater extent than females.

Age : To ensure the validity of the respondents' answers, this study restricted the age group to individuals aged between 18 and 80 years. Generally, younger individuals acquire information about environmental problems more easily through social media and online platforms. Zhang et al. 7 suggested that young adults react more to air pollution than older individuals. Therefore, it is expected that age will have a negative effect on public awareness of environmental problems. Younger demographics are more likely to be attentive to environmental problems through media such as the internet, making them more sensitive to pollution. Conversely, older groups have fewer mediums to focus on environmental pollution, thus potentially being less sensitive to it. Overall, younger groups may perceive environmental pollution more severely, indicating a significant negative correlation between age and public awareness of environmental problems.

Urban : For the urban‒rural classification variable based on the National Bureau of Statistics data, 0 represents individuals whose permanent residence is in rural areas, while 1 represents those in urban areas. Research by Reeve et al. 23 suggests that perceptions of pollution need to be linked to societal processes such as urbanization and industrialization. Urban residents often have higher levels of education and are more likely to receive information about the environment. Therefore, this paper posits that the urban dummy variable should be significantly positively correlated with public awareness of environmental problems.

GDP indicators: Provincial-level economic development is measured by the per capita Gross Domestic Product ( GDP , in constant 2018 Chinese yuan) and the annual GDP growth rate of the respondents' respective provinces. To represent climate productivity , a logarithmic transformation is employed as a proxy. Specifically, this index is calculated by taking the logarithm of per capita GDP divided by the annual average population-weighted PM2.5 concentration ( ln(GDP/PWeightedPM25) ) or the annual average geographic-mean PM2.5 concentration ( ln(GDP/GMeanPM25) ). From an environmental burden-sharing perspective, higher GDP levels provide society with more resources to address environmental problems. High-income countries typically possess more environmental protection and healthcare infrastructure, allowing for more effective mitigation and resolution of environmental problems. This may lead individuals to perceive environmental problems as less severe because they believe society has taken appropriate measures to address them. From an alternative perspective, high-income communities may be more inclined to invest in green energy, clean production, and sustainable development, which helps alleviate environmental pressures, leading individuals to perceive environmental problems as less severe. Therefore, it is expected that per capita GDP, the GDP growth rate, and climate productivity will have negative effects on public awareness of environmental problems. Table 3 reports the descriptive statistics of all the variables used in our analysis.

Model selection

Since the dependent variable is an ordered discrete variable, we employed an ordered response model. The independent variables are represented by a vector \({X}_{it}\) , which influences an individual's subjective perception of the severity of environmental problems. The dependent variable, \({y}_{it}\) , reflects an individual's awareness of environmental problems. This approach implies that a latent variable \({{y}_{it}}^{*}\) that should be a mapping of \({y}_{it}\) is used to capture the internal trends in an individual's environmental awareness. We establish the general form of the panel data ordered probit model as follows:

In this equation, \({y}_{it}\) represents the public awareness of environmental problems of individual \(i\) in year \(t\) , with the coefficient of interest. We also control for year fixed effects, represented by \({\tau }_{t}\) , and random individual effects, represented by \({\text{e}}_{i}\) . \(\varepsilon\) represents the random error following a standard normal distribution, accounting for the sum of other unaccounted factors in the model that may affect the dependent variable. Based on the classification of individual public awareness of environmental problems, the range of the continuous variable \({{y}_{it}}^{*}\) is divided into 11 intervals by setting thresholds \({\alpha }_{i}\) (where \({\alpha }_{0}<{\alpha }_{1}<{\alpha }_{2}<{\alpha }_{3}<{\alpha }_{4}<{\alpha }_{5}<{\alpha }_{6}<{\alpha }_{7}<{\alpha }_{8}<{\alpha }_{9}\) ):

The probability of \({y}_{it}\) occurring in each interval, i.e., the conditional probability of \({y}_{it}\) to \({X}_{it}\) , is calculated by the following equation:

Baseline results

We present the foundational findings regarding the impact of actual air pollution and individual health status on public awareness of environmental problems in Table 4 . The outcomes reveal significant positive associations at the 5% level between the measured air pollution levels, including the population-weighted PM2.5 concentration, geographically weighted PM2.5 concentration, and population percentage exceeding 25/35/45 μg/m 3 . This apparent pattern suggests that individuals residing in provinces with elevated air pollution levels are more likely to perceive a heightened severity of environmental problems in China.

Among individual characteristics, deteriorating health status has a statistically significant positive effect on an individual's public awareness of environmental problems. This implies that individuals with poorer physical conditions are more inclined to perceive environmental problems as more severe. This aligns with our expectation that those who perceive a decline in their health are more likely to attribute this decline, at least partially, to the external environment, resulting in a heightened perception of environmental problems.

In contrast, a negative correlation exists between improved health and public awareness of environmental problems, but this correlation was not statistically significant. This suggests that when experiencing an enhancement in their health, individuals may not necessarily attribute it to the external environment, rendering them less sensitive to environmental problems. Similarly, while self-rated health status correlates positively with public awareness of environmental problems, the relationship is not significant. This indicates that an individual's attention is significantly heightened when their health deteriorates, whereas improvements in health or self-rated health status do not yield a statistically significant impact.

At the individual level, various control variables indicate a significant negative correlation between relative income and public awareness of environmental problems. This finding aligns with the conclusion drawn by Peng et al. 4 that individuals with higher incomes tend to exhibit lower levels of awareness regarding air pollution. Individuals in higher self-reported income brackets tend to express less concern about environmental problems. This phenomenon can be attributed to the increased mobility options available to higher-income individuals. They often possess more excellent economic resources to address pollution problems or seek out cleaner living environments. If people perceive the environmental quality in their residence to be unsatisfactory, they are more inclined to contemplate relocating to areas with better environmental conditions.

Moreover, higher levels of education are positively associated with increased public awareness of environmental problems and knowledge. The response to air quality may vary depending on one's level of education. People with higher education levels are more likely to be aware of the implications of air pollution 24 For instance, lower education levels may constrain an individual's capacity to access and comprehend information about air quality 25 , 26 . Elevated educational attainment typically enhances an individual's awareness of environmental challenges. As individuals progress in their educational levels, they amass a more extensive reservoir of knowledge and gain access to channels for understanding environmental problems. Consequently, they tend to assign greater significance to the severity of environmental problems.

Regarding gender differences in terms of the severity of environmental problems in China, men's attention is more sensitive to environmental problems, which might be related to the distribution of occupations and industries. China's labor market exhibits gender disparities, with men and women having distinct distributions across various industries and professions. Some industries, such as heavy and mining, often have more detrimental environmental impacts, and men tend to be overrepresented in these sectors. Consequently, men may be more likely to directly experience severe environmental problems due to their greater involvement in pollution-related industries.

In addition, younger individuals tend to be more attuned to the seriousness of environmental problems than their older counterparts. Zhang et al. 7 provide possible explanations for this phenomenon. Firstly, older individuals may be more accustomed to living in polluted air. Secondly, younger individuals spend more time outdoors than do their elderly counterparts. Thirdly, young people may be more attentive to air quality due to their easy access to smartphones and the internet, which enables them to stay informed about air pollution. Furthermore, our findings indicate gender disparities in response to air pollution, consistent with the findings of Ebenstein et al. 27 .

Urban areas usually have more developed information channels, including the internet, media, and social networks. This makes it easier for urban residents to access relevant information about environmental issues. In contrast, information access in rural areas may be relatively limited, leading to a lesser understanding of environmental problems. Additionally, urban residents typically have higher levels of education, enabling them to comprehend environmental science and related issues more effectively. Educated individuals are likely to be more concerned about environmental problems and to form a deeper understanding of these issues. The significant positive correlation between the Urban dummy variable and public awareness of environmental problems in our empirical results further confirms this speculation.

Individuals in provinces with higher per capita GDP are more likely to perceive environmental problems as less severe. Regions with higher per capita GDP typically offer a higher standard of living, including better housing, education, healthcare, and social welfare. Individuals in these areas may feel that they live in a relatively comfortable and healthy environment, resulting in lower awareness of environmental problems. They may prioritize improving their quality of life and pursuing economic prosperity over addressing environmental concerns.

Similarly, the growth rate of provincial GDP exhibits a significant negative correlation with individual public awareness of environmental problems. A higher GDP growth rate may be associated with more significant opportunity costs. Individuals may believe that allocating resources to environmental protection could slow economic growth, reducing economic prospects. Consequently, they may be more willing to sacrifice some environmental quality for greater economic growth. The year 2020 dummy variable has a significant negative impact, indicating a decreasing trend in individual public awareness of environmental problems compared to that in 2018. This might be related to an overall improvement in the environment.

Robustness test

Transforming the dependent variable.

In this section, we conducted a series of regressions to examine the robustness of our main results. As shown in Fig.  3 , the median subjective perception of the severity of environmental problems is 7, and the average level is 6.6. Therefore, in robustness tests, we transformed the dependent variable into a binary variable, using six as the threshold. When an individual's rating of environmental issue severity is less than or equal to 6, binary public awareness of environmental problems is defined as 0. When an individual's rating of environmental issue severity is greater than 6, binary public awareness of environmental problems is defined as 1.

Levels of public awareness of environmental problems.

When we transformed the 11-level dependent variable into a binary 0–1 variable, the regression results (see Table 5 ) were broadly consistent with the baseline regression. These findings indicate that individuals become more aware of environmental problems as air pollution worsens. A significant deterioration in health significantly enhances individuals' awareness of environmental problems, while the effects of improved health and self-rated health status are not statistically significant.

Transforming the independent variable

Another potential estimation issue pertains to choosing proxy variables for air pollution. To address this concern, we replaced the proxy variable for air pollution with the annual average emissions of major air pollutants, including sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter, per unit area for each province. We conducted regression analysis using the logarithmic form rather than the linear form. As shown in Table 6 , this alternative approach demonstrates a significant positive correlation between air pollution and a decline in individuals’ awareness of environmental problems and health. However, the effects of improved health and self-rated health status remain statistically insignificant, consistent with the baseline regression results.

Heterogeneity

Regional-level heterogeneity.

To delve deeper into the public awareness of environmental issues across various regions in China, this study categorizes China into central and western regions, as well as eastern regions. Subsequently, it performs segmented regression analysis on the public awareness of environmental problems in these distinct regions. The detailed findings are presented in Table 7 .

In both the central and western regions and the eastern region, air pollution significantly enhances individuals’ perceptions of environmental problems. A worsening health status also significantly impacts public perception, while improving health status is not significant. Individuals' subjective perceptions of environmental problems exhibit regional heterogeneity. Compared to individuals in the eastern region, individuals living in China's central and western regions tend to be more sensitive to changes in their health status because of their perception of environmental pollution. For individuals residing in China's central and western regions, a decline in their health status leads to a more pronounced awareness of the severity of environmental problems.

The eastern region is generally more prosperous than the central and western regions are, with a higher per capita GDP and more economic opportunities. Due to their higher economic status, individuals in the eastern region often enjoy a higher standard of living and better environmental quality. Consequently, they may be less sensitive to environmental problems, given their greater ability to mitigate the impact of such problems. In contrast, individuals in the central and western regions may rely more on local environmental resources, and their lower economic status may increase their susceptibility to the adverse effects of environmental pollution, thus heightening their concern for environmental problems. These findings are only relatively rough, and additional detailed research awaits further exploration.

Age-level heterogeneity

To delve deeper into the public awareness of environmental issues at the individual level in China, this study divides individuals into two groups: those younger than 40 years old and those 40 years old or older. Subsequently, it conducts segmented regression analysis on the public awareness of environmental problems within these individual groups. The specific results are shown in Table 8 .

Across different age groups, air pollution significantly increases public awareness of environmental problems. Differences in the perception of environmental problems exist among various age groups. Among younger individuals, a decline in health significantly enhances their awareness of environmental problems. In other words, for individuals younger than 40 years, a deterioration in health leads to a noticeable increase in their perception of the severity of environmental pollution problems, whereas this effect is not significant for older age groups.

On the one hand, younger people may have easier access to and a better understanding of environmental problems, particularly health and pollution information. They are more likely to use tools such as the internet and social media to gather environmental information, thus helping them to gain a deeper understanding of the severity of environmental problems. This ability to acquire knowledge and information may increase their sensitivity to environmental problems. On the other hand, younger people are often in the early stages of their careers and may be more reliant on employment and economic opportunities. These individuals may be more susceptible to the impact of declining health on their employment and economic prospects, increasing their sensitivity to environmental problems. If their health is threatened, they may be concerned about the potential impact on their economic future, thus paying closer attention to environmental problems, especially health and pollution.

lncome-level heterogeneity

In economic terms, individuals can be classified into five levels based on their subjective perception of income, with levels 1 to 2 considered as the low-income group and levels 3 to 5 as the middle- and high-income group. This classification not only reflects differences in socioeconomic status but also profoundly influences individuals' perception of and response to environmental pollution. Specifically, when considering the relationship between the air pollution index of the province where individuals reside and their perception of environmental pollution, a notable phenomenon emerges: as the air pollution index rises, the perception of environmental pollution generally increases across all income groups. However, there is significant heterogeneity in how changes in individual health status affect environmental pollution perception among different income levels. The specific results are shown in Table 9 .

For the low-income group, despite potentially being exposed to more severe environmental pollution, deterioration in health status does not significantly enhance their perception of environmental pollution. This phenomenon can be attributed to multiple factors: firstly, low-income groups often face more pressing survival pressures, with their attention focused more on meeting basic living needs rather than long-term issues such as environmental pollution; secondly, limited by educational resources and information access channels, this group may have insufficient understanding of the health risks associated with environmental pollution; furthermore, lower income levels restrict their options for improving living conditions or adopting protective measures, thereby weakening their sensitivity to environmental pollution to some extent.

Conversely, for the middle- and high-income group, deterioration in health status significantly increases their perception of environmental pollution. This finding can be explained from several aspects: firstly, the middle- and high-income group generally has a higher level of education and stronger information access capabilities, enabling them to more comprehensively understand the complex relationship between environmental pollution and health; secondly, higher income levels grant them more choices, including migrating to areas with better environmental quality and adopting advanced air purification technologies, thereby enhancing their direct experience of the impacts of environmental pollution; finally, with an improvement in quality of life, the middle- and high-income group is more concerned about personal health and quality of life, making environmental pollution, as a potential health threat, a highly relevant issue for them.

Mechanism analysis

The interaction coefficient of the air pollution variable with the GDP growth rate is significantly positive, and in this case, the coefficient of the air pollution variable itself becomes nonsignificant (as shown in Table 10 ). This finding suggests that in provinces with higher levels of air pollution and faster GDP growth, individuals perceive environmental problems more prominently. Higher GDP growth is typically associated with accelerated economic development and industrialization and is often accompanied by increased production activities and resource utilization. This can lead to more severe air pollution, as industrial and manufacturing processes tend to emit pollutants. When GDP growth rates are high, environmental problems may become more prominent, as the expansion of economic activities results in increased pollution. Rapid GDP growth may also lead to heightened government and societal attention to environmental concerns. To mitigate environmental pressure, governments may adopt more proactive environmental policies and stricter regulations. This can increase individuals’ sensitivity to environmental problems, which may increase overall public awareness of environmental problems.

The interaction term between age and the health dummy variable is significantly negative. In contrast, the interaction term between the age variable and the Better Health dummy variable does not significantly impact individuals' public awareness of environmental problems. These findings show that younger individuals experiencing deteriorating health are more likely to experience environmental problems. As individuals age, the risk factors associated with health shocks increase, and older age groups are less likely to attribute their declining health to environmental problems.

Climate productivity

The issue of environmental pollution during economic development has received significant attention from the Chinese government. Efficiency assessments that do not consider environmental costs can incentivize local authorities to prioritize GDP-driven economic development. However, such a growth model is not conducive to sustainable economic development. To address environmental constraints during economic development and maintain harmonious and sustainable development of the economy, resources, and the environment, environmental protection has been a prominent concern for the Chinese government since 2003 4 . Reforms have been implemented for GDP-based assessment standards, and in 2004, the National Bureau of Statistics of China initiated the "climate productivity Accounting" project.

This paper measures "climate productivity" by dividing per capita GDP by an air pollution proxy variable. This represents the positive effects of national economic growth. A higher proportion of Climate productivity in total GDP signifies a greater positive and lower negative impact on economic growth. As shown in the regression results in Table 11 , climate productivity significantly reduces individuals' perception of environmental problems. This can be explained from three perspectives.

Firstly, economic growth and environmental improvement, "climate productivity" reflects whether environmental improvements accompany the country's economic growth. If the country implements environmentally friendly policies alongside economic growth, environmental quality will likely improve. This environmental improvement can reduce individuals' perception of environmental problems because they experience a better environment.

Secondly, environmental investment and knowledge: National investments and policies in green economics may increase people's awareness and knowledge of environmental problems. In a more environmentally conscious economy, individuals are likely to have better access to environmental education and information, allowing them to better understand environmental problems' complexities. As a result, they are more likely to approach environmental problems rationally and are less prone to worry.

Thirdly, the standard of living and well-being, economic growth can increase people's living standards and overall well-being. When basic needs are met, individuals may focus on other aspects of life quality, such as the environment. Therefore, in relatively affluent countries, individuals may place greater emphasis on environmental problems and be less affected by their negative consequences. Consequently, an increase in climate productivity is beneficial for alleviating individuals' concerns about environmental problems.

Policy implications

Based on our research, we outline four strategic policy recommendations aimed at fostering heightened environmental awareness, strengthening protection measures, and advancing sustainable development globally. Firstly, tailored environmental education acknowledges the diverse perspectives held by different income groups towards environmental issues. For low-income communities, we advocate for community-centered initiatives and accessible public lectures to ignite their environmental consciousness. Conversely, middle- and high-income segments should be engaged through in-depth professional reports, seminars, and workshops, fostering a deeper comprehension of environmental challenges and fostering a stronger commitment to conservation efforts.

Secondly, intensifying health-related publicity underscores the critical link between environmental pollution and public health, particularly for middle- and high-income demographics. We propose targeted awareness campaigns that educate these groups on the adverse health effects of pollution, empowering them to recognize and mitigate potential health risks associated with environmental degradation.

Thirdly, differentiated protection policies emphasize the need to tailor environmental policies to account for the disparities in perception and impact across income groups. For low-income areas disproportionately affected, stricter regulations must be prioritized to alleviate their environmental burden. Furthermore, we recommend bolstering air quality monitoring systems, implementing tailored regulations in rapidly growing economic regions plagued by severe pollution, integrating environmental costs into Green GDP metrics to promote holistic economic evaluation, and investing in environmental education and advocacy to encourage wider conservation efforts.

Lastly, green economic growth & public participation highlights the importance of nurturing green economic growth by incentivizing sustainable industries and eco-innovation. Concurrently, we underscore the need to establish mechanisms that motivate and facilitate public involvement in environmental protection, including volunteering opportunities, community events, and monitoring initiatives. This collaborative stewardship not only fosters a deeper sense of responsibility but also lays the foundation for a more resilient and environmentally sustainable future.

This paper utilizes Chinese panel data from an ordered probit regression model to investigate the influence of two informational aspects—air pollution and health status—on individuals' public awareness of environmental problems. This inquiry holds significant policy relevance globally, aiming to enhance public scrutiny in environmental protection efforts. Expanding on regional and individual heterogeneity discussions, the study also explores the underlying mechanism and climate productivity index.

First, after accounting for provincial-level economic factors and individual characteristics, this paper establishes the significant consistency between actual air pollution (represented by PM2.5, emissions of sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and nitrogen oxides) and individuals' subjective perceptions of environmental problems. This underscores the pivotal role of air quality variations across different regions in China in shaping individual perceptions of environmental problems. The study emphasizes the heightened concern for environmental problems in areas with more severe air pollution than developed countries. Furthermore, this phenomenon intensifies as GDP growth rates increase. Regions with more severe air pollution and higher GDP growth rates correspond to individuals perceiving environmental problems as more severe.

Additionally, this study delves into the asymmetric influence of individual health status on the perception of environmental problems. A noteworthy finding is that when an individual's health status deteriorates, his or her perception of the severity of environmental problems significantly increases. However, the impact of improved health status and self-rated health needs further examination for clarity. This finding suggested that there is a close relationship between individual health status and external environmental quality. When individuals experience declining health, they become more sensitive to the severity of environmental problems, particularly in China's central and western regions and among individuals under 40 years of age. Individuals may be more inclined to attribute this to poor environmental quality, as subpar environmental conditions can exacerbate health problems.

This paper significantly contributes to the literature on the public perception of environmental problems. Firstly, large-scale survey data are combined with specific provincial-level data to systematically evaluate the impact of macroeconomic and microeconomic factors on public awareness of environmental problems in China. Secondly, in contrast to potential differences in perceptions among demographic groups that may exist in developing countries, often referred to as saturation effects or baseline-condition effects 4 , this study reveals heterogeneity in the perception of environmental problems at the regional and individual levels. Thirdly, this paper finds that objective air pollution and subjective health status significantly influence an individual's public awareness of environmental problems. Specifically, changes in health status exhibit asymmetry, with a deterioration significantly increasing individuals' perception of environmental pollution, while an improvement in health status does not significantly impact health status.

This study has several limitations that warrant further in-depth research. Firstly, the research did not consider whether the variables of interest are culturally dependent. Local cultural resources often influence public perceptions, relying heavily on individuals' experiences. Future research could explore the influence of cultural factors and conduct cross-cultural comparisons. Secondly, monitoring stations typically record environmental concentrations at relatively infrequent intervals (Levinson, 2012), while air pollution data are often aggregated over extended periods, such as a year (Ferreira et al., 2013). Consequently, matched air pollution may differ from actual exposure, potentially introducing measurement errors that could bias estimates. Thirdly, this study included only a limited number of individual characteristics. Future research could compare differences across other developing countries. In summary, these limitations provide opportunities for further investigation and analysis.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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This research was primarily funded by the China National Funds of Social Science, Key Program Grant Number No.23ATJ002.

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Juanjuan Cao

Shandong Academy of Macroeconomic Research, Jinan, Shandong, 250014, China

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All authors contributed to the conception and design of the study. C.W.: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Resources, Software, Visualization, Methodology, Original draft preparation, Review & editing. J.C.: Formal analysis, Software, Visualization, Methodology, Review & editing. All the authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Home / News / Battle for Clean Air Returns to Court: The Deadly Air Case Heads to the Supreme Court of Appeal

Battle for Clean Air Returns to Court: The Deadly Air Case Heads to the Supreme Court of Appeal

26 August 2024 at 11:11 am

MEDIA ADVISORY DATE: 26 AUGUST 2024

WHAT: On 28 August, the ongoing legal battle for clean air in South Africa, led by social and environmental justice groups groundWork and the Vukani Environmental Justice Movement (VEM), will reach a critical juncture as the “Deadly Air” case is heard by the Supreme Court of Appeal in Bloemfontein.

BACKGROUND: The case, originally launched in 2019, challenges the South African government’s failure to enforce regulations that would protect communities from toxic air pollution in the Highveld Priority Area (HPA). This area was declared a priority in 2007 due to dangerously high levels of air pollution, yet the government’s inaction has continued to jeopardise the health and wellbeing of millions living nearby.

The High Court in Pretoria delivered a landmark ruling in March 2022, affirming that the government’s failure to regulate air quality in the HPA was a violation of section 24 of the South African Constitution, which guarantees the right to an environment not harmful to health or wellbeing. The judgment declared that this right is immediately realisable, not merely a progressive aspiration.

Despite this victory, the Minister of the Environment is appealing a critical technical point: whether the Air Quality Act’s provision that the Minister “may” make regulations should be interpreted as “must” in this context. This argument will now be presented before the judges of the Supreme Court of Appeal.

WHY IT MATTERS: This case arrives at a time when legal protections against air pollution are under severe threat. Recent decisions by former Minister Creecy and current Minister George have granted significant exemptions to major polluters like Eskom, Sasol, and ArcelorMittal, allowing them to bypass compliance with the Minimum Emissions Standards. These standards are vital for controlling levels of toxic pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter.

The implications of this case are profound, as ongoing pollution has been linked to severe health impacts, including lung cancer, ischaemic heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, strokes, lower respiratory infections, and asthma. The outcome of this appeal will be crucial in determining whether the state will be compelled to take stronger action to protect the health and lives of millions of South Africans.

WHERE: Supreme Court of Appeal in Bloemfontein

WHEN: 28 August 2024 – 09h00 to 12h00

Media Access: Journalists and media outlets are invited to cover this significant court hearing. For more information, interviews, or to receive updates on the case, please contact:

About groundWork and VEM: groundWork and the Vukani Environmental Justice Movement are committed to advancing environmental justice in South Africa.

Read more about the  background  and  chronology  of the #DeadlyAir case, the landmark 18 March  High Court judgement ,  an analysis  on why this judgment matters,  expert analysis  finding Eskom to be the world’s worst polluting power company, the  health impacts  of air pollution on the Mpumalanga Highveld HPA and the history of the area as a  High Priority Area.

[ https://lifeaftercoal.org.za/about/deadly-air ]

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Global Public Health Implications of Traffic Related Air Pollution: Systematic Review

Desi debelu.

1 School of Environmental Health, College of Health and Science, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia

Dechasa Adare Mengistu

Alemayehu aschalew.

2 Institutional Development and Facility Management, College of Health and Medical Science, Haramaya University, Harar, Ethiopia

Bizatu Mengistie

3 Saint Paul’s Hospital Millennium Medical College, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Wegene Deriba

Background:.

Traffic-related air pollution (TRAP) has significant public health implications and a wide range of adverse health effects, including cardiovascular, respiratory, pulmonary, and other health problems. This study aimed to determine the public health impacts of traffic-related air pollution across the world that can be used as an input for protecting human health.

This study considered studies conducted across the world and full-text articles written in English. The articles were searched using a combination of Boolean logic operators (AND, OR, and NOT), MeSH, and keywords from the included electronic databases (SCOPUS, PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, CINAHL, and Google Scholars). The quality assessment of the articles was done using JBI tools to determine the relevance of each included article to the study.

In this study, 1 282 032 participants ranging from 19 to 452 735 were included in 30 articles published from 2010 to 2022. About 4 (13.3%), 9 (30.0%), 12 (40.0%), 8 (26.7%), 2 (6.7%), 15 (50.0%), 3 (10.0%), 3 (10.0%) 1 (3.3%), and 3 (10.0%) of articles reported the association between human health and exposure to CO, PM10, PM2.5, NO x , NO, NO 2 , black carbon, O 3 , PAH, and SO 2 , respectively. Respiratory diseases, cancer, cognitive function problems, preterm birth, blood pressure and hypertension, diabetes, allergies and sensitization, coronary heart disease, dementia incidence, and hemorrhagic stroke were associated with exposure to TRAP.

Conclusions:

Exposure to nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and fine particulate matter was associated with various health effects. This revealed that there is a need for the concerned organizations to respond appropriately.

Introduction

Urban areas are hot spots for human exposure to air pollution, mainly originating from road traffic. Understanding efforts to curb traffic related air pollution (TRAP) in urban areas is particularly critical, as the world is currently witnessing its largest urban growth in human history. According to the United Nations and the Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, about two-thirds of the world’s population is estimated to reside in urban areas by 2050 1 meaning more people will be at risk of exposure to TRAPS.

Traffic-related air pollution is a complex mixture of particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) derived from combustion and non-combustion sources such as road dust, tire wear, and brake wear, as well as primary gaseous emissions, including nitrogen oxides. These primary emissions lead to the generation of secondary pollutants such as ozone, nitrates, and organic aerosols that can cause various health problems, including asthma and other health conditions. 2

The prominence of traffic emissions and TRAPS has great implications for human exposure and its wide range of adverse health effects. Traffic emissions disperse into the ambient air that humans are exposed to and cause health impacts that result from direct exhaust emissions or non-exhaust emissions. 3 , 4 Exposure to air pollution increases health risks, including adverse cardiovascular, respiratory, pulmonary, and other health-related outcomes. Particularly, low-income countries suffer the highest burden of disease and premature death attributable to environmental pollution. 5

According to some findings, the health impacts associated with TRAPS have proven costly, including the cost of death from ambient air pollution (over $496 000 000 in the United States, $201 000 000 in Japan, $148 000 000 in Germany, $102 000 000 in Italy, and $85 000 000 in the United Kingdom). Despite the growing awareness of the links between traffic, air pollution exposure, and associated adverse health impacts, many cities across the globe struggle to meet the air quality guidelines set to protect public health. 6

Various review articles are conducted on the impacts of traffic-related air pollution on specific health conditions, such as lung function and other respiratory illnesses. 7 , 8 In addition, the previous studies addressed some air pollutants such as NO 2 , elemental carbon, and PM2.5 7 , 9 and were conducted on a specific group of the population, particularly among students 7 and children. 8 However, the current study addressed the health impacts of various traffic-related air pollutants in addition to those addressed by previous studies, such as CO, NO x , NO, O 3 , PAH, and SO 2 , and multiple health conditions, including respiratory diseases, cancer, cognitive function problems, preterm birth, coronary heart disease, allergic diseases, dementia, and hemorrhagic stroke.

Materials and Methods

The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guideline was used to perform this systematic review. 10

Eligibility criteria

Articles that met the following predetermined inclusion criteria were included in the systematic review.

• i. Location : This study included traffic-related air pollutants across the world, regardless of their location and their health impacts.
• ii. Study design : There was no restriction based on the study design used in the study.
• iii. Types of pollutants : carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen monoxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), nitrogen oxide (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), ozone (O 3 ), and particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) were included in the current study.
• iv. Outcome : Studies reported quantitative outcomes (magnitude, frequency, rate, or prevalence).
• v. Language : Studies written in English

Sources of information and Search Strategies

The searches of the literature were performed by the authors using keywords from search strategies such as the databases SCOPUS, PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, CINAHL, and Google Scholars from June 1, 2023, to December 30, 2023. Articles were searched using a combination of Boolean logic operators (“AND, OR, and NOT”), medical subject headings (MeSH), and keywords. The authors used the following main keywords to search articles from the included electronic databases: public health OR health impacts, OR health consequences, OR asthma (related terms), OR respiratory disease, OR respiratory illness OR cancer, AND traffic-related air pollution AND air pollution AND particulate matter AND gases AND pollutants AND mobile sources of air pollution, etc.

For example, the following are the search strategies used by all authors in the initial search of PubMed: “health” OR “public health” OR “population” OR “community” OR “rrespiratory disease” OR “asthma” OR “pulmonary” OR “disease OR illness” OR etc. AND “Impact” OR “implication” OR “risk” OR “hazards” AND “Air pollutants” OR “air pollution” OR “traffic related” OR “transport related” OR “ambient air pollution” OR “urban air pollution” AND “Developing countries” OR “worldwide” OR “global” OR “low in countries” OR “developed countries” OR “high income countries” OR “low and middle income countries” etc.

The combination of the above terms was used based on the search protocols used for each database. Additionally, manual searching of the articles was done to cover those articles that were difficult to locate and missed from the included electronic databases. Finally, references within eligible articles were further screened for additional articles.

Study selection

The study selection process was performed using the PRISMA flow chart, showing the number of articles included in the current study as well as those excluded from the study and the reasons for their exclusion. Following the search for articles, duplicate articles were removed using the Endnote software version X5 (Thomson Reuters, USA). After duplicated articles were removed, the authors independently screened the articles based on their titles and abstracts to determine their eligibility for this study by applying the inclusion criteria. Any disagreements made with respect to the inclusion of studies were resolved by consensus. Finally, articles that met the inclusion criteria were included in this study.

Data extraction

The data were extracted using Microsoft Excel 2016 form, which was developed by authors under the following headings: author(s), year of publication, sample size, study region or country, and primary outcomes: carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen monoxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), nitrogen oxide (NO x ), sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), ozone (O 3 ), and particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10).

Quality assessment

Then the selected articles were subjected to quality assessment using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical Evaluation, 11 to determine the quality and relevance of the articles for the current study. The evaluation tools have 9 evaluation criteria: appropriate sampling frame, proper sampling technique, adequate sample size, description of the study subject and setting description, sufficient data analysis, use of valid methods for identifying conditions, valid measurement for all participants, use of appropriate statistical analysis, and adequate response rate. Then, failure to satisfy each parameter was scored as 0, and if it met the criteria, it was scored as 1. The score was then given for each study and graded as high (7/9 and above), moderate (5/9%-6/9% score), or low (if it scored less than 5/9) quality. The disagreement over what was to be extracted was solved by discussion after repeating the same procedures.

A total of 1211 articles were searched through the selected electronic databases, such as Scopus, PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Science Direct. After searching for articles, 452 duplicate articles were excluded from the study. About 750 articles were excluded after initial screening, and 41 articles were excluded after full-text articles were assessed for eligibility. Finally, 29 articles were included in the systematic review ( Figure 1 ).

Study selection process of included articles in the current systematic review, 2023.

Characteristics of included articles

In the current study, 1 282 032 participants, ranging from 19 to 452 735, were included in 30 articles published from 2010 to 2022. Regarding the countries where the studies were conducted, 4 articles were conducted in the USA, 4 in China, 2 each in Spain, Germany, England, and the Netherlands, and 1 article from Taiwan, Japan, Sweden, France, Australia, Korea, Malaysia, Columbia, Brazil, India, Denmark, and Nigeria.

Among the included articles, about 4 (13.3%), 9 (30.0%), 12 (40.0%), 8 (26.7%), 2 (6.7%), 15 (50.0%), 3 (10.0%), 3 (10.0%) 1 (3.3%), and 3 (10.0%) reported the association between human health and exposure to CO, PM10, PM2.5, NO x , NO, NO 2 , black carbon, O 3 , PAH, and SO 2 , respectively. However, in 2 articles, the types of traffic-related pollutants were not reported.

Furthermore, regarding the health outcome of exposure to traffic-related air pollution, various health problems or impacts associated with exposure to traffic-related air pollution, such as respiratory diseases, cancer, cognitive function problems, preterm birth, blood pressure and hypertension, diabetes, allergies and sensitization, coronary heart disease, pediatric allergic diseases, dementia incidence, hemorrhagic stroke, and lung cancer, were identified in the current study ( Table 1 ).

Characteristics of the included articles used to determine the public health impacts of traffic-related air pollution, 2023.

Abbreviations: CO, carbon monoxide; EC, elemental carbon; HR, hazard ratio; NO 2 , nitrogen dioxide; NO x , nitrogen compounds; O 3 , Ozone; PM2.5, fine particulate matter; SBP, systolic blood pressure; SO 2 , sulfur dioxide; TRAP, traffic related air pollution.

The current study aimed to determine the public health impacts of traffic-related air pollution. This study identified various health impacts related to different types of traffic-related air pollutants across the world. The results of this systematic review indicate that exposure to higher levels of traffic-related air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide, nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide can increase the risk of various health conditions.

According to the current finding, traffic-related air pollutants could cause respiratory disease, particularly among children 12 , 18 , 21 , 22 , 26 , 28 - 30 , 32 , 34 , 36 , 37 and elderly people. 16 , 24 , 25 , 27 , 35 , 38 - 40 For example, according to the study conducted in Nigeria, 12 respiratory illness (phlegm and wheeze) among children with ages ranging from 7 to 14 years was about 1.38 times higher among those exposed to CO than those not exposed. It was in line with the findings of another study that reported the same outcome. 42

Similarly, another study conducted in the US reported that an increase in near-roadway NO x of 17.9 ppb was associated with deficits of 1.6% in forced vital capacity among children aged 5 to 7 years old. 18 A study conducted in the USA reported that an increase in exposure to traffic-related pollution was associated with acute lymphoblastic leukemia [OR: 1.05; 95%CI: 1.01, 1.10] and germ cell tumors [OR: 1.16; 95%CI: 1.04, 1.29]. 21

Most studies reported a significant association between traffic air pollutants such as PM10, NO 2 , PM2.5, and O 3 and respiratory disease, illness, or function, including lung function and bronchitis. 12 , 15 - 18 , 24 , 29 , 34 The current finding was in line with the findings of another systematic review and meta-analysis, which reported a positive association between asthma and exposure to vehicle air pollution such as nitrogen dioxide, nitrous oxide, and carbon monoxide, which were associated with a higher prevalence of childhood asthma. 42

According to the current finding, exposure to traffic-related air pollutants such as PM10, NO 2 , PM2.5, and O 3 can increase diastolic blood pressure, 20 , 23 , 31 and pediatric allergic diseases. 32 Another health problem reported in the included articles is cancer, including cervical cancer, 14 and lung cancer. 38 This study was in line with the findings of another study that reported a statistically significant association between traffic-related air pollutants such as nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, fine particulate matter, and lung cancer, that was supported by the current evidence. 43

Cognitive development 37 and cognitive function problems 19 is another health consequences related to traffic air pollution exposure. The study reported that children from highly polluted environments had a smaller growth in cognitive development than children from the paired lowly polluted 37 and particle metrics (PM10 and PM2.5) were associated with lower scores in reasoning and memory. For example, higher PM2.5 was associated with a 5-year decline in standardized memory score. 19 Furthermore, Exposure to a high concentration of traffic-related air pollutants, higher than the maximum recommended level, can be toxic to different organs. Some experimental evidence showed a toxic effect of traffic-related air pollutants, including inflammation and changes in lung tissue. 44 Furthermore, TRAP, such as Particulate matters may cause neurotoxicity, such as neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. 45

In general, the current study found that there was a statistically significant association between various traffic-related air pollution caused by different air pollutants, including CO, NO x , NO 2 , PM2.5, and PM10, and human health. Despite current progress in different countries adopting vehicle emission standards, transportation emissions remain a major contributor to ambient air pollution and are associated with major health impacts. 46 This indicates a need to implement control strategies to reduce traffic-related air pollution and its public health burden by having a TRAP management plan 46 and policy. 47 Furthermore, using alternative transportation methods or technology, and strict regulations by the concerned organizations across the world can play a major role in reducing TRAP. 47 - 49 International cooperation on pollution, including research, development, developing policy, monitoring, and politics, is vital for effective air pollution control. 47

Furthermore, the authors recommend future researchers to focus on identifying an effective traffic related air pollution control interventions and role of national and international entities, particularly in controlling health burden of traffic related air pollution.

In general, the current study found that exposure to nitrogen dioxide; nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and fine particulate matter was associated with various health conditions such as respiratory diseases, cancer, cognitive function problems, preterm birth, blood pressure and hypertension, diabetes, allergies and sensitization, coronary heart disease, pediatric allergic diseases, dementia incidence, hemorrhagic stroke, and lung cancer. This revealed that there is a need to take appropriate action, including using alternative transportation methods or technology, reducing exposure to air pollutants, and enforcing regulations. 48 , 49

Limitations

Exposure was assessed differently using different methods. The publication is not evenly distributed across various countries. Even though there is a limited number of articles conducted on the public health, impacts of traffic-related air pollutants or pollution, particularly in developing countries as a result of poor databases for recording pollutants, various health outcomes have been reported in this study based on the previous findings.

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their deepest thanks to Haramaya University, School of Environmental Health staff, for providing their support.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Abbreviations: BC: Black Carbon; CO: Carbon Monoxide; EC: Elemental Carbon; HR: Hazard Ratio; NOx: Nitrogen compounds; PAH: Poly-Aromatic Hydrocarbon; PM: Particulate Maters; PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis; SBP: Systolic Blood Pressure; TRAP: Traffic Related Air Pollution; WHO: World Health Organization.

Author Contributions: DD conceived the idea and had a major role in the review, extraction, and analysis of data, as well as the as well as the writing, drafting, and editing of the manuscript. DD, BM, DAM, WD, and AA have contributed to data extraction. DD, BM, DAM, WD, and AA contributed to the quality assessment, drafting, and editing of the manuscript. Finally, all authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript to be published and agreed on all aspects of this work.

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate: Not applicable.

Consent for Publication: Not applicable.

Data Availability: Almost all data are included in this study. However, additional data can be available from the corresponding authors on the reasonable request.