research documentation styles

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Chapter 22 Appendix B: A Guide to Research and Documentation

Research documentation guidelines.

This appendix provides general guidelines for documenting researched information. See Chapter 7 "Researching" for more on the research process.

22.1 Choosing a Documentation Format

As a rule, your assignments requiring research will specify a documentation format. If you are free to use the style of your choice, you can choose any format you want as long as you are consistent, but you should know that certain disciplines tend to use specific documentation styles:

• business and social sciences: American Psychological Association (APA)
• natural and applied sciences: Council of Science Editors (CSE)
• humanities: Modern Language Association (MLA) or the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)

For the purposes of this appendix, we will confine ourselves to the three documentation formats that will be the most common in your undergraduate courses: the style manuals from APA and MLA, as well as CMS. (Other formats are listed at the end of this appendix. Also, note this appendix explains the “Notes-Bibliography” system of CMS, used more often in history, the arts, and humanities, rather than the “Author-Date” system, used in the sciences and social sciences.)

These three systems of documentation have been refined over many generations so that academics can rely on certain standards of attribution when they cite each other’s work and when their work is cited. When you enter into an academic conversation in a given discipline, it’s imperative that you play by its rules. It’s true that popular, nonacademic forms of attribution exist. Making a link to another website in a blog or a Twitter post works quite well, but in an academic context, such a form of attribution is not sufficient. Of course it should go without saying that stealing someone else’s words or borrowing them without attribution, whether you do it casually on the web or in an academic context, is simply wrong.

22.2 Integrating Sources

Your goal within a research paper is to integrate other sources smoothly into your paper to support the points you are making. As long as you give proper credit, you can ethically reference anyone else’s work. You should not, however, create a paper that is made up of one reference after another without any of your input. You should also avoid using half-page or whole-page quotations. Make sure to write enough of your material so that your sources are integrated into your work rather than making up the bulk of your paper.

Think of yourself as a kind of museum docent or tour guide when you are integrating sources into your work. You’ll usually want to take some time to set up your use of a source by placing it in a proper context. That’s why in most cases, before you even launch into quotation, paraphrase, or summary, you will have probably already used what’s called a “signal phrase” that identifies the author of the source, and often the specific publication (whether web or print) from which it is taken. After your use of the source, you’ll need to follow up with analysis and commentary on how you think it fits into the larger context of your argument.

22.3 Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing

When you quote another writer’s exact words, you will have to identify the page number within the source where you found the quotation or the paragraph number if the source is taken from an online format or database that does not indicate the original print pagination. Note that only APA allows the use of “p.” or “pp.”

Table 22.1 Citing Quotations

Paraphrased and summarized text is cited within text in the same way that quoted material is cited except that quotations are not used. In APA style, you do not need to include page numbers in this case, but MLA and CMS, on the other hand, do still require page numbers, when they are available.

Table 22.2 Citing Paraphrased or Summarized Text

22.4 Formatting In-Text References

When you use others’ ideas, you have a variety of options for integrating these sources into your text. The main requirement is that you make it clear within your in-text reference that the information is not yours and that you clearly indicate where you got the idea. The following box shows some alternate phrases for signaling that the ideas you are using belong to another writer. Using a variety of wording makes writing more interesting. Note: Past tense is used in these examples. You may elect to use present tense (“writes”) or past perfect tense (“has written”), but keep your tense use consistent.

Phrases That Signal an Idea Belongs to Another Writer (Shown in APA style)

• According to Starr (2010)…
• Acknowledging that…
• Starr (2010) stated…
• As Starr (2010) noted…
• In 2010, Starr reported…
• In the words of Starr (2010)…
• It is obvious, according to Starr (2010), that…
• Starr (2010) argued that…
• Starr (2010) disagreed when she said…
• Starr (2010) emphasized the importance of…
• Starr (2010) suggested…
• Starr observed in 2010 that…
• Technology specialist, Linda Starr, claimed that…(2010).
• …indicated Starr (2010).
• …wrote Starr (2010)

Table 22.3 "Integrating Sources (Summarized or Paraphrased Ideas)" shows some actual examples of integrating sources within the guidelines of the three most common documentation formats. You should weave the cited details in with your ideas.

Table 22.3 Integrating Sources (Summarized or Paraphrased Ideas)

Table 22.4 Two Authors

Table 22.5 Multiple Authors

Table 22.6 Personal Communication

22.5 Developing a List of Sources

This appendix provides a general overview of some of the most common documentation guidelines for different types of sources. For situations not described in this appendix, such as types of sources not described in this chapter or situations where you elect to use footnotes or endnotes in addition to in-text, parenthetical citations, check the complete guidelines for the style you are using:

• APA: http://www.apastyle.org
• MLA: http://www.mla.org
• CMS: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org

Some general online searches, especially those conducted on your library databases, are also likely to generate guidelines for a variety of documentation styles. Look for an opportunity to click on a “citation” or “documentation” icon, or ask a member of your college library staff for guidance. You can even get help through the word processing program you typically use. Microsoft Word, for instance, has an entire tab on the taskbar devoted to managing and documenting sources in all three of the styles featured here. Also, don’t forget the tip from Chapter 7 "Researching" about the free resources that abound on the web from various online writing labs (OWLs) managed by writing programs at colleges and universities across the country.

Each different documentation style has its own set of guidelines for creating a list of references at the end of the essay (called “works cited” in MLA, “references” in APA, and “bibliography” in CMS). This section includes citations for the sources included in other parts of this appendix. For additional citation styles, consult complete citation guidelines for the style you are using.

Source lists should always be in alphabetical order by the first word of each reference, and you should use hanging indentation (with the first line of each reference flush with the margin and subsequent lines indented one-half inch). Here are some of the most common types of entries you will be using for your references at the end of your research essays. These lists are by no means exhaustive, but you will note from the examples some of the most important differences in conventions of punctuation, font, and the exact content of each style.

Table 22.7 APA References

Table 22.8 MLA Works Cited

Table 22.9 CMS Bibliography

22.6 Using Other Formats

Although APA, MLA, and Chicago are the most widely used documentation styles, many other styles are used in specific situations. Some of these other styles are listed in Table 22.10 "Other Documentation Formats" . You can find more about them by searching online.

Table 22.10 Other Documentation Formats

• Olympic College
• Research Guides

MLA (9th edition) Documentation Style

• Major Changes in the 9th & 8th Editions
• Examples: Electronic Sources
• Examples: Print & Video Sources
• "Works Cited" Page

What's in this guide?

Academic writing standards require you to credit all sources that you use to write a paper, report, or study. The Modern Language Association (MLA) documentation style provides a guideline for properly crediting your sources by requiring notes in the text of your work that point the reader to an alphabetical list of your sources, called a “Works Cited” list. Properly citing your sources of information allows a reader to understand where you found your information and how to find those sources, and will also help you avoid plagiarism. 

Use the tabs at left to navigate this guide. You'll find:

The Basics -- templates

Electronic Sources -- examples

Print & Video Sources -- examples

"Works Cited" Page -- example

Introduction to Citation Styles: MLA 9th ed

"Introduction to Citation Styles: MLA 9th ed.." YouTube, uploaded by CSUDH Library. 9 July 2020, youtu.be/o7MyM_V8-EA.

Printable version of this guide...

Coming soon!

See also....

• Citation Examples by Format Examples of basic types of citations, from the MLA itself.
• Citing Generative AI from the MLA The MLA citation depends on the format in which you interact with the AI, as well as the goal of your citation.
• MLA Style Center (by the Modern Language Association) This MLA guide, from the MLA itself, provides a quick overview of the new MLA style.
• NCSU Libraries Citation Builder Submit information about your source to create an MLA citation. Created by North Carolina State University Library.
• Purdue's Online Writing Lab (OWL) These OWL resources will help you learn how to use the Modern Languages Association (MLA) citation and format style.
• Sample Papers from MLA Sample papers written in MLA format, from the MLA itself.
• ZoteroBib ZoteroBib is a free AND ad-free citation and bibliography tool. One of the more accurate citation generators but you still need to check and correct citations.
• Next: Major Changes in the 9th & 8th Editions >>
• Last Updated: Apr 20, 2023 6:17 PM
• URL: https://libguides.olympic.edu/mla9

Writing Center: Documentation Styles

• How to Set Up an Appointment Online
• Documentation Styles
• Parts of Speech
• Types of Clauses
• Punctuation
• Spelling & Mechanics
• Usage & Styles
• Resources for ESL Students
• How to Set up an APA Paper
• How to Set up an MLA Paper
• Adapt to Academic Learning
• Audience Awareness
• Learn Touch Typing
• Getting Started
• Thesis Statement
• The First Draft
• Proofreading
• Writing Introductions
• Writing Conclusions
• Chicago / Turabian Style
• CSE / CBE Style
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Cross-Cultural Understanding
• Writing Resources
• Research Paper - General Guidelines
• Annotated Bibliographies
• History Papers
• Science Papers
• Experimental Research Papers
• Exegetical Papers
• FAQs About Creative Writing
• Tips For Creative Writing
• Exercises To Develop Creative Writing Skills
• Checklist For Creative Writing
• Additional Resources For Creative Writing
• FAQs About Creating PowerPoints
• Tips For Creating PowerPoints
• Exercises to Improve PowerPoint Skills
• Checklist For PowerPoints
• Structure For GRE Essay
• Additional Resources For PowerPoints
• Additional Resources For GRE Essay Writing
• FAQs About Multimodal Assignments
• Tips For Creating Multimodal Assignments
• Checklist For Multimodal Assignments
• Additional Resources For Multimodal Assignments
• GRE Essay Writing FAQ
• Tips for GRE Essay Writing
• Sample GRE Essay Prompts
• Checklist For GRE Essays
• Cover Letter
• Personal Statements
• Resources for Tutors
• Chapter 2: Theoretical Perspectives on Learning a Second Language
• Chapter 4: Reading an ESL Writer's Text
• Chapter 5: Avoiding Appropriation
• Chapter 6: 'Earth Aches by Midnight': Helping ESL Writers Clarify Their Intended Meaning
• Chapter 7: Looking at the Whole Text
• Chapter 8: Meeting in the Middle: Bridging the Construction of Meaning with Generation 1.5 Learners
• Chapter 9: A(n)/The/Ø Article About Articles
• Chapter 10: Editing Line by Line
• Chapter 14: Writing Activities for ESL Writers
• Resources for Faculty
• Writing Center Newsletter
• Writing Center Survey

Official Handbooks

MLA Style Guide

What is MLA Style?

A set of guidelines for formatting academic manuscripts and citing materials used by other writers. It is most often used by writers in the  H umanities  and  L iberal Arts .  Citing sources you've consulted gives your paper credibility, and adhering to MLA's citation guidelines protects you from unintentional plagiarism.

Follow the links below for any questions about MLA style!

• Info. on New MLA Handbook, 9th Edition

• MLA Sample Paper, 9th edition Downloaded from Purdue Owl
• Purdue Owl MLA Citation Guide
• Video on MLA Formatting

APA Style Guide

What is APA Style?

When documenting sources, writers of research papers use a particular citation style. APA (American Psychological Association) Style is generally used for disciplines such as Psychology, Sociology, Education, Nursing, Communication, and other social sciences.

Follow the links below for any questions about APA style!

• APA Quick Guide (In-text Citations & Reference Page), 7th edition
• APA Sample Student Paper
• APA Sample Professional Paper
• APA Formatting and Style Guide This page reflects the latest version of the APA Publication Manual (i.e., APA 7), which released in October 2019.
• APA Style Help If you have a question about APA Style, we recommend that you check this page.
• Official Site for APA Style
• Purdue OWL APA Citations Guide

Chicago/Turabian Style Guide

What is Chicago/Turabian Style?

The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) covers a variety of topics from manuscript preparation and publication to grammar, usage, and documentation. There are two CMS documentation styles: the Notes-Bibliography System (NB), which is preferred for literature, history, and the arts. The other documentation style, the Author-Date System, is preferred in the social/sciences. We will focus on the Notes-Bibliography System here. Bibliographical info is placed in notes and a bibliography. A bibliography follows the end of a research paper.

Follow the links below for any questions about Chicago style!

• Chicago / Turabian Quick Formatting Guide
• Chicago / Turabian Sample Paper
• Purdue OWL Chicago Citations Guide
• Chicago Citations Quick Guide

What is CSE Style?

The standard citation style guide book for the natural and physical sciences is  the  Scientific  Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Author, Editors and Publishers , 7th edition, 2006.  We commonly refer to it as "the CSE Manual".

CSE (Council of Science Editors) is used to be called CBE (Council of Biology Editors). However, since most biologists, zoologists, earth scientists, geneticists, and other scientists use one of three systems of documentation specified by CSE, finally they decided to change the name CBE to CSE to be more inclusive.

Follow the links below for any questions about Scientific style!

• CSE Style Quick Guide
• CSE Sample Paper
• CSE Citations Quick Guide

What is CBE Style?

Scientific Style and Format (6th ed.), a publication of the Council of Biology Editors (CBE), outlines proper documentation style for writers in many areas of the sciences, and particularly the biological sciences. However, since most biologists, zoologists, earth scientists, geneticists, and other scientists use one of three systems of documentation specified by CSE, finally they decided to change the name CBE to CSE to be more inclusive.

Follow the links below for any questions about CBE style!

• CBE Style Guide for Bibliographies and Footnotes
• CBE Style Quick Guide

What is ACS Style?

Developed by the American Chemical Society, this style may be used for research papers in the field of chemistry.

Follow the links below for any questions about ACS style!

• ACS Quick Guide
• ACS Citations Guide
• The Science of Scientific Writing

What is AP Style?

AP (Associated Press) style provides guidelines for news writing. Many newspapers, magazines and public relations offices across the United States use AP style. Although some publications such as the New York Times have developed their own style guidelines, a basic knowledge of AP style is considered essential to those who want to work in print journalism.

Follow the links below for any questions about AP style!

• AP Style Quick Guide
• AP Style Purdue Owl
• AP Stylebook Official Guide
• << Previous: Resources for Students
• Next: Grammar >>
• Last Updated: Aug 27, 2024 2:34 PM
• URL: https://mc.libguides.com/writingcenter

An Overview of Documentation Systems

Documentation systems are tools by which one participant in an academic discipline, or field of study, acknowledges the work of another. Using one is much more than a professional courtesy: it is a requirement.

This guide covers the reasons for this requirement, the kinds of sources that must be documented, as well as explanations and examples of the different formatting rules governing the five systems most frequently used in the academic and professional world.

Overview: Documentation Systems

Research writing is how an academic community exchanges ideas and shares the results of their work. You may hear this community called a "discourse community". That's because its members belong to a specific discipline, like anthropology, Victorian literature or physics. The ongoing conversation between members of these communities helps further the work of individual contributors.

Publishing is one of the ways in which these communities talk to each other: text-books, articles in professional journals and conference proceedings, for example, are part of the conversation. Collectively, they constitute a library of sources upon which any researcher may draw. To "borrow" from this library, participants in the conversation must document their use of these sources.

Available to meet this requirement are a variety of documentation systems designed to fit the specific needs of different academic disciplines. In the humanities, for instance, the Modern Language Association (MLA) style is preferred, while in the social and natural sciences there is a larger tendency toward the American Psychological Association (APA) style.

There are no hard and fast rules, however. The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) is often used in both the humanities and the social sciences. In the "hard sciences" preferences run more to the Council of Biology Editors (CBE) style and the Civil Engineering Citation Guide (CEC) . Your instructors will advise you on which to use.

Why Sources are Documented

The most obvious reason for documenting your sources is to avoid plagiarism and its consequences. There are other reasons as well, all related to preserving the integrity of academic inquiry, the process involved and the results produced.

Avoiding Plagiarism

Most students are aware of the general definition of plagiarism: intentionally representing another person's ideas, findings, statistics, language, sentence structure, etc. as their own.

There is more to it, however, than handing in a roommate's composition or pulling a paper off the Internet. In fact, many incidences of plagiarism are unintentional and quite often the result of carelessness or simple ignorance regarding academic rules.

Deliberate or not, plagiarism is academic dishonesty. The consequences are significant: failure or expulsion from an academic institution for students; loss of credibility and severely damaged reputations for professionals.

The importance of understanding and avoiding plagiarism cannot be overstated.

Giving Credit Where Credit is Due

Acknowledging sources is an ironclad rule in the world of academic research. Not only are intellectual property rights at stake, but the simple notion of doing the right thing, as well.

Individuals who have pursued a specific line of inquiry and have made a significant contribution to their field of study deserve recognition; it's their due. More importantly, giving credit eliminates suspicion of having taken credit where credit isn't due.

Keeping "who said what" organized allows for an orderly presentation of ideas. Accurate documentation ensures a tangible background of verifiable sources against which the trustworthiness of someone's findings or conclusions can be measured. It also creates the foundation upon which future inquiry and research can be built.

Building Your Own Credibility

At the core of winning over an audience is the ability to present an argument. Convincing others that your way of thinking is worthy can be very challenging and it will be an uphill battle if you build the foundation of your argument on poorly documented research. At stake is your credibility.

Citing and documenting trustworthy sources in your work will bolster the notion that what you have to say is credible and trustworthy. It will help convince your audience that you know what you talking about, that you are familiar with the historical context of your topic and that your contribution or perspective has value.

It also provides the information needed for others with similar interests to test your findings. Successful duplication of your research serves to strengthen your thesis and validate your conclusions: a desirable result. Improperly documenting your sources will hinder other researchers from achieving this goal.

Creating Context

It's important to draw a clear line between your own ideas and those of others. Citing and documenting your sources draws that line. It also describes the contextual framework, or "context", in which you wish your ideas, arguments and observations to be viewed; the larger conversation in which it should be placed.

When there are multiple sources and varying viewpoints in a discourse community's conversation, the contextual frame assigns intellectual and academic responsibility to the contributing authors. This is particularly important when forming an opposing argument or attempting to disprove the conclusions of someone else.

Proper documentation separates the various points-of-view in the source material and helps the reader see the path you followed in developing arguments that support your conclusions.

What Sources are Documented

Generally, all published or copyrighted information must be documented. This means anything summarized, paraphrased, or quoted. The same goes as well for any unpublished material. If it's not yours you have to say so: You have to give credit where credit is due.

Here are some types of information that should always be documented:

• Facts not widely known or debatable, especially if their veracity can be challenged in any way.
• Hard evidence such as statistics, graphs, charts, diagrams, or figures unless they are products of your own field research.
• Opinions, claims or assertions that illustrate a point that may be perceived as questionable or controversial.
• Unique Phrasing and Terminology that does not fit your writing style, personal voice or level of academic experience.

The types of information that need not be documented include:

• Information largely considered general knowledge.
• Information that can be found in encyclopedias, dictionaries or any of a variety of other sources.
• Information derived from personal experience, observations, or field research.

If you have any difficulty determining whether a piece of information needs to be documented, ask yourself this: Did you possess the information in question before you began your research project or after? You must cite and document information learned about in the course of your work. When in doubt, you should do the same. An ounce of prevention never hurts.

How Sources are Documented

Conventions for documenting source material differ slightly from style to style; however, both in-text citation and end documentation are universal requirements.

They are used in conjunction with each other: First, the in-text citation flags the reader's attention identifying the source material and second, the end documentation catalogues the bibliographic information flagged by the in-text citation.

Note: The Chicago Manual of Style points out an exception: when only a handful of sources are used, footnotes may replace end documentation.

In-Text Citations

There are various types of in-text citation methods. The Chicago Manual of Style uses superscript numbers inserted into the text at the citation point. These numbers direct readers to corresponding footnotes at the bottom of the page or endnotes found at the end of a document. The Council of Biology Editors (CBE) uses superscript numbers also, but they direct reader to corresponding entries found only in a References List at the end.

By far, the most common method is parenthetical. Used by most style sheets, this system relies on parenthetical notes inserted at the point of citation. In the case of the American Psychological Association (APA) , The Chicago Manual , and CSE styles, the parenthetic note contains an author name and publication date. The Modern Language Association (MLA) style places page numbers inside the parenthesis as well, indicating where the cited material can be found.

Each parenthetical note refers to a bibliographic entry in the end documentation, known as a Works Cited or References List . Most writers and readers prefer the efficiency of this system since interruption to the flow of text is minimal and less distracting.

End Documentation

The Works Cited or References List is a bibliographic compilation of the specific sources cited within an academic paper or book and is located at the end of a document on pages that are separate from the rest. Though there are similarities, each documentation system handles formatting a little differently.

Regardless, end documentation accomplishes two things: First, it offers reading suggestions to those interested in your research, especially those who wish to replicate your work. Second, it provides the writer with a tool for assessing his or her research.

Once a Works Cited or References List is compiled it is much easier to consider the following questions:

• How comprehensive is my research? What have I omitted?
• Are there other sources that would lend further credibility to my position?
• Will my audience expect me to have reviewed more source material?

In-text citation and end documentation are two sides of the same coin. They function together. One without the other makes little sense.

Related Information: Example of How Sources are Documented

An in-text citation must be accompanied by a corresponding entry in a Works Cited or References List at the end of your document. One without the other is incomplete and unacceptable.

Imagine reading an article and you come across the following:

The difficulty I describe here is akin to what Michael North, in his discussion of Claude McKay's dialect writing, aptly calls the "linguistic no-man's-land" entered when McKay attempts to stop writing in the Jamaican dialect (67).

Suppose you are unfamiliar with Michael North and want to know more about his work. The Works Cited or References list at the end of the article should help by revealing the following bibliographic entry:

If this entry is missing, or if there is no Works Cited or References List at all, the reader will have a hard time tracking down and learning more about the author and his work. Likewise, if the entry exists but no citations appear in the text, where and how and why the writer used the source will be unclear.

Note: A Works Cited , Literature Cited , or References List is known as a Selected Bibliography and contains only those sources cited within a document. An actual Bibliography is more extensive. It represents all the sources reviewed in the research process and includes those which are not cited in your document.

This distinction is important because students are sometimes asked to include both end documentation and a bibliography when they hand in their work. Before beginning, it's a good idea to find out what your instructor requires and which documentation system he or she expects you to use.

Connor, Peter, Donna LeCourt, & Laurel Nesbitt. (2009). Documentation Systems: An Overview. Writing@CSU . Colorado State University. https://writing.colostate.edu/guides/guide.cfm?guideid=14

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

APA Formatting and Style Guide (7th Edition)

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

In-Text Citations

Resources on using in-text citations in APA style

Reference List

Resources on writing an APA style reference list, including citation formats

Other APA Resources

Go to Charlotte.edu

Prospective Students

• About UNC Charlotte
• Campus Life
• Graduate Admissions

Faculty and Staff

• Human Resources
• Auxiliary Services
• Inside UNC Charlotte
• Academic Affairs

Current Students

• Financial Aid
• Student Health

Alumni and Friends

• Alumni Association
• Advancement
• Make a Gift

Citation Style Guides

All WRC tutors are experienced with specific citation styles and documentation practices. We’re happy to answer your questions about plagiarism, or help you practice citing sources so you can be more confident when writing. See our pages about plagiarism and Generative AI & Writing for specific information on those topics.

If you’re unsure which citation style to use for an academic paper, ask your instructor for guidance. We’ve compiled a list of online style guides for each of the four most common documentation styles: APA, MLA CMS/Turabian, and IEEE. That way, you can easily access materials to help you cite your sources—all in one place.

Click on one of the following links or scroll down to see each style guide:

• APA—American Psychological Association
• MLA—Modern Language Association  
• CMS/Turabian—Chicago Manual of Style/Turabian Style
• IEEE—Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

APA—AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATIOn

If you’re doing research in psychology, sociology, business, economics, nursing, social work, or education, you may be asked to use APA as your citation style. Many other academic fields also use APA. If you’re unsure which documentation style to use for an assignment, ask your instructor for clarification.

Note: The WRC also has copies of the complete APA Manual for students to use during  regular operating hours .

Online Style Guides

• American Psychological Association’s APA Style
• Purdue OWL APA Style Guide
• UNC Charlotte Atkins Library’s APA Style Guide

Sample Papers

• Sample APA paper  from the American Psychological Association
• Sample APA paper  from Purdue OWL

MLA—MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION

If you’re doing research in English, you may be asked to use MLA as your citation style. Some other academic fields also use MLA. If you’re unsure which documentation style to use for an assignment, ask your instructor for clarification.

Note: The WRC also has copies of the complete MLA Handbook for students to use during  regular operating hours .

• Purdue OWL MLA Style Guide
• The Writing Center at The University of Wisconsin-Madison’s MLA Documentation Guide
• UNC Charlotte Atkins Library’s MLA Style Guide
• The MLA Style Center
• Sample MLA paper  from Purdue OWL
• List of sample MLA papers  from the MLA Style Center
• Sample MLA paper  from the University of Washington
• MLA Style: 8th Edition  from the University of Central Oklahoma Library
• Citations Using MLA, 8th Edition  from Kirkwood Community College
• MLA Style 8th Edition  from the University of Louisville Writing Center

CMS/TURABIAN—CHICAGO MANUAL OF STYLE/TURABIAN STYLE

If you’re doing research in the humanities or social sciences, you might be asked to use CMS/Turabian as your citation style. Some other academic fields also use CMS/Turabian. If you’re unsure which documentation style to use for an assignment, ask your instructor for clarification.

Note: The WRC also has copies of the complete CMS/Turabian Guide for students to use during  regular operating hours .

• The Chicago Manual of Style Online
• Purdue OWL CMS Style Guide
• The University of Chicago’s Turabian Quick Guide
• UNC Charlotte Atkins Library’s  CMS Style Guide  and  Turabian Style Guide
• Sample CMS paper  from Purdue OWL
• Sample CMS paper  from the University of Washington
• List of sample Turabian papers  from Liberty University
• CMS/Turabian Documentation Handout  from JCCC Writing Center
• Chicago Manual of Style  from The Ohio State University Libraries
• Guide to Chicago or Turabian Documentation Style  from The Writing Center at The University of Wisconsin-Madison

IEEE—INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERS

If you’re doing research in engineering, you may be asked to use IEEE as your citation style. Some other academic fields also use IEEE. If you’re unsure which documentation style to use for an assignment, ask your instructor for clarification.

Note: The WRC also has copies of the complete IEEE Manual for students to use during  regular operating hours .

• 2014 IEEE-SA Standard Style Manual
• IEEE Editorial Style Manual
• IEEE Author Digital Tools
• David F. Beer and David McMurrey’s A Guide to Writing as an Engineer, 4th. edition  (Available as an eBook)
• Article Templates and Instructions  from IEEE
• Manuscript Templates for Conference Proceedings  from IEEE
• Templates and Sample of PES Technical Papers  from IEEE Power & Energy Society
• Citation Reference  from IEEE
• IEEE Citation Guide  from the University of Washington-Tacoma
• Documenting Sources: The IEEE Format  from the University of Calgary

ENG 111 - Writing and Inquiry: Documentation Style - The Basics

• Find eBooks
• Find Articles & Video
• Persuasive Essay
• Fox and Service Dogs
• Profile/Evaluation Paper
• Career Essay Assignment
• Find a Topic for College Papers
• Find a Persuasive Topic
• Plagiarism/Integrate Sources
• Evaluate Sources
• Documentation Style - The Basics
• MLA Citation Help
• APA7 Citation Help
• APA - The Basics
• Format in a Flash
• Research Process

Main Parts of Documentation Styles

Why use documentation style?

• Allows reader to find your sources and follow your research
• Shows your research and knowledge of subject
• Gives writer and reader a standard style so information can be communicated and found easily

There are 3 main components of APA style

• References (end of paper)
• In-text Citations (within paper)
• APA formatting (title page, headings, font, etc.)

In-text citations (Examples are in APA format)

There are  two ways to cite your information  in your paper.

If you include all the information about your source in the parenthesis at the end of the sentence, it is called a  parenthetical in-text  citation. Add page numbers for direct quotes.

• In conclusion, the research shows that dogs have innate predatory behavior traits which are enhanced by the dogs' desires to protect their human owners (Tucker & Maddey, 2020).    
• The research found that "dogs are more willing to attack or defend territory that is considered to be their own" (Tucker & Maddey, 2020, p. 81). 

If you include the author's name in the sentence, it is called a  narrative in-text  citation. The date goes in the parenthesis. 

• Tucker and Maddey (2020) found that predatory behavior in dogs is due to many different factors.   

Peas and Carrots - APA Style

Whenever you have a reference at the end of your paper, you need at least one intext citation to go with it. Every intext citation should point to a reference at the end of your paper.

References and Intext Citations Go Together Like Peas and Carrots.

Your intext citation contains the first word(s) of your reference and the date so the reader can find it easily . For example:

You write this in your paper: For optimal decomposition, experts believe you should aim for a carbon to nitrogen ratio of 30:1 ( Johnson, 2001 ) .

This is in your Reference List:

Johnson , L. ( 2001 , February). Compost Happens: The Secret to Making Quick Gardener's Gold Instead of a Slow, Stinking Mess Requires, Like Everything Else, Balance.  Canadian Gardening , 12 (1), 28-33.

Common Knowledge: What is it?

• Things that are Common Knowledge
• Things that are NOT Common Knowledge

Common knowledge is information that your average reader doesn't have to look up and you DON'T have to cite or reference.

For example:

• The United States has 50 states.
• Raleigh is the capitol of North Carolina.
• Water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit.

If you are in a biology class and writing for your instructor or students with more knowledge of biology than the average reader then these facts probably don't need to be cited

• In humans, there are 80 bones that comprise the axial skeleton.

If your audience are all of a similar cultural or national group, you don't need to cite information common to shared history.

• George Washington was the first president of the United States and is widely considered to be a Founding Father of the nation.

You always need to cite and reference:

• Direct quotes
• References to studies done by others (even if you read about it in a different source)
• Facts such as specific dates, numbers, or other information that your audience wouldn't know unless they have done research.
• The projected growth for solar photovoltaic installers is 63% which is much higher than average (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2020). 
• The Exxon Valdez oil spill in 1989 dumped 11 million gallons of oil in Alaska's Prince William Sound (Leahy, 2019). 
• Although pine cones seem very ordinary, the ancient Greeks associated them with Venus, the goddess of love, according to Michigan State University (2017). 

When in doubt, cite your sources!

• << Previous: Cite & Format
• Next: MLA Citation Help >>
• Last Updated: Sep 9, 2024 3:51 PM
• URL: https://libguides.rccc.edu/eng111

Citation and Documentation Styles

Cmos resources, quick guide to cmos 17th edition, quick guide to formatting in cmos, conscious language, chicago faq.

• Other Styles
• Writing Resources
• Citation Management
• Citation and Plagiarism Zero-Cost Materials
• Citation and Plagiarism Pedagogy
• Find More Help
• About Forsyth Library

CMoS stands for Chicago Manual of Style

Subjects that commonly use CMoS:

• Art & Design

There are two main types of CMoS formatting:

• Notes-Bibliography system (NB)
• Very similar to APA

Check your assignments and with your instructors to make sure you are using the correct type of formatting. 

Papers formatted with CMoS typically follow this structure:

• With footnotes in Notes-Bibliography system

Editions: CMoS is currently on its 17th edition, published in 2017. Check your assignments and your sources to make sure you are using the correct edition. 

Turabian  is a similar style to CMoS and provides additional guidelines. Turabian is currently on its 9th edition, published in 2018. 

Check your assignments and your sources to make sure you are using the correct style and edition. 

• What's New in the 17th Edition
• What's New in the Turabian 9th Edition
• Is Turabian style the same as CMoS?
• Forsyth Library Resources
• Online Resources
• Chicago Manual of Style Online This link opens in a new window Complete online edition of "one of the most widely used and respected style guides in the United States." Provides information on grammar, document preparation, and proper citation format.

• The Chicago Manual of Style Online Provides a quick guide and answers to frequently asked questions.
• Excelsior Online Writing Lab: Chicago Style Clear explanations of citation styles, with examples.Also has writing and grammar tips.
• Massey University Online Writing Lab: Chicago Style In-depth explanation of Notes-Bibliography System and Author-Date System
• Purdue Online Writing Lab: Chicago Style Well-known site with extensive explanation of citation styles and writing tips.
• Turabian Style Citation Examples from Northwest Missouri State University, provided color-coded templates to follow.
• University of Pittsburgh Library System From the University of Pittsburgh shows examples of the differences between notes-bibliography and author-date citation styles.
• CMoS Shoptalk Offers some more questions and answers to many of the basic questions about citation in Chicago style.
• CMoS Elements
• Dissertations
• Encyclopedias
• In-Text Citations

Three Elements of Notes-Bibliography entries:

• Publication Information, including year.

Author(s). Title. Publication Information.

Four Elements of Author-Date Bibliography entries:

• Publication Year.
• Publication Information.

Author. Y ear. Title. Publication Information .

Notes- Bibliography Entry:

Last Name, First Name.  "Article title in quotation marks".  Journal Title italicized  volume number, no. issue number (Publication Date in parentheses): page numbers. DOI, permalink, or URL. 

Benz, Terressa A. “Toxic Cities: Neoliberalism and Environmental Racism in Flint and Detroit Michigan.”  Critical Sociology  45, no. 1 (January 2019): 49–62. doi:10.1177/0896920517708339.

Footnote or Endnote:

First Name Last Name,  "Article title in quotation marks".  Journal Title italicized  volume number, no. issue number (Publication Date in parentheses): page number. DOI, permalink, or URL. 

Terressa A. Benz,  “Toxic Cities: Neoliberalism and Environmental Racism in Flint and Detroit Michigan.”  Critical Sociology  45, no. 1 (January 2019): 50. doi:10.1177/0896920517708339.

Author-Date System Bibliography Entry:

This format depends on the details available. Consult resources for detailed information.

Last Name, First Name. Year. "Article title in quotation marks."  Journal Title italicized  volume number, no. issue number (month or season in parentheses): article page range.

Benz, Terressa A. 2019. “Toxic Cities: Neoliberalism and Environmental Racism in Flint and Detroit Michigan.”  Critical Sociology  45, no. 1 (January): 49–62. doi:10.1177/0896920517708339.

Bibliography Entry:

Last name, First name. "Title of of dissertation or thesis in quotation marks." Type of document, University Granting Degree, Year of publication. DOI, permanlink, or URL.

Kirchner, David Elek. "Challenging Private Power: Neighborhood Opposition to Redlining in Three Midwestern Cities." Doctoral Dissertation, Washington University, 2001. https://search.proquest.com/docview/304734464

First name Last name,  " Title of of dissertation or thesis in quotation marks."    ( Type of document, University Granting Degree,  Year of publication in parentheses ), page number.  DOI,  permanlink , or URL.

Kirchner, David Elek. "Challenging Private Power: Neighborhood Opposition to Redlining in Three Midwestern Cities." (Doctoral Dissertation, Washington University, 2001.) 113, https://search.proquest.com/docview/304734464

Author-Date Bibliography Entry:

Last name, First name. Year. "Title of of dissertation or thesis in quotation marks." Type of document, University Granting Degree. DOI, permanlink, or URL.

Kirchner, David Elek. 2001. "Challenging Private Power: Neighborhood Opposition to Redlining in Three Midwestern Cities." Doctoral Dissertation, Washington University. https://search.proquest.com/docview/304734464

Last name, First name.  Title of Book italicized.  Publisher, Year of publication. URL, permalink, DOI, or database.

Aalbers, Manuel B.  Place, Exclusion and Mortgage Markets.  John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2011. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/fhsu/detail.action?docID=697783

Footnote or Endnote:

First name Last name,  Title of Book Italicized.  (Publisher, Year of publication. in parentheses), page number. URL, permalink, DOI, or database.

Manuel B. Aalbers,  Place, Exclusion and Mortgage Markets.  (John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2011.) 78. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/fhsu/detail.action?docID=697783

  Author-Date System Bibliography Entry:

Last name, First Name. Year.  Title italicized.  Publisher name. URL, permalink, DOI, or database.

Aalbers, Manuel B. 2011.  Place, Exclusion and Mortgage Markets.  John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/fhsu/detail.action?docID=697783

Encyclopedia with an individual author and editor Bibliography Entry:

Last name, First name. "Title of entry in quotation marks." In  Title of Encyclopedia italicized.  Edited by First Name Last Name. Edition. Publisher, Year of publication. URL, permalink, DOI, or database.

Martin, Lori Latrice. "Redlining." In  Encyclopedia of Diversity and Social Justice , edited by Sherwood Thompson. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2014. https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rowmandasj/redlining/0

Encyclopedia with an individual author and editor Footnote or Endnote:

First name Last name, "Title of entry in quotation marks, in  Title of Encyclopedia italicized, ed. Editor First name Last Name, Edition, (Publisher, Year of publication. in parentheses), page number. URL, permalink, DOI, or database.

Lori Latrice Martin, "Redlining," in  Encyclopedia of Diversity and Social Justice, ed. Sherwood Thompson. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2014. https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rowmandasj/redlining/0

Encyclopedia with an individual author and editor Author-Date System Bibliography Entry:

Last name, First Name. Year. "Title of Entry in quotation marks." In Encyclopedia Title italicized.  Edited by First Name Last Name. Edition. Publisher, Year of publication. URL, permalink, DOI, or database.

Martin, Lori Latrice. "Redlining." In  Encyclopedia of Diversity and Social Justice , edited by Sherwood Thompson. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2014. https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/rowmandasj/redlining/0

Encyclopedia with no individual author and no editor Bibliography Entry:

Title of Encyclopedia italicized , Edition. s.v. "Title of Entry in quotation marks," Publisher, Year of publication, or last modified date, or access date. URL, permalink, DOI, or database.

Britannica Concise Encyclopedia, s.v. "segregation, racial."  Britannica Digital Learning, 2017.  https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/ebconcise/segregation_racial/0 

Encyclopedia with no individual author and no editor Footnote or Endnote:

Title of Encyclopedia italicized , Edition. s.v. "Title of Entry in quotation marks," (Year of publication in parentheses). or last modified date, or access date. URL, permalink, DOI, or database.

Britannica Concise Encyclopedia , s.v. "segregation, racial." (2017).  https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/ebconcise/segregation_racial/0 

Encyclopedia with no individual author and no editor Author-Date System Bibliography Entry:

Title of Encyclopedia italicized , Edition. s.v. "Title of Entry in quotation marks," Publisher, Year of publication, or last modified date, or access date. URL, permalink, DOI, or database.

Britannica Concise Encyclopedia , s.v. "segregation, racial."  Britannica Digital Learning, 2017.  https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/ebconcise/segregation_racial/0 

What does s.v. mean?

s.v. stands for sub verbo, Latin for "under the word" and is used to identify the article's title when there is no author 

Author Last Name, First Name. "Title of specific web page in quotation marks." Title of site as a whole. Owner or sponsor of site. Publication, modification or access date. URL.

 "Definition of Redlining in Real Estate." The Balance. Dotdash. Last modified November 21, 2019. https://www.thebalance.com/definition-of-redlining-1798618

Author Last Name, First Name."Title of specific web page in quotation marks." Title of site as a whole. Owner or sponsor of site. Publication, modification or access date. URL.

 "Definition of Redlining in Real Estate. "The Balance. Dotdash. Last modified November 21, 2019. https://www.thebalance.com/definition-of-redlining-1798618

Author Last Name, First Name.Year. "Title of specific web page in quotation marks." Title of site as a whole. Owner or sponsor of site. Publication, modification or access date. URL.

 "Definition of Redlining in Real Estate." 2019. The Balance. Dotdash. Last modified November 21, 2019. https://www.thebalance.com/definition-of-redlining-1798618

Give the name of the artist, the title of the artwork (in italics), the year it was made, and where it lives (museum, gallery, etc.). It’s fine to add other information if you know it, such as the size and medium. If you found it online, give the date you found it and the URL. If you found it in a book, cite the book and page number. You can put the information in a caption near the image or in an endnote or footnote. (Images are not usually listed in a bibliography.)

Examples of endnotes or footnotes

• Georgia O’Keeffe, The Cliff Chimneys, 1938, oil on canvas, 36 × 30 in., Milwaukee Art Museum, accessed December 10, 2015, https://gokmrc.wordpress.com/2014/09/22/a-hike-at-ghost-ranch/.
• Georgia O’Keeffe, The Cliff Chimneys, 1938, Milwaukee Art Museum, in Barbara Buhler Lynes, Lesley Poling-Kempes, and Frederick W. Turner, Georgia O’Keeffe and New Mexico: A Sense of Place (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 25.

Example for citing within the text of a paper

There are many paintings of the American West. Georgia O’Keeffe’s The Cliff Chimneys (1938, Milwaukee Art Museum) is a famous one.

If you are using author-date citations:

Author-date citations are not normally used to cite images. Instead, put the information about the image into a caption or in parentheses in the text of your paper.

Notes-Bibliography System:

Include a footnote or endnote each time you use a source. These notes have a superscript number for each note, with references at the end of the page (footnote) or document/chapter (endnote). 

How to insert footnotes and endnotes in Word 

If the paper also includes a bibliography, the information in the note can be shortened. If there is not a bibliography, all information should be included in the note. 

Example:  "Perhaps the most blatant example of a government instituted system of worthiness occurred within six months of the switch to the Flint River when General Motors (GM) ceased use of the toxic water " 1

1.  Terressa A. Benz,  “Toxic Cities: Neoliberalism and Environmental Racism in Flint and Detroit Michigan.”  Critical Sociology  45, no. 1 (January 2019): 50. doi:10.1177/0896920517708339.

Author-Date System:

(Last Name Year)

Example:  (Benz 2019)

Narrative Citations:  If you refer to the author in your written text, use only the year in parentheses after the author's name.

Example: Benz (2019) examines environmental racism in Michigan.

Specific Quotes and Paraphrases:  Include information about the specific part of your citation, such as page, paragraph, or chapter.

Example: "Perhaps the most blatant example of a government instituted system of worthiness occurred within six months of the switch to the Flint River when General Motors (GM) ceased use of the toxic water " (Benz 2019, 55)

• General Formatting
• Bibliography or References
• Have the top, sides, and bottom margins set at 1 inch
• Use standard font such as 12 pt. Times New Roman
• Double-space the text and indent each new paragraph by ½ inch.
• Place page numbers in the top right or center bottom of all pages except the title page.
• Leave the right margin “ragged”  (unless otherwise instructed)

There are two different styles (both are identical in content, but different in forms)

• Author-Date, with in-text citation (close to APA Style)
• Note/Bibliography, with footnotes/endnotes
• How to Insert Footnotes and Endnotes in Word
• Adding a hanging indent to a references page in Word from Concordia Library
• Chicago Style Formatting For other questions and examples on formatting with headings, block quotes, numbers and acronyms, and many more.

For the Title Page, all text should be center-aligned, double-spaced, all the same font, and the Title and Subtitle is 1/3 down the page, Capitalized and in Bold. And 2/3 down the page place the other information: Name, Course Name and Code, The Date.

Course Name and Code

For the Bibliography or Reference list

• On a new page at the end of the main text
• Use a hanging Indent
• Have subheadings of Primary and Secondary Sources
• Turabian style: single space

Bibliography (for Notes-Bibliogrpahy style) or References (For Author-Date style)

Primary Sources

Secondary Sources

Aalbers, Manuel B.  Place, Exclusion and Mortgage Markets.  Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, 2011.  https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/fhsu/detail.action?docID=697783

Aalbers, Manuel B. 2011.  Place, Exclusion and Mortgage Markets.  Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/fhsu/detail.action?docID=697783

“Comments that betray a writer’s conscious or unconscious biases or ignorance may cause readers to lose respect for the writer and interpret the writer’s words in ways that were never intended.” [1]

• Avoid irrelevant references to personal characteristics like: sex, race, ethnicity, disability, age religion, sexual orientation, transgender status, or social standing.
• Only mention a characteristic when it will help the reader develop a picture of the person you are writing about, Use Care.
• (pulling examples from the Avoiding other bias Language tab)
• A writer, A student, and an actor.
• For more examples refer to this chapter ( https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/book/ed17/part2/ch05/psec260.html )
• Unless the biased language is central to the meaning of the working.

For more details about Conscious Language, refer to chapters 5.252 – 5.260 in the 17th edition of the CMoS.

[1]  The Chicago Manual of Style (University of Chicago Press Editorial Press), accessed August 31, 2021,  https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/book/ed17/part2/ch05/psec260.html .

What is Chicago style citation?

Chicago is a documentation style that has been published by the Chicago University Press since 1906. There are two different styles (both are identical in content, but different in form)

• Author-date, with in-text citations (close to APA style) (Last Name, Year, Page #)

This style type is most common among writers and students of History, English and Art. It provides readers with cues they can use to follow your ideas more efficiently and to locate information of interest.

Where do I put in-text citations, footnotes, endnotes?

• (Last Name, Year, Page #) ((Benz 2019, 55)
• The quote or paraphrase used within the main body of the text. [1]
• Endnotes also use superscripts, however instead of the citation showing in the footnotes, the endnotes will appear at the end of the body of text and before the bibliography/reference list.

[1]  Last name, First name. Title of Book italicized. Place of publication: Publisher, Year of publication. URL, permalink, DOI, or database.

Do in-text citations count towards word count?

            No, the in-text citations, footnotes, or endnotes do not count towards a word count.

What are the General Guidelines for a Bibliography or Reference List?

• Using a hanging indent
• Make sure to have this page double-spaced
• Keep citations in alphabetical order

How should a source be cited when there is no author?

No author: start with the title

What if there is no publication date?

What words in a title should be capitalized?

All titles are written in  title case   

• << Previous: MLA
• Next: Other Styles >>
• Last Updated: Sep 3, 2024 12:38 PM
• URL: https://fhsuguides.fhsu.edu/citation

Documentation and Citation

Main navigation.

Documentation and citation serve as a connection between a writer and readers in particular contexts. If you cite and document your sources in a way that is familiar to your readers, they understand you as a member of their intellectual or disciplinary community. If you treat sources in a way that is alien to your readers, they may see you as an alien, and react with suspicion or even anger.

Resources for Documentation and Citation

The first and most important resource is always the immediate audience for your work. When you are writing for a professor or TA, ask if they have a preferred documentation style. If they do, this is always the style you should use when writing for them. Other professors may have other preferences, so be sure to check when writing for a different professor.

If you are writing for submission to a publication, check the "Information for Authors" section of the publication's website. For example, the journal Anthropological Theory (published in the UK) uses the  house style of the publisher SAGE , and the Journal of Pacific History follows  its own style sheet . Some journals, such as Nature, provide  highly detailed guidelines  for authors.

Much academic work follows one of four styles (although individual publications often develop their own style sheet based on one of the Big Four):

• APA  (from the American Psychological Association), used mainly in the social sciences and behavioral sciences. The  Journal of Neurolinguistics  uses APA style.
• CMS  (the Chicago Manual of Style, from the University of Chicago Press), used in the humanities and the social sciences. The journal  American Literature  uses a version of Chicago style.
• CSE  (from the Council of Science Editors), used mainly in the sciences. The journal Microelectronic Engineering  uses a version of CSE style.
• MLA  (from the Modern Language Association), used mainly in the humanities. The journal Adaptation  uses MLA style.

The  Purdue University OWL  or Online Writing Lab is a one-stop resource for citation and documentation help across the disciplines.

Bibliography Management

Stanford supports four citation-management systems: Refworks, Mendeley, EndNote, and Zotero, along with citation-management and LaTeX editor Overleaf. For large or long-term research projects, these are essential tools. The Library has many resources and tutorials for these systems, as well as recommendations for best practices and other tools to help you in your process. Check out Stanford Library's excellent guide on bibliography management

Why bother with citations?

Professor Andrea Lunsford of Stanford writes: "In the academy today, we have very strict standards for citation and attribution, and we have them for a reason. We want to know where the knowledge comes from, and we want to be able to check it. We want to go to those sources and look to see if the student is using them correctly or not. In fact, we want to be able to do that with all scholarship."

In this engaging video, PWR Lecturer Dr. Kathleen Tarr further explains documentation and citation as respect for intellectual property .

Learn More about Stanford's Community Standards

• U.S. Locations
• UMGC Europe
• Learn Online
• Find Answers
• 855-655-8682
• Current Students

Online Guide to Writing and Research

Academic integrity and documentation, explore more of umgc.

• Online Guide to Writing

Types of Documentation

The two most common types of documentation used in research are note citations and parenthetical citations (Winkler & McCuen-Metherell, 2008, p. 4).  You might also see terms like “footnotes,” “endnotes,” or “references” when learning about documentation practices. Refer to the required style guide and your instructor when determining exactly what kind of documentation is required for your assignment.

Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.

Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

By using our website you agree to our use of cookies. Learn more about how we use cookies by reading our  Privacy Policy .

Documentation Systems: An Overview

Documentation systems are tools by which one participant in an academic discipline, or field of study, acknowledges the work of another. Using one is much more than a professional courtesy: it is a requirement.

This guide covers the reasons for this requirement, the kinds of sources that must be documented, as well as explanations and examples of the different formatting rules governing the five systems most frequently used in the academic and professional world.

Overview: Documentation Systems

Research writing is how an academic community exchanges ideas and shares the results of their work. You may hear this community called a "discourse community". That's because its members belong to a specific discipline, like anthropology, Victorian literature or physics. The ongoing conversation between members of these communities helps further the work of individual contributors.

Publishing is one of the ways in which these communities talk to each other: text-books, articles in professional journals and conference proceedings, for example, are part of the conversation. Collectively, they constitute a library of sources upon which any researcher may draw. To "borrow" from this library, participants in the conversation must document their use of these sources.

Available to meet this requirement are a variety of documentation systems designed to fit the specific needs of different academic disciplines. In the humanities, for instance, the Modern Language Association (MLA) style is preferred, while in the social and natural sciences there is a larger tendency toward the American Psychological Association (APA) style.

There are no hard and fast rules, however. The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) is often used in both the humanities and the social sciences. In the "hard sciences" preferences run more to the Council of Biology Editors (CBE) style and the Civil Engineering Citation Guide (CEC) . Your instructors will advise you on which to use.

Why Sources are Documented

The most obvious reason for documenting your sources is to avoid plagiarism and its consequences. There are other reasons as well, all related to preserving the integrity of academic inquiry, the process involved and the results produced.

Avoiding Plagiarism

Most students are aware of the general definition of plagiarism: intentionally representing another person's ideas, findings, statistics, language, sentence structure, etc. as their own.

There is more to it, however, than handing in a roommate's composition or pulling a paper off the Internet. In fact, many incidences of plagiarism are unintentional and quite often the result of carelessness or simple ignorance regarding academic rules.

Deliberate or not, plagiarism is academic dishonesty. The consequences are significant: failure or expulsion from an academic institution for students; loss of credibility and severely damaged reputations for professionals.

The importance of understanding and avoiding plagiarism cannot be overstated.

Giving Credit Where Credit is Due

Acknowledging sources is an ironclad rule in the world of academic research. Not only are intellectual property rights at stake, but the simple notion of doing the right thing, as well.

Individuals who have pursued a specific line of inquiry and have made a significant contribution to their field of study deserve recognition; it's their due. More importantly, giving credit eliminates suspicion of having taken credit where credit isn't due.

Keeping "who said what" organized allows for an orderly presentation of ideas. Accurate documentation ensures a tangible background of verifiable sources against which the trustworthiness of someone's findings or conclusions can be measured. It also creates the foundation upon which future inquiry and research can be built.

Building Your Own Credibility

At the core of winning over an audience is the ability to present an argument. Convincing others that your way of thinking is worthy can be very challenging and it will be an uphill battle if you build the foundation of your argument on poorly documented research. At stake is your credibility.

Citing and documenting trustworthy sources in your work will bolster the notion that what you have to say is credible and trustworthy. It will help convince your audience that you know what you talking about, that you are familiar with the historical context of your topic and that your contribution or perspective has value.

It also provides the information needed for others with similar interests to test your findings. Successful duplication of your research serves to strengthen your thesis and validate your conclusions: a desirable result. Improperly documenting your sources will hinder other researchers from achieving this goal.

Creating Context

It's important to draw a clear line between your own ideas and those of others. Citing and documenting your sources draws that line. It also describes the contextual framework, or "context", in which you wish your ideas, arguments and observations to be viewed; the larger conversation in which it should be placed.

When there are multiple sources and varying viewpoints in a discourse community's conversation, the contextual frame assigns intellectual and academic responsibility to the contributing authors. This is particularly important when forming an opposing argument or attempting to disprove the conclusions of someone else.

Proper documentation separates the various points-of-view in the source material and helps the reader see the path you followed in developing arguments that support your conclusions.

What Sources are Documented

Generally, all published or copyrighted information must be documented. This means anything summarized, paraphrased, or quoted. The same goes as well for any unpublished material. If it's not yours you have to say so: You have to give credit where credit is due.

Here are some types of information that should always be documented:

• Facts not widely known or debatable, especially if their veracity can be challenged in any way.
• Hard evidence such as statistics, graphs, charts, diagrams, or figures unless they are products of your own field research.
• Opinions, claims or assertions that illustrate a point that may be perceived as questionable or controversial.
• Unique Phrasing and Terminology that does not fit your writing style, personal voice or level of academic experience.

The types of information that need not be documented include:

• Information largely considered general knowledge.
• Information that can be found in encyclopedias, dictionaries or any of a variety of other sources.
• Information derived from personal experience, observations, or field research.

If you have any difficulty determining whether a piece of information needs to be documented, ask yourself this: Did you possess the information in question before you began your research project or after? You must cite and document information learned about in the course of your work. When in doubt, you should do the same. An ounce of prevention never hurts.

How Sources are Documented

Conventions for documenting source material differ slightly from style to style; however, both in-text citation and end documentation are universal requirements.

They are used in conjunction with each other: First, the in-text citation flags the reader's attention identifying the source material and second, the end documentation catalogues the bibliographic information flagged by the in-text citation.

Note: The Chicago Manual of Style points out an exception: when only a handful of sources are used, footnotes may replace end documentation.

In-Text Citations

There are various types of in-text citation methods. The Chicago Manual of Style uses superscript numbers inserted into the text at the citation point. These numbers direct readers to corresponding footnotes at the bottom of the page or endnotes found at the end of a document. The Council of Biology Editors (CBE) uses superscript numbers also, but they direct reader to corresponding entries found only in a References List at the end.

By far, the most common method is parenthetical. Used by most style sheets, this system relies on parenthetical notes inserted at the point of citation. In the case of the American Psychological Association (APA) , The Chicago Manual , and CSE styles, the parenthetic note contains an author name and publication date. The Modern Language Association (MLA) style places page numbers inside the parenthesis as well, indicating where the cited material can be found.

Each parenthetical note refers to a bibliographic entry in the end documentation, known as a Works Cited or References List . Most writers and readers prefer the efficiency of this system since interruption to the flow of text is minimal and less distracting.

End Documentation

The Works Cited or References List is a bibliographic compilation of the specific sources cited within an academic paper or book and is located at the end of a document on pages that are separate from the rest. Though there are similarities, each documentation system handles formatting a little differently.

Regardless, end documentation accomplishes two things: First, it offers reading suggestions to those interested in your research, especially those who wish to replicate your work. Second, it provides the writer with a tool for assessing his or her research.

Once a Works Cited or References List is compiled it is much easier to consider the following questions:

• How comprehensive is my research? What have I omitted?
• Are there other sources that would lend further credibility to my position?
• Will my audience expect me to have reviewed more source material?

In-text citation and end documentation are two sides of the same coin. They function together. One without the other makes little sense.

Related Information: Example of How Sources are Documented

An in-text citation must be accompanied by a corresponding entry in a Works Cited or References List at the end of your document. One without the other is incomplete and unacceptable.

Imagine reading an article and you come across the following:

The difficulty I describe here is akin to what Michael North, in his discussion of Claude McKay's dialect writing, aptly calls the "linguistic no-man's-land" entered when McKay attempts to stop writing in the Jamaican dialect (67).

Suppose you are unfamiliar with Michael North and want to know more about his work. The Works Cited or References list at the end of the article should help by revealing the following bibliographic entry:

If this entry is missing, or if there is no Works Cited or References List at all, the reader will have a hard time tracking down and learning more about the author and his work. Likewise, if the entry exists but no citations appear in the text, where and how and why the writer used the source will be unclear.

Note: A Works Cited , Literature Cited , or References List is known as a Selected Bibliography and contains only those sources cited within a document. An actual Bibliography is more extensive. It represents all the sources reviewed in the research process and includes those which are not cited in your document.

This distinction is important because students are sometimes asked to include both end documentation and a bibliography when they hand in their work. Before beginning, it's a good idea to find out what your instructor requires and which documentation system he or she expects you to use.

Citation Information

Peter Connor, Donna LeCourt, and Laurel Nesbitt. (1994-2024). Documentation Systems: An Overview. The WAC Clearinghouse. Colorado State University. Available at https://wac.colostate.edu/repository/writing/guides/.

Copyright Information

Copyright © 1994-2024 Colorado State University and/or this site's authors, developers, and contributors . Some material displayed on this site is used with permission.

• dining Dining Menu
• news Library
• shopping Campus Store
• pointerup The Crux
• Current Students
• Faculty & Staff
• Campus Calendar
• Academic Department
• Offices & Services
• About Clarke
• Admission & Aid
• Campus Life

Documentation and Citation Guide

As you prepare many writing assignments and class presentations, you will find that you are reading, evaluating and using the work of other individuals. Failure to give proper credit to the work of others is plagiarism. Acknowledging the work of others involves citing the sources that you used and formatting this information in a particular documentation style. A documentation style is a standard approach to the citation of sources that you have consulted, quoted or referenced in some way. The sites listed below provide both examples and guidance in using various documentation styles. Your teacher will recommend which documentation style to use.

APA – American Psychological Association

All of the sites listed below provide examples from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th edition). This publication is available in the Clarke bookstore and in the Clarke Library. The call number is Ref BF76.7 .P83. APA is commonly used in social sciences fields such as psychology.

• APAstyle.org Frequently asked questions about using APA style. This page is part of the official web site for the American Psychological Association.
• Using American Psychological Association (APA) Format The Purdue online writing lab offers detailed examples and even a PowerPoint presentation on APA style.
• APA Reference Style (Northern Michigan University). This guide gives a wide variety of examples including YouTube clips, government documents, and blogs.

MLA – Modern Language Association

All of the sites listed below provide examples from the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (6th edition). This publication is available in the Clarke bookstore and in the Clarke Library. The call number is Ref LB2369 .G53 2003. MLA is often used in humanities classes (such as English lit.).

• MLA Documentation The Writing Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Includes comments on when MLA style is commonly used, examples of parenthetical citations, and works cited pages.
• Using Modern Language Association Format The Purdue online writing lab offers detailed examples and an extensive list of links to other MLA citation guides and templates.

Turabian/Chicago

This citation style is used in a variety of fields including history. You can find a print copy of the Chicago/Turabian manual in the reference section. Its call number is LB2369 .T8 2007.

• Citation Guide: Chicago/Turabian Style (Simon Fraser University). This site gives examples of Turabian citation for a variety of formats.
• Chicago Manual of Style Online: Quick Guide

AMA – American Medical Association

Students of medicine, health, and nursing typically use AMA. You can find a print copy of the AMA guide in the reference section. Its call number is REF R119 .A533 2007.

• AMA Citation Guide (St. Catherine University)

CSE-Council of Science Editors

Biological Sciences students typically use this citation style.

• CSE Name Year Citation Style Guide (McGill University Library). This pdf is used in Biology and gives citation examples and formats.
• CSE Citation Style Examples (Dakota State University). This site gives citation examples using CSE for most formats.
• American Institute of Physics (Monash University). Find citation examples for books, journals, and more.
• American Chemical Society (Williams College Libraries). Find citation examples and advice.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Citing sources

Citation Styles Guide | Examples for All Major Styles

Published on June 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on November 7, 2022.

A citation style is a set of guidelines on how to cite sources in your academic writing . You always need a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize a source to avoid plagiarism . How you present these citations depends on the style you follow. Scribbr’s citation generator can help!

Different styles are set by different universities, academic associations, and publishers, often published in an official handbook with in-depth instructions and examples.

There are many different citation styles, but they typically use one of three basic approaches: parenthetical citations , numerical citations, or note citations.

Parenthetical citations

• Chicago (Turabian) author-date

CSE name-year

Numerical citations

CSE citation-name or citation-sequence

Note citations

• Chicago (Turabian) notes and bibliography

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

Types of citation: parenthetical, note, numerical, which citation style should i use, parenthetical citation styles, numerical citation styles, note citation styles, frequently asked questions about citation styles.

The clearest identifying characteristic of any citation style is how the citations in the text are presented. There are three main approaches:

• Parenthetical citations: You include identifying details of the source in parentheses in the text—usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if relevant ( author-date ). Sometimes the publication date is omitted ( author-page ).
• Numerical citations: You include a number in brackets or in superscript, which corresponds to an entry in your numbered reference list.
• Note citations: You include a full citation in a footnote or endnote, which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

Citation styles also differ in terms of how you format the reference list or bibliography entries themselves (e.g., capitalization, order of information, use of italics). And many style guides also provide guidance on more general issues like text formatting, punctuation, and numbers.

Don't submit your assignments before you do this

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students. Free citation check included.

Try for free

In most cases, your university, department, or instructor will tell you which citation style you need to follow in your writing. If you’re not sure, it’s best to consult your institution’s guidelines or ask someone. If you’re submitting to a journal, they will usually require a specific style.

Sometimes, the choice of citation style may be left up to you. In those cases, you can base your decision on which citation styles are commonly used in your field. Try reading other articles from your discipline to see how they cite their sources, or consult the table below.

The American Anthropological Association (AAA) recommends citing your sources using Chicago author-date style . AAA style doesn’t have its own separate rules. This style is used in the field of anthropology.

APA Style is defined by the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . It was designed for use in psychology, but today it’s widely used across various disciplines, especially in the social sciences.

Generate accurate APA citations with Scribbr

The citation style of the American Political Science Association (APSA) is used mainly in the field of political science.

The citation style of the American Sociological Association (ASA) is used primarily in the discipline of sociology.

Chicago author-date

Chicago author-date style is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the sciences and social sciences.

The citation style of the Council of Science Editors (CSE) is used in various scientific disciplines. It includes multiple options for citing your sources, including the name-year system.

Harvard style is often used in the field of economics. It is also very widely used across disciplines in UK universities. There are various versions of Harvard style defined by different universities—it’s not a style with one definitive style guide.

Check out Scribbr’s Harvard Reference Generator

MLA style is the official style of the Modern Language Association, defined in the MLA Handbook (9th edition). It’s widely used across various humanities disciplines. Unlike most parenthetical citation styles, it’s author-page rather than author-date.

Generate accurate MLA citations with Scribbr

The American Chemical Society (ACS) provides guidelines for a citation style using numbers in superscript or italics in the text, corresponding to entries in a numbered reference list at the end. It is used in chemistry.

The American Medical Association ( AMA ) provides guidelines for a numerical citation style using superscript numbers in the text, which correspond to entries in a numbered reference list. It is used in the field of medicine.

CSE style includes multiple options for citing your sources, including the citation-name and citation-sequence systems. Your references are listed alphabetically in the citation-name system; in the citation-sequence system, they appear in the order in which you cited them.

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers ( IEEE ) provides guidelines for citing your sources with IEEE in-text citations that consist of numbers enclosed in brackets, corresponding to entries in a numbered reference list. This style is used in various engineering and IT disciplines.

The National Library of Medicine (NLM) citation style is defined in Citing Medicine: The NLM Style Guide for Authors, Editors, and Publishers (2nd edition).

Vancouver style is also used in various medical disciplines. As with Harvard style, a lot of institutions and publications have their own versions of Vancouver—it doesn’t have one fixed style guide.

The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation is the main style guide for legal citations in the US. It’s widely used in law, and also when legal materials need to be cited in other disciplines.

Chicago notes and bibliography

Chicago notes and bibliography is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the humanities.

The Oxford University Standard for the Citation of Legal Authorities ( OSCOLA ) is the main legal citation style in the UK (similar to Bluebook for the US).

There are many different citation styles used across different academic disciplines, but they fall into three basic approaches to citation:

• Parenthetical citations : Including identifying details of the source in parentheses —usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if available ( author-date ). The publication date is occasionally omitted ( author-page ).
• Numerical citations: Including a number in brackets or superscript, corresponding to an entry in your numbered reference list.
• Note citations: Including a full citation in a footnote or endnote , which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.

Check if your university or course guidelines specify which citation style to use. If the choice is left up to you, consider which style is most commonly used in your field.

• APA Style is the most popular citation style, widely used in the social and behavioral sciences.
• MLA style is the second most popular, used mainly in the humanities.
• Chicago notes and bibliography style is also popular in the humanities, especially history.
• Chicago author-date style tends to be used in the sciences.

Other more specialized styles exist for certain fields, such as Bluebook and OSCOLA for law.

The most important thing is to choose one style and use it consistently throughout your text.

A scientific citation style is a system of source citation that is used in scientific disciplines. Some commonly used scientific citation styles are:

• Chicago author-date , CSE , and Harvard , used across various sciences
• ACS , used in chemistry
• AMA , NLM , and Vancouver , used in medicine and related disciplines
• AAA , APA , and ASA , commonly used in the social sciences

APA format is widely used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social and behavioral sciences, including fields like education, psychology, and business.

Be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you want to be published in to double-check which style you should be using.

MLA Style  is the second most used citation style (after APA ). It is mainly used by students and researchers in humanities fields such as literature, languages, and philosophy.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, November 07). Citation Styles Guide | Examples for All Major Styles. Scribbr. Retrieved September 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/citing-sources/citation-styles/

Is this article helpful?

Jack Caulfield

Other students also liked, apa vs. mla | the key differences in format & citation, the basics of in-text citation | apa & mla examples, how to avoid plagiarism | tips on citing sources, scribbr apa citation checker.

An innovative new tool that checks your APA citations with AI software. Say goodbye to inaccurate citations!