literature review of modular distance learning

Home News & Diary School Blog

Online Distance Learning: A Literature Review

29 Sep 2020

Uncategorised

This week’s blogpost is a guest post by Dr John L. Taylor , Director of Learning, Teaching and Innovation at Cranleigh School .

Dr Taylor is leading a free CIRL professional development webinar on project-based learning, on 17 November from 4-5pm GMT. The link will be available on CIRL’s Eventbrite page soon and the webinar recording will be added to CIRL’s Resources and Professional Development page .

What does the secondary research literature tell us about distance learning?

This blogpost offers a literature review on online distance learning, which is thematically divided into four sections. I first consider what the literature tells us about the efficacy of online distance learning (section 1) and the importance of building a learning community (section 2). I then discuss what the literature says in response to two questions: ‘Does online distance learning work better for some students?’ (section 3) and ‘Can online distance learning support the development of self-regulated learning?’ (section 4).

In this review, the following key terms are defined as follows:

• Distance learning: a ‘form of education in which the main elements include physical separation of teachers and students during instruction and the use of various technologies to facilitate student-teacher and student-student communication.’ [1]
• Online learning: ‘education that takes place over the internet’. [2] This can be subdivided into asynchronous online courses that do not take place in real-time and synchronous online courses in which teacher and student interact online simultaneously. [3]
• Blended learning: a hybrid mode of interaction which combines face-to-face in-person meetings with online interaction. [4] As blended learning is a hybrid model, either the face-to-face or the online elements may be dominant. So, for example, blended learning can occur when online instructional tools are used to support face-to-face learning in a classroom, or when some face-to-face instruction is interspersed with online learning as part of a longer course.
• A virtual school: ‘an entity approved by a state or governing body that offers courses through distance delivery – most commonly using the internet’. [5]
• Self-regulated learning: ‘the modulation of affective, cognitive and behavioural processes throughout a learning experience in order to reach a desired level of achievement’. [6] Self-regulating learning skills have been described as abilities such as planning, managing and controlling the learning process. [7] Processes that occur during self-regulated learning include goal setting, metacognition and self-assessment. [8]

1. The Efficacy of Online Distance Learning

That said, there is also evidence of equivalence across a number of outcome measures. A 2004 meta-analysis by Cathy Cavanaugh et al of 116 effect sizes measured across 14 K-12 web-delivered distance learning programmes between 1999 and 2004 found that there was no significant difference in outcomes between virtual and face-to-face schools. [10]

A 2015 study by Heather Kauffmann explored factors predictive of student success and satisfaction with online learning. [11] Kauffmann notes that several studies have found that online learning programmes lead to outcomes that are comparable to those of face-to-face programmes.

VanPortfliet and Anderson note that research into hybrid instruction indicates that students achieve outcomes that match, if not exceed, outcomes from other instructional modalities. In particular, academic achievement by students in hybrid programmes is consistently higher than that of students engaged in purely online programmes. [12]

The ongoing discussion in the literature suggests that it is difficult to draw general conclusions about the efficacy of online learning as such, not least because it constitutes in significant ways a distinctive mode of learning when compared with real-world instruction. It is perhaps better, then, to look more specifically at questions such as the comparative strengths and challenges of moving to virtual schooling, the conditions which need to be in place for it to function well and the manner in which this transition is experienced by learners with different capabilities.

2. The Importance of Building a Learning Community

A helpful summary of research about online learning by Jonathan Beale at CIRL contains an outline of principles concerning successful online distance learning programmes.The summary explores research-based recommendations for effective teaching and learning practices in online and blended environments made by Judith V. Boettcher and Rita-Marie Conrad in their 2016 work, The Online Teaching Survival Guide: Simple and Practical Pedagogical Tips . [13] A central emphasis of these recommendations is that successful online learning depends upon the formation of an online learning community, and this is only possible if there is regular online interaction between teachers and students:

Why is presence so important in the online environment? When faculty actively interact and engage students in a face-to-face classroom, the class evolves as a group and develops intellectual and personal bonds. The same type of community bonding happens in an online setting if the faculty presence is felt consistently. [14]

The significance of relationship building is noted in the Michigan Virtual Learning Research Institute’s Teacher Guide to Online Learning :

Creating a human-to-human bond with your online students, as well as with their parents/guardians and the student’s local online mentor, is critical in determining student success in your online course. This can be accomplished through effective individual and group communication, encouraging engagement in the course, productive and growth-focused feedback, and multiple opportunities for students to ask questions and learn in a way that is meaningful to them. [15]

Research into virtual learning emphasises the importance of the connection between students and their teachers. This can be lost if there is no ‘live’ contact element at all. As Beale notes, this does not necessarily mean that every lesson needs to include a video meeting, though there is a beneficial psychological impact of knowing that the teacher is still in contact and regular face-to-face online discussions can enable this. There are other forms – a discussion thread which begins during a lesson and is open throughout can perform the same role, though in cases where meeting functions are available, students may be directed to use these rather than email.

As well as the teacher-student relationship, student-student links are important. There is evidence of improved learning when students are asked to share their learning experiences with each other. [16]

Beale’s research summary also emphasizes the importance of a supportive and encouraging online environment. Distance learning is challenging for students and the experience can be frustrating and de-motivating if technology fails (e.g., if work gets lost or a live session cannot be joined due to a connection failure or time-zone difference). More than ever, teachers need to work at providing positive encouragement to their students, praising and rewarding success and acknowledging challenges when they exist. It is also valuable if teachers can identify new skills that students are acquiring – not least skills in problem-solving, using information technology and resilience – and encourage their classes when they see evidence of these.

3. Does online distance learning work better for some students?

Given that, more or less by definition, students participating in an online distance learning programme will be operating with a greater degree of autonomy, it may be expected that those who will be best suited to online learning will be those with the greatest propensity for self-regulated learning. This view is advanced in a review of the literature on virtual schools up until 2009, by Michael Barbour and Thomas Reeves:

The benefits associated with virtual schooling are expanding educational access, providing high-quality learning opportunities, improving student outcomes and skills, allowing for educational choice, and achieving administrative efficiency. However, the research to support these conjectures is limited at best. The challenges associated with virtual schooling include the conclusion that the only students typically successful in online learning environments are those who have independent orientations towards learning, highly motivated by intrinsic sources, and have strong time management, literacy, and technology skills. These characteristics are typically associated with adult learners. This stems from the fact that research into and practice of distance education has typically been targeted to adult learners. [17]

Given the lack of evidence noted by Barbour and Reeves, a more cautious conclusion would be that we may expect to find a relationship between outcomes from online distance learning programmes and the propensity of students for self-regulated learning, rather than the conclusion that this capacity is a precondition of success.

Kauffmann notes that students with the capacity for self-regulated learning tend to achieve better outcomes from online courses. This result is not surprising, given that in online learning more responsibility is placed on the learner. [18]

A 2019 review of 35 studies into online learning by Jacqueline Wong et al explores the connection between online learning and self-regulated learning. The study highlights the significance of supports for self-regulated learning such as the use of prompts or feedback in promoting the development and deployment of strategies for self-regulated learning, leading to better achievement in online learning:

In online learning environments where the instructor presence is low, learners have to make the decisions regarding when to study or how to approach the study materials. Therefore, learners’ ability to self-regulate their own learning becomes a crucial factor in their learning success … [S]upporting self-regulated learning strategies can help learners become better at regulating their learning, which in turn could enhance their learning performance. [19]

In a 2005 study of ‘Virtual High School’ (VHS), the oldest provider of distance learning courses to high school students in the United States, Susan Lowes notes that the VHS’s pedagogical approach ‘emphasizes student-centered teaching; collaborative, problem-based learning; small-group work; and authentic performance-based assessment’. [20] This approach, Lowes comments, is aligned with a growing body of literature on the characteristics of successful online courses.

Taking a more student-centred approach during online instruction fits with features of the online environment. It is natural to make more use of asynchronous assignments and to expect students to take more responsibility for their study, given that they are not subject to direct supervision in a classroom setting and may be accessing course materials outside of a conventional timetable.

4. Can online distance learning support the development of self-regulated learning?

It may be the case that, even if Barbour and Reeves are correct in claiming that only those students with an ‘independent orientation towards learning’typically achieve successful outcomes from online distance learning programmes, a countervailing relationship obtains insofar as participation in an online distance learning programme may foster the development of the propensity for self-regulated learning.

A controlled study in 2018 by Ruchan Uz and Adem Uzun of 167 undergraduate students on a programming language course compared blended learning with a traditional learning environment.  The study found that, for the purpose of developing self-regulated learning skills, blended instruction was more effective than traditional instruction. [21]

In a 2011 review of 55 empirical studies, Matthew Bernacki, Anita Aguilar and James Byrnes noted that research suggests that:

[T]echnologically enhanced learning environments … represent an opportunity for students to build their ability to self-regulate, and for some, leverage their ability to apply self-regulated learning … to acquire knowledge. [22]

Their review suggests that the use of technologically enhanced learning environments can promote self-regulated learning and that such environments are best used by learners who can self-regulate their learning. [23]

However, an investigation by Peter Serdyukov and Robyn Hill into whether online students do learn independently argues that independent learning requires active promotion as well as a desire to promote autonomy on the part of the instructor and the necessary skills and motivation on the part of students. Where these conditions are not met, the aspiration to autonomy is frustrated, which can lead to negative outcomes from the online learning experience. [24]

Bernacki, Aguilar and Brynes employed an Opportunity-Propensity (O-P) framework. The O-P framework was introduced by Brynes and Miller in a 2007 paper exploring the relative importance of predictors of math and science achievement, where it was described as follows:

This framework assumes that high achievement is a function of three categories of factors: (a) opportunity factors (e.g., coursework), (b) propensity factors (e.g., prerequisite skills, motivation), and (c) distal factors (e.g., SES). [25]

It is plausible to suggest that the two-way relationship between self-regulated learning skills and successful participation in an online distance learning programme can be explained in terms of the opportunities online distance learning offers in three areas: first, to develop self-regulated learning skills afforded by the online distance learning environment; second, the prior propensity of learners to self-regulate their learning; and third, changes in distal factors (such as exclusive mediation of learning through online platforms to IT and parental involvement in learning).

Summary of Secondary Research Literature

The following points can be made about online distance learning based on the foregoing review:

• Successful online learning depends upon the formation of an online learning community. Regular online interaction between teachers and students is important in the development of an online community. Teacher-student and student-student links are part of this.
• Students with the capacity for self-regulated learning tend to achieve better outcomes from online courses.
• There is some evidence that online distance learning programmes can be used to help develop self-regulated learning skills. This is provided that both teacher and student are motivated by the goal of building autonomy .
• There is support in the research literature for using collaborative, problem-based learning and authentic performance-based assessment within online learning programmes.

Coda: review and revise

It is fair to say that the move to an entirely distance learning programme is the single biggest and most rapid change that many educators will ever have had to make. As with any large-scale rapid and fundamental innovation, it is hard to get everything right. We need to be willing to revise and refine. This may mean adapting to use a new software platform across the whole school if problems are found with existing provision, or it may be an adjustment to expectations about lesson length or frequency of feedback. Keeping distance learning programmes under review is also essential as we look towards a possible future in which it will co-exist with face-to-face teaching.

This literature review is an edited version of the literature review in my report, ‘An Investigation of Online Distance Learning at Cranleigh’ , September 2020, which can be downloaded here . In that report, the literature review is used to establish several conclusions about the implementation of online learning programmes. Those findings are compared to trends discernible in the responses to a questionnaire survey of three year groups at Cranleigh School (years 9, 10 and 12). The programme of study for these year groups was designed to provide continuity of delivery of the curriculum, in contrast to the programmes developed for years 11 and 13, where a customised programme of study was developed to bridge the gap created by the withdrawal of national public examinations during the summer term of 2020.

[1] ‘Distance learning | education | Britannica’ .

[2] Joshua Stern, ‘Introduction to Online Teaching and Learning’ .

[3] Fordham University, ‘Types of Online Learning’ .

[5] Michael K. Barbour and Thomas C. Reeves, ‘The reality of virtual schools: A review of the literature’, Computers & Education 52.2 (2009), pp. 402-416.

[6] Maaike A. van Houten‐Schat et al , ‘Self‐regulated learning in the clinical context: a systematic review’, Medical Education 52.10 (2018), pp. 1008-1015.

[7] René F. Kizilcec, Mar Pérez-Sanagustín & Jorge J. Maldonado, ‘Self-regulated learning strategies predict learner behavior and goal attainment in Massive Open Online Courses’, Computers & education 104 (2017), pp. 18-33.

[8] Sofie M. M. Loyens, Joshua Magda and Remy M. J. P. Rikers, ‘Self-directed learning in problem-based learning and its relationships with self-regulated learning’, Educational Psychology Review 20.4 (2008), pp. 411-427.

[9] Paul VanPortfliet and Michael Anderson, ‘Moving from online to hybrid course delivery: Increasing positive student outcomes’, Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching 6.1 (2013), pp. 80-87.

[10] Cathy Cavanaugh et al , ‘The effects of distance education on K-12 student outcomes: A meta-analysis’, Learning Point Associates/North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL), 2004.

[11] Heather Kauffman, ‘A review of predictive factors of student success in and satisfaction with online learning’, Research in Learning Technology 23 (2015).

[12] VanPortfliet & Anderson, op. cit., pp 82 – 83 .

[13] Judith V. Boettcher & Rita-Marie Conrad, The Online Teaching Survival Guide: Simple and Practical Pedagogical Tips (Second Edition; San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2016).

[14] Ibid. Boettcher & Conrad’s chapter is reprinted with permission in this article , from which the quotation is taken.

[15] Michigan Virtual’s ‘Teacher Guide to Online Learning’ .

[16] Joan Van Tassel & Joseph Schmitz, ‘Enhancing learning in the virtual classroom’, Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching 6.1 (2013), pp. 37-53.

[17] Michael K. Barbour & Thomas C. Reeves, ‘The reality of virtual schools: A review of the literature’, Computers & Education 52.2 (2009), pp. 402-416.

[18] Heather Kauffman, ‘A review of predictive factors of student success in and satisfaction with online learning’, Research in Learning Technology 23 (2015).

[19] Jacqueline Wong et al , ‘Supporting self-regulated learning in online learning environments and MOOCs: A systematic review’, International Journal of Human–Computer Interaction 35.4-5 (2019), pp. 356-373.

[20] ‘Online Teaching and Classroom Change – CiteSeerX’ .

[21] Ruchan Uz & Adem Uzun, ‘The Influence of Blended Learning Environment on Self-Regulated and Self-Directed Learning Skills of Learners’, European Journal of Educational Research 7.4 (2018), pp. 877-886.

[22] Matthew L. Bernacki, Anita C. Aguilar & James P. Byrnes, ‘Self-regulated learning and technology-enhanced learning environments: An opportunity-propensity analysis’, Fostering self-regulated learning through ICT , IGI Global (2011), pp. 1-26.

[24] Peter Serdyukov & R. Hill, ‘Flying with clipped wings: Are students independent in online college classes’, Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching 6.1 (2013), pp. 52-65.

[25] James P. Byrnes & David C. Miller, ‘The relative importance of predictors of math and science achievement: An opportunity–propensity analysis’, Contemporary Educational Psychology 32.4 (2007), pp. 599-629.

The Teaching and Learning Summit

About the Centre

Our Research

Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.

We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.

Brief introduction to this section that descibes Open Access especially from an IntechOpen perspective

Want to get in touch? Contact our London head office or media team here

Our team is growing all the time, so we’re always on the lookout for smart people who want to help us reshape the world of scientific publishing.

Home > Books > Virtual Learning

A Review of Distance Learning and Learning Management Systems

Submitted: 30 April 2016 Reviewed: 11 August 2016 Published: 14 December 2016

DOI: 10.5772/65222

Cite this chapter

There are two ways to cite this chapter:

From the Edited Volume

Virtual Learning

Edited by Dragan Cvetkovic

To purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India: CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd. www.cbspd.com | [email protected]

Chapter metrics overview

3,481 Chapter Downloads

Impact of this chapter

Total Chapter Downloads on intechopen.com

Total Chapter Views on intechopen.com

Overall attention for this chapters

In recent years, rapid developments in technology and the web have led to many changes in education. One of the most important changes in education is in the form of distance learning. Distance learning, which is used to define education where educators and learners are physically separated, is not a new concept; however, emerging technologies and the web allow web‐based distance learning and therefore increase its popularity. As a result of these developments, many universities have started to use web‐based distance learning systems to provide flexible education that is independent of time and place. In this chapter, we review all popular, widely used, and well‐known learning management systems and include detailed comparison of some of these systems to allow institutions to choose the right system for their distance education activities.

• distance learning
• literature review
• educational research
• learning management systems

Author Information

Mümine kaya keleş *.

• Adana Science and Technology University, Adana, Turkey

Selma Ayşe Özel

• Çukurova University, Adana, Turkey

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Distance education, which is now also referred to as distance learning or e‐learning, has existed for centuries. Although as Keegan says “the ideas surrounding the educational endeavor are somewhat similar” [ 1 ], it is not easy to find a single definition of distance education. While according to North [ 2 ], a few definitions even look to define it in terms of a single technology, according to long‐distance teaching [ 3 ], others display distance education simply as a recent development of the class into a remote location [ 4 ]. However, such definitions are restrictive and fail to recognize the actual needs of distance education users. Mugridge [ 5 ] provides a better definition, describing distance education as “a form of education in which there is normally a separation between teacher and learner and thus one in which other means—the printed and written word, the telephone, computer conferencing or teleconferencing, for example—are used to bridge the physical gap”.

Many educational institutions have created solutions to their increasing educational needs through the development of distance education programs. Distance education allows educational paths to be determined by educators and students, who are separated with physical distance, using technology (e.g., audio, video, data, and written text). It is a form of education in which students, teachers, and teaching materials in different geographies are brought together through communication technology [ 6 ]. Using video, audio, active learning, simulations, and electronic advances appeals to a variety of students with multiple learning styles.

This chapter presents a review of distance learning literature; the purposes, advantages, disadvantages, and types of distance learning; and a detailed comparison of web‐based distance learning tools in education.

2. A review of distance learning

Research on distance education has been subject to long and numerous debates [ 7 – 10 ]. Distance education needs a reliable means of communication between students and lecturers. Therefore, the history of distance education begins at the point where a reliable communication method is established. Most historians date distance education to the eighteenth century, when a few lecturers began to offer what were called correspondence courses. One of the first examples of distance education was observed in 1728, when “an advertisement in the Boston Gazette named ‘Caleb Phillips’, teacher of the new method of Short Hand” was searching students for lessons to be sent weekly [ 11 ]. But technology‐based distance education started after the introduction of some devices, which are using both sight and sound, into the schools in the early 1900s.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s, microwave technology was developed. So networking technology costs were reduced, and universities began to use microwave networks to take advantage of the Instructional Television Fixed Service (ITFS) authorized by the Federal Communications Commission [ 12 ].

Today, distance education programs have a wide range of approaches [ 13 ]. For example, independent study courses through computer networking, computer‐delivered instruction, communication between students and instructors through electronic mail, class sessions, cluster groups, undergraduate and graduate degrees through cable networks, and video courses with texts and other collateral materials are these approaches [ 13 ].

In summary, the history of distance education shows a constant state of evolution. In the historical view of distance education, a stream of new ideas and technologies has been observed. Historical development of distance education shows that nontraditional education tends to blend with traditional education while meeting the changing learning theories and developing technologies [ 13 ].

2.1. The purposes of distance learning

The main goal of distance education is to overcome barriers of place and time. Learners may live in isolated, less‐populated and nonurban, rural areas and have no access to education. Other learners may have ready access to a private school or college but that college might not offer the course of study needed by that learner. Distance learning allows education to reach those who are not able to physically attend courses in universities [ 14 ].

One of the most important purposes of distance education is to provide an opportunity of education, often on an individual basis, to learners who are not physically present in a classroom [ 15 ]. Also, it provides equity in educational opportunities by allowing access to quality education for those who otherwise would have been denied.

2.2. The advantages and disadvantages of distance learning

The aim of distance education is to provide a strong communication between students and lecturers. That's why there are also disadvantages as well as advantages of distance education.

The students have the convenience of course materials being delivered to his/her home or office.

Students may gain useful, transferable skills, such as planning and research.

Students can make their feedback easily.

There is no waste of time in transport.

Accessing students without face‐to‐face learning opportunities.

Distance learning provides just‐in‐time learning.

Distance learning is associated with technology more than face‐to‐face learning.

Distance education can reach a wider audience.

Distance learning can facilitate greater learner‐instructor interaction.

Distance learning can equalize access to education.

Distance learning makes information and lecture notes open to everyone.

Distance learning minimizes the costs of stationery.

Distance learning increases the effectiveness of education through the use of items such as sound and image.

There is a lack of eye contact between the students and the lecturers.

It can be occasional Internet provider downtime.

Student must be more active in education environment.

The cost of developing course materials is too much, and it is needed more time to prepare course materials.

There is unconsciousness in the use of educational technology.

Distance learning is not suitable for undisciplined learners or inflexible instructors.

Laboratory and experimental courses cannot be given remotely.

Students who have little technological knowledge cannot follow the courses.

Students and instructors need to take technical training and support.

Some of the students cannot access the necessary facilities, such as computers, Internet, etc.

2.3. Types of distance learning

Synchronous

Asynchronous

Synchronous learning requires all students to participate the classes at the same time. The method of delivery is usually interactive and includes Internet chat sessions, teleconferences, telecourses, and web conferencing [ 16 ]. Synchronous distance education is less flexible than asynchronous distance education because synchronous distance education requires all enrolled students and the teacher to be online at a specific time. Asynchronous instructions do not require simultaneous participation of all students in the class, so it is more flexible. Asynchronous instruction gives students the freedom to interact with the material and instructor at a time that is convenient for them [ 16 ].

Internet‐based distance education has become a specific focus for at least three reasons according to the Institute for Higher Education Policy (IHEP) [ 17 ]:

First, Internet is quickly becoming the predominant technology in distance education, because of its increasing telecommunications bandwidth capabilities. Second, Internet‐based distance education especially asynchronous instruction mode allows the teaching and the learning processes to occur “at any time and any place.” Provision of the interactive learning activities at any time and any place has become the most important characteristic of this technology. Third, Internet‐based distance education is, in many ways, fundamentally different from traditional classroom‐based education.

The identification and management of users

Preparation of online course contents

Managing courses

Monitoring and analyzing student behaviors

Assessment of students’ achievement status

The creation and management of interactive communication media

2.4. Learning management systems

Computers and computer networks are rapidly becoming the preferred long‐distance communication tool, and they are evolving as a major resource in distance education. There are many computer‐based distance education tools, and the names of the major tools and their web addresses are listed in Table 1 [ 19 ].

Table 1.

The distance learning tools and web addresses.

Table 2.

The comparison of all popular learning management systems.

In this chapter, we have reviewed the most popular, widely used and well‐known learning management systems (LMSs) and included detailed comparison of these systems. Therefore, we include ATutor, Blackboard, Claroline, Desire2Learn (D2L), Docebo, Dokeos, eFront, Moodle, OLAT, and Sakai systems in this chapter. Among the others, Blackboard and Moodle are the two most well‐known web‐based learning management systems widely used in universities and higher education [ 19 ].

2.4.1. ATutor

ATutor is a free and open‐source course management system that has a simple and straightforward structure. It is a web‐based learning content management system (LCMS) under the GNU General Public License (GPL). It was prepared such that it can be easily used in any type of computer system and all operating systems. ATutor has been used in many universities, institutions, research centers, and educational institutions.

ATutor was implemented in Personal Home Page (PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor), and it includes facilities for teachers and students. Students can change the learning environment based on existing templates, send messages, and collaborate on courses. On the other hand, instructors can manage the courses, store files, and create workgroups. At the same time, in ATutor, people with disabilities were considered, so ATutor was arranged to use easily.

ATutor has blog, forum, photo gallery, glossary, site map, chat, directory, tests and surveys, and MyTracker tool, which tracks users’ navigational patterns. It supports Sharable Content Object Reference Model (SCORM) standards and Instructional Management Systems (IMS) packets. It is available in more than 20 languages. Some video conference softwares such as Adobe Connect, BigBlueButton, and OpenMeetings modules can be integrated in ATutor. Figure 1 shows web page for an ATutor course.

Figure 1.

ATutor Course Web Page.

2.4.2. Blackboard

Early in 2006, owners of Blackboard Learning System and WebCT decided to join their forces and merge two companies under the existing name of one of them—Blackboard. The new entity continues to support both systems [ 19 ]. Also, Blackboard Learning System acquired Angel Learning System in May 2009. So the Blackboard Learning System is a web‐based commercial distance education system dedicated to education containing teaching resources and straightforward user hierarchy. It allows instructors to post course information and materials as well as readings and assignments.

Thanks to the flexibility of the Blackboard Learning System, it is easy to design a course curriculum or study schedules, and the continuation of education courses go on flawlessly. Not only can the teacher shift page layouts including font types or colors but also choose texts and icon links. It also facilitates interaction between users, who can have basic discussion, and offers other collaborative tools.

The idea behind the Blackboard Learning System is to let teachers deliver course content, especially adjusted to large courses at lower levels. The role of an administrator of the system is limited to conducting basic operations such as initial course and teacher registration. The administrator is not overly dependent on it as many course management tasks, such as student and course content registration or tests and statistics check, can be carried out by a teacher. The system consists of many communication and discussion features enabling active participation of students [ 20 ]. The possibility of the use of multimedia, an instructional option, is willingly utilized by teachers. Figure 2 shows the web page for a Blackboard course.

Figure 2.

Blackboard Course Web Page.

2.4.3. Claroline

Claroline is an open‐source e‐learning and e‐working platform. It can work on both Windows and Linux server systems. Claroline provides the ability to manage public education activities on the web and to create effective online courses. There is a large community of users and software developers worldwide.

In Claroline Learning Management System, a user has three roles. These roles are student, teacher, and administrator.

GNU/Linux, BSD, Unix, Windows (9x, ME, NT4, 2000, XP, Vista, and 7), or Mac OS X operating systems, Apache, IIS or Wampler web servers, PHP and MySQL database server should be installed on the web server where Claroline is installed. It is under the GPL.

Two language options, which are website language and course language, are available in Claroline. It has been used in more than 100 countries and translated into 35 languages. However, some languages such as Turkish are not supported completely and some sections are still awaiting translation.

Claroline has rich interaction tools such as chat, forum, and wiki, but there is no survey functionality and whiteboard application. It does not require any programming skills to install, manage, and use. It supports SCORM standards. Claroline allows user lists to be created and user statistics to be seen. User groups can be created in courses. Figure 3 shows a web page from Claroline.

Figure 3.

Claroline Course Web Page.

2.4.4. Desire2Learn

Desire2Learn, which is also known as Brightspace Learning Management System, is another educational learning management system. It is based on competency education and provides a cloud‐based learning suite.

Desire2Learn is a commercial educational system that supports mobile learning and web conferencing. It also has some features such as exams, discussions, assignments, quizzes, grades, and portfolio‐based activities. D2L supports foreign languages and mathematical notations. D2L also includes a learning repository, course creation tools, an e‐portfolio module, mobile delivery, analytics, and lecture capture facilities. Figure 4 presents web page of Desire2Learn.

Figure 4.

Desire2Learn Course Web Page.

2.4.5. Docebo

Docebo LMS platform is a learning management system that is based on SaaS/cloud platform. With Docebo, users can organize, track, and distribute online courses for formal learning. The instructors can create users as well as groups and create reports about them. It was offered as open source but it is not available as open source for a while. Although Docebo is offered for education, now it is primarily used in the corporate sector.

Docebo is under the GPL, so it has no licensing cost. It is compatible with SCORM, Aviation Industry CBT Committee (AICC), and xAPI. It has a component‐based architecture and works with PHP and MySQL database.

Docebo has interfaces for video conferences. It is integrated with Adobe Connect, BigBlueButton, Cisco WebEx, Citrix GoToMeeting, OnSync by Digital Samba, and TeleSkill Live. Also, it has integrations with Google Apps, WordPress, and Vivocha.

Docebo is available in more than 30 languages and more than 10 countries. This platform is mobile‐ready platform, so it includes mobile learning. The features of Docebo are blogs, course catalogs, labels, and discussions. Figure 5 shows a course web page from Docebo.

Figure 5.

Docebo Course Web Page.

2.4.6. Dokeos

Dokeos is an online and open‐source course management system that is widely known and freely available. It is also a learning content management system based on MySQL database and written in PHP language. Dokeos is based on Drupal, which is a content management system. It is available in standard and Professional (PRO) versions.

Dokeos is used in more than 60 countries, and it has been translated into 34 languages. It features a variety of e‐learning templates and e‐learning course authoring tools. The features of Dokeos are documents, announcements, tests, agendas, forums, links, tracking tools, and chats [ 21 ].

Dokeos supports mobile and cloud learning. Also, it supports SCORM, AICC and Tin Can API compliant. Portals and assessments can be used in Dokeos system; on the other hand, it has agenda, forums, discussion forums, chat, videoconference, open questions, and assignments. It is fully compatible across all browsers and platforms. Web page of Dokeos is presented in Figure 6 .

Figure 6.

Dokeos Course Web Page.

2.4.7. eFront

eFront is a modern learning, which is also known as a course management system or learning management systems or virtual learning environment, and an educational platform. eFront is designed to help creating online courses. It has many features such as project management, extended statistics, files management, reports generators, assignments builders, internal messaging system, forum, calendar, chat, survey, etc. It supports SCORM standards.

eFront is a multilingual platform. It offers two types of language files: machine translated and human translated. It supports 48 languages. While 18 of these languages are machine translated, 30 languages are human translated.

This learning management system is PHP based and open source. eFront runs on GNU/Linux, Microsoft Windows, and any other operating system that supports PHP 5.1+ and MySQL 5+. It is under the Common Public Attribution License (CPAL) license. eFront supports Unicode and LDAP, and uses 3‐tier architecture with low bandwidth connections.

eFront is content friendly by using presentations and videos. It has multiple types of test and questions. This course management system can collect and analyze surveys. It supports the blended learning. Some video conference software such as Adobe Connect, BigBlueButton, and OpenMeetings can be used with eFront. A sample course page is given in Figure 7 .

Figure 7.

eFront Course Web Page.

2.4.8. Moodle

Moodle is an online course management system that is widely known and freely available. The word Moodle stands for “Modular Object Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment” and was created by Martin Dougiamas who is a computer scientist and an educator at a university in Perth, Australia [ 22 ].

Moodle is a software package that it is used to create Internet‐based courses and their websites. Moodle is used in 234 countries, providing support for 139 languages, and has 88,204,960 registered users according to Moodle statistics on the Moodle website in July 2016. There are currently 10,106,758 registered courses and 70,872 active sites that have been registered from those countries.

Moodle is utilized by both institutions and individuals. The list of the former is long, including universities, high and primary schools, governmental departments, military, and healthcare organizations as well as airlines or oil companies. Homeschoolers, independent educators, and special educators are among the individual users.

Moodle, a PHP‐based open‐source online learning system, has been used since 2002 as a distance education tool, and has various versions supported by Windows, Linux, Unix, and Mac OS X operating systems. The latest version of Moodle is Moodle 3.1.1, released on 11 July 2016. Moodle is under the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL). There are documents for use, training, and online help in Moodle. Moodle has 14 different activity types such as assignments, chat, choice, database, external tool, feedback, forum, glossary, lesson, quiz, SCORM, survey, Wiki, and workshop.

A number of programs, namely PHP, which is a script language embedded into html codes that work in a server‐side; MySQL, which is a database management system that can run in the background and can respond to requests, such as a high‐performance web server; and Apache, which is an open‐source software web server that is completely free and has a high performance, are required before the Moodle program is set up.

Moodle supports mobile learning, so it has its own Moodle Mobile application. Moodle Mobile supports currently 15 languages. It has responsive design for phones and tablets. Users can download and view some course resources. A course web page from Moodle is presented in Figure 8 .

Figure 8.

Moodle Course Web Page.

2.4.9. OLAT

OLAT is an abbreviation of the words Online Learning and Training. OLAT is a Java‐based open‐source learning management system that was developed in 1999. OLAT is under the Apache 2.0 Open Source License. OLAT has forums, chat, blogs, surveys, grading and submission modules, wikis, quizzes, and discussions. It allows monitoring the effectiveness of learners and tutors.

OLAT is multilingual and available in fifteen languages. OLAT runs on Unix, Linux, OpenBSD, FreeBSD, Windows, and Mac OS X operating systems. Java SDK, Apache as a web server, Tomcat Servlet Engine as an application server, and MySQL or PostgreSQL as database are required to install OLAT. It supports SCORM, IMS Content Packaging, and OTI standards. A main web page of OLAT is displayed in Figure 9 .

Figure 9.

OLAT Course Web Page.

2.4.10. Sakai

Sakai is a free learning system that is designed for educational institutions. It is a Java‐based LMS. It has been launched as a “Sakai Project” supported by the Mellon Foundation.

Sakai is a free and open‐source course design platform. It is web‐based and platform‐independent application with many features such as supporting training. It can run on CentOS, Debian GNU/Linux, Fedora, Gentoo Linux, Mac OS X server, Microsoft Windows, Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL), Sun Solaris, SuSe Linux, and Ubuntu operating systems. It can be downloaded from the Internet for free, and it works interactively with both MySQL and Oracle database management systems.

Sakai has forums, chat rooms, message center, assignments, grade book, discussions, syllabus, wikis, and WebDAV. It is designed to present mathematical notation such that it can display LaTeX equations on most pages. Sakai is under the Educational Community License (ECL). It is available in more than 20 languages.

Some video conference software such as Adobe Connect, BigBlueButton, Kaltura, and OpenMeetings can be integrated in Sakai, and it has IMS Learning Tools Interoperability (LTI) standards. Figure 10 shows a sample web page for a course from Sakai.

Figure 10.

Sakai Course Web Page.

2.4.11. Comparison of learning management systems

In the below sections, we provide comparisons among the most similar learning management systems, and in Table 2 , all comparisons of all learning management systems are summarized.

2.4.11.1. ATutor, eFront, and Moodle

ATutor is a PHP application and it has some registered installations such as Moodle.

ATutor seems like a down‐sized version of Moodle with a slightly more technical look than eFront. But the development on its modules are rather limited [ 23 ].

2.4.11.2. Blackboard and Moodle

The Blackboard Learning System (i.e., WebCT) ensures variety in course content and materials. In addition, the Blackboard Learning System assists students in their offline efforts. Curriculum design is supported by the two systems by providing course templates, thanks to which instructors can deliver course materials, define study schedules, and plan class activities.

Regarding communication and discussion, both Blackboard and Moodle deliver discussion forums and chat rooms together with exchange of e‐mails and files.

The Blackboard Learning System also provides private folders and internal e‐mail for students and gives them an option of making their own notes. As for performance assessment, systems incorporate assessment and grading functions.

Course administration is embraced again by both tools by facilitating uploading of student data and course data in batches. The Blackboard Learning System is also equipped with direct data interfaces. It should be noted that there are certain similarities between Blackboard and Moodle such as option of student enrollments in courses, access to discussion forums, or taking quizzes and tests.

The Blackboard Learning System and Moodle are about equal in terms of administrative features, collaboration, and instruction methods.

Other common features are supporting file upload (e.g., Word, PowerPoint, audio), being SCORM compliant, allowing grading, providing course calendar, and monitoring students’ participation.

2.4.11.3. Blackboard, eFront, and Sakai

The Blackboard Learning System is superior to Sakai in terms of administrative features and course development. But in terms of collaboration and instruction methods, both are very similar.

When eFront and Blackboard are compared, it is observed that eFront is superior to Blackboard in terms of administrative features but they are about equal in terms of course development and instruction methods.

Sakai is superior to eFront in terms of collaboration.

2.4.11.4. D2L (Brightspace) and eFront

eFront is superior to D2L (Brightspace) in terms of administrative features but in terms of collaboration, course development and instruction methods both of them are about equal.

2.4.11.5. D2L, OLAT, and Sakai

D2L (Brightspace) is superior to OLAT in terms of administrative features and course development, but for collaboration facility, both of them are about equal.

D2L (Brightspace) is superior to Sakai with respect to instruction methods used.

2.4.11.6. Dokeos, Docebo, and eFront

Docebo is superior to eFront with respect to administrative features and course development. But in terms of collaboration methods and instruction methods, eFront and Dokeos are very similar.

2.4.11.7. Moodle, Dokeos, and OLAT

Dokeos looks better and less complex than Moodle in terms of interface [ 23 ].

But Moodle is superior to OLAT in terms of administrative features, collaboration, course development, and instruction methods.

2.4.11.8. Moodle and Sakai

Unlike Moodle, Sakai is mainly implemented in Java and can cause some problems in older versions of browsers [ 23 ].

Moodle is superior to Sakai in terms of administrative features, collaboration, and course development.

2.4.11.9. OLAT and Sakai

Sakai, similar to OLAT, is a Java‐based e‐learning system developed by an international alliance of universities, colleges, and commercial affiliates; and both have very similar properties [ 24 ].

2.4.11.10. OLAT and the others

Although most of the other e‐learning applications in this chapter are PHP based, OLAT (Online Learning and Training) is based on Java and is Apache Licensed [ 24 ].

eFront and Moodle are superior to OLAT in terms of administrative features and course development.

3. Conclusion

In this chapter, the literature about distance education and learning management systems are summarized. This chapter also presents a brief comparison of some of the most significant learning management systems used for education.

In summary, the history of distance education shows a constant state of evolution. A stream of new ideas and technologies exist in the historical view of distance education. It is also observed that nontraditional education tries to blend with traditional education while meeting the changing learning theories and developing technologies [ 13 ].

The Internet‐based distance learning model can be defined as a transmission of educational content with the use of text, image, video, and audio files over the Internet, online or offline. According to the Institute for Higher Education Policy (IHEP), the Internet‐based distance education has gained a special status for three basic reasons. First of all, the Internet has become the predominant technology in distance education, due to its increasing telecommunications bandwidth capabilities. Second, the Internet‐based distance education allows the teaching and learning process to happen “at any time and any place.” Asynchronous interactive learning environments, especially, have become the signature characteristic of this field. Finally, the Internet‐based distance education is, in many ways, fundamentally different than traditional classroom‐based education hence attractive for learners [ 17 ]. The main difference is that the Internet‐based distance education removes the physical barrier and time constraints for students and lecturers.

Within the framework of this study, the open‐source learning management systems especially Moodle are widely used particularly in universities and higher education institutions. In general, the commercial learning management systems especially Blackboard are superior to open‐source learning management systems in terms of administrative features; however, according to instruction methods that are employed, the open‐source learning management systems especially Moodle are superior to the commercial learning management systems. According to existing literatures [ 25 ], Moodle still comes out as the top used system among the open‐source LMSs. This result also supports our observations that are explained in this chapter.

• 1. Keegan D. Foundations of Distance Education. 3rd ed. Routledge, United Kingdom. 1996.
• 2. North D. Have Video Won't Travel. Canadian Business. 1993; 68(4): 43.
• 3. Long?Distance Teaching. The Futurist. 1990; 24(6): 48.
• 4. Spodick E. The Evolution of Distance Learning. [Internet]. 1995. Available from: http://sqzm14.ust.hk/distance/ [Accessed: 2016‐07‐01]
• 5. Mugridge I. Distance Education and the Teaching of Science. Impact of Science on Society. 1991; 41(4): 313–320.
• 6. Gündüz M., Baykan Ö. K., Yildiz F. Virtual Laboratory Application In Distance Education. Journal of Technical?Online. 2007; 6(2):61-74.
• 7. Berge Z., Mrozowski S. Review of Research in Distance Education. American Journal of Distance Education. 2001; 15(3): 5–19.
• 8. Bernard R. M., Abrami P. C., Lou Y., Borokhovski E. A Methodological Morass? How We Can Improve Quantitative Research in Distance Education. Distance Education. 2004; 25(2): 175–198.
• 9. Perraton H. Rethinking the Research Agenda. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. 2000; 1(1):52-62.
• 10. Saba F. Research in Distance Education: A Status Report. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning. 2000; 1(1):43-51.
• 11. Holmberg B. The Evolution, Principles and Practices of Distance Education. Bibliotheks?und Informationssystem der Universitat Oldenburg, Germany. 2005; 11, 13. ISBN: 3814209338
• 12. Carnegie Commission in Higher Education. The Fourth Revolution: Instructional Technology in Higher Education. McGraw-Hill Inc., US. 1972.
• 13. Jeffries M. Research in Distance Education. [Internet]. 2008. Available from: http://www.digitalschool.net/edu/DL_history_mJeffries.html [Accessed: 2016‐07‐01]
• 14. Stateuniversity.com. Distance Learning in Higher Education—Related Terms and Concepts, Goals of Distance Learning. Technologies Used in Distance Learning. [Internet]. 2016. Available from: http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1917/Distance‐Learning‐in‐Higher‐Education.html [Accessed: 2016‐07‐01]
• 15. Ma X. Expansion Dynamic Game Analysis on Education Quality Control for Distance Education System. Advanced Materials Research. 2011; 230–232: 481–485.
• 16. Harrison J. C. Different Types of Distance Education. [Internet]. 2011. Available from: http://ezinearticles.com/?Different‐Types‐of‐Distance‐Education&id=6073038 [Accessed: 2016‐07‐01]
• 17. Merisotis J. P., Phipps R. A. Quality on the Line: Benchmarks for Success in Internet‐Based Distance Education, The Institute for Higher Education Policy (IHEP), IHEP Report, National Education Association (NEA). [Internet]. 2000. Available from: http://www.nea.org/assets/docs/HE/QualityOnTheLine.pdf [Accessed: 2016‐07‐01]
• 18. Al U., Madran R. O. Web-Based Distance Education Systems: Required Features and Standards. Bilgi D?nyas?. 2004; 5(2): 259?271.
• 19. Kaya M. Distance Education Systems Used in Universities of Turkey and Northern Cyprus. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2012; 31: 676–680.
• 20. Cheung K. S. A Comparison of WebCT, Blackboard and Moodle for the Teaching and Learning of Continuing Education Courses. Enhancing Learning through Technology International Conference on ICT in Teaching and Learning. 2006; 1:219?228. DOI: 10.1142/9789812772725_0018
• 21. Kastelic M., Lončarič T. A Model of Introducing e‐Learning System at Vocational College for Business Secretaries. Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology. 2007, 4: 175–187.
• 22. Cole J. R., Foster H. Using Moodle: Teaching with the Popular Open Source Course Management System. 2nd ed. O'Reilly Media, USA. 2007.
• 23. Man K. Open‐Source LMS: Beyond Moodle. Keemanxp.com. [Internet]. 2009. Available from: http://keemanxp.com/blog/2009/open‐source‐lms‐beyond‐moodle.html .
• 24. Gedda R. 10 Open Source e‐Learning Projects to Watch—Choices for e‐Learning the Best Option. TechWorld Australia. [Internet]. 2008. Available from: http://www.techworld.com.au/article/223565/10_open_source_e‐learning_projects_watch/?pp=3 [Accessed: 2016‐07‐01]
• 25. Cavus N., Zabadi T. A Comparison of Open Source Learning Management Systems. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2014; 143: 521–526.

© 2016 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Continue reading from the same book

Edited by Dragan Cvetković

Published: 14 December 2016

By Melinde Coetzee

1713 downloads

By Fahriye Altınay, Gokmen Dagli and Zehra Altınay

2174 downloads

By Zorana Jeli, Branislav Popokonstantinovic and Misa...

2383 downloads

Advertisement

Distance education research: a review of the literature

• Published: 12 April 2011
• Volume 23 , pages 124–142, ( 2011 )

Cite this article

• Michael Simonson 1 ,
• Charles Schlosser 1 &
• Anymir Orellana 1  

5547 Accesses

93 Citations

Explore all metrics

Distance education is defined, the various approaches for effective research are summarized, and the results of major research reviews of the field are explained in this article. Additionally, two major areas of research are included—research on barriers to the adoption of distance education and research summaries that explain and support best practices in the field. This paper concludes with the summary statement that it is not different education, it is distance education ; what is known about effectiveness in education is most often also applicable to distance education.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Distance Education and Technology Infrastructure: Strategies and Opportunities

Classic Theories of Distance Education

Adams, E., & Freeman, C. (2003). Selecting tools for online communities: Suggestions for learning technologists. The Technology Source. Available online at http://ts.mivu.org/default.asp?show+article&id=994 .

Berg, G. A. (2001). Distance learning best practices debate. WebNet Journal , 5–7 .

Berge, Z., & Muilenburg, L. (2000). Barriers to distance education as perceived by managers and administrators: Results of a survey. In M. Clay (Ed.), Distance learning administration annual 2000 . Baltimore, MD: University of Maryland.

Google Scholar  

Campbell, D., & Stanley, J. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research . Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Chen, B. (2009). Barriers to adoption of technology-mediated distance education in higher-education institutions. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 10 (4), 333–338.

Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53 (4), 445–459.

Finn, J. (1953). Professionalizing the audiovisual field. Audio-Visual Communication Review, 1 (1), 6–17.

Foley, M. (2003). The global development learning network: A World Bank initiative in distance learning for development. In M. G. Moore & W. G. Anderson (Eds.), Handbook of distance education . Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

Foreman, J. (2003). Distance learning and synchronous interaction. The Technology Source. Available online at http://ts.mivu.org/default.asp?show+article&id=1042 .

Garon, J. (2002). A new future for distance education. Interface Tech News. Available online at http://www.interfacenow.com/syndicatepro/displayarticle.asp?ArticleID=180 .

Graham, C., Cagiltay, K., Lim, B-R., Craner, J., & Duffy, T. M. (2001). Seven principles of effective teaching: A practical lens for evaluating online courses. The Technology Source. Available online at http://technologysource.org/article/seven_principles_of_effective_teaching/ .

Hanna, D. E., Glowacki-Dudka, M., & Conceicao-Runlee, S. (2000). 147 practical tips for teaching online groups: Essentials for Web-based education . Madison, WI: Atwood.

Hirumi, A. (2000). Chronicling the challenges of web-basing a degree program: A systems perspective. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 1 (2), 89–108.

Hirumi, A. (2005). In search of quality: An analysis of e-learning guidelines and specifications. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 6 (4), 209–330.

Holmberg, B. (1987). The development of distance education research. The American Journal of Distance Education, 1 (3), 16–23.

Article   Google Scholar  

Howell, S., & Baker, K. (2006). Good (best) practices for electronically offered degree and certificate programs: A ten-year retrospect. Distance Learning, 3 (1), 41–47.

Keegan, D. (1996). Foundations of distance education (3rd ed.). London, UK: Routledge.

Ko, S., & Rossen, S. (2010). Teaching online: A practical guide (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

Kulik, C., Bangert, R., & Williams, G. (1983). Effects of computer-based teaching on secondary school students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75 , 19–26.

Kulik, C., Kulik, J., & Cohen, P. (1979). Research on audio-tutorial instruction: A meta-analysis of comparative studies. Research in Higher Education, 11 (4), 321–341.

Kulik, C., Kulik, J., & Cohen, P. (1980). Instructional technology and college teaching. Teaching of Psychology, 7 (4), 199–205.

Lou, Y., Bernard, R., & Abrami, P. (2006). Undergraduate distance education: A theory-based meta-analysis of the literature. Educational Technology Research and Development, 54 (2), 141–176.

Moore, M. G. (1998). Introduction. In C. C. Gibson (Ed.), Distance learners in higher education: Institutional responses for quality outcomes . Madison, WI: Atwood.

Moore, M., & Kearsley, G. (2005). Distance education: A systems view (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Orellana, A., Hudgins, T., & Simonson, M. (2009). The perfect online course . Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2003). The virtual student: A profile and guide to working with online learners . San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Peters, O. (1998). Learning and teaching in distance education: Pedagogical analyses and interpretations in an international perspective . London: Kogan Page.

Peters, O. (2002). Distance education in transition: New trends and challenges. Bibliotheks- und Informations sytem der Universitat Oldenburg.

Ronsisvalle, T., & Watkins, R. (2005). Student success in online K-12 education. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 6 (2), 117–124.

Schlosser, C., & Burmeister, M. (1999). The best of both worlds. TechTrends, 43 (5), 45–48.

Schlosser, L. A., & Simonson, M. (2009). Distance education: Definition and glossary of terms (3rd ed.). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

Simonson, M. (2000). Myths and distance education: What the research says and does not say. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 1 (4), 277–279.

Simonson, M. (2001). Connecting the schools: Final evaluation report . North Miami Beach, FL: Nova Southeastern University. Available online at http://www.tresystems.com/projects/sdakota.cfgm .

Simonson, M. (2009a). Distance learning. In The 2009 book of the year (p. 231). Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Simonson, M. (2009b). Scientific rigor. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 10 (4), vii–viii.

Simonson, M. (2012). Teaching and learning at a distance: Foundations of Distance Education. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Sloan, C. (2002). Practice: Comparing the cost - effectiveness of online versus traditional classroom cost per student pass rates . Available online at http://www.aln.org/effective/details5.asp?CE_ID=21 .

Smith, B., Benne, K., Stanley, W., & Anderson, A. (1951). Readings in the social aspects of education . Danville, IL: Interstate.

Sorensen, C., & Baylen, D. (2000). Perception versus reality: Views of interaction in distance education. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 1 (1), 45–58.

Sorensen, C., & Baylen, D. (2004). Learning online: Adapting the seven principles of good practice to a web-based instructional environment. Distance Learning, 1 (1), 7–17.

Tallent-Runnels, M., Cooper, S., Lan, W., Thomas, J., & Busby, C. (2005). How to teach online: What the research says. Distance Learning, 2 (1), 21–34.

Tallent-Runnels, M., Thomas, J., Lan, W., Cooper, S., Ahern, T., Shaw, S., et al. (2006). Teaching courses online: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 76 (1), 93–135.

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development. (2009). Evaluation of evidence — based practices in online learning: A meta - analysis and review of online learning studies . Washington, DC. ( www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/opepd?ppss?reports.html ).

Zawacki-Richter, O. (2009). Research areas in distance education: A Delphi study. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10 (3).

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Fischler School of Education and Human Services, Nova Southeastern University, 1750 NE 167th Street, North Miami Beach, FL, 33162, USA

Michael Simonson, Charles Schlosser & Anymir Orellana

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michael Simonson .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Simonson, M., Schlosser, C. & Orellana, A. Distance education research: a review of the literature. J Comput High Educ 23 , 124–142 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-011-9045-8

Download citation

Published : 12 April 2011

Issue Date : December 2011

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s12528-011-9045-8

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Distance education
• Literature review
• Equivalency theory
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

The challenges and status of modular learning: its effect to students’ academic behavior and performance

1,466  citations

397  citations

193  citations

115  citations

83  citations

Related Papers (5)

Trending questions (3).

Modular learning during COVID-19 significantly impacts students' academic behavior and performance, showing a clear effect on their educational outcomes compared to traditional face-to-face learning.

The effects of modular learning on students' academic behavior and performance are significant, according to the gathered data in the paper.

The effect of modular learning on academic performance is significant, according to the gathered data in the paper.

Ask Copilot

Related papers

Contributing institutions

Related topics

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• v.6(11); 2020 Nov

Barriers to distance learning during the COVID-19 outbreak: A qualitative review from parents’ perspective

The goal of this study was to review the content posted in available local Jordanian Facebook groups to explore the perceptions of parents regarding the challenges of distance learning faced by their children during the coronavirus outbreak in Jordan.

The Facebook search engine was used to identify local Facebook groups. The search keywords included distance learning, parents, and Jordan. Several faculty professors reviewed the posts and discussion flow on distance learning posted in Facebook groups from March 15 th to April 25 th 2020.

The study identified a total of 248 posts and threads which categorized thematically for further analysis. The selected threads and answers revealed four underlying themes: (1) personal barriers (2) technical barriers (3) logistical barriers and (4) financial barriers.

Overall, parents were not limited to their daily routines during the pandemic. They performed the responsibility of helping school in teaching students. Many parents faced many types of barriers in their endeavors to assist their children with distance learning during the pandemic.

Education; Psychology; COVID-19; Facebook; Parents; School students; Distance learning.

1. Introduction

On March 12th, 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared that the outbreak of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), which is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus and which was first identified in Wuhan, China, had reached the level of a global pandemic ( WHO, 2020 ). Less than one week later, on March 18th, 2020, UNESCO reported that an estimated 107 nations had closed all schools due to the pandemic ( United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2020 ). These school closures have affected approximately 862 million school students, which represents almost half of the school-age population worldwide ( Jackson et al., 2016 ; Abuhammad et al., 2020 ).

The decision to close schools is generally based on the scientific data that during influenza virus pandemics lower social association among students is necessary to interrupt the spread of the virus ( Abuhammad, 2020b ) The closing of schools can have a positive impact on mortality by reducing the transmission and incidence of a disease ( Abuhammad, 2020a ; Anderson et al., 2020 ; Wenham et al., 2020 ). However, it can also have a negative impact by reducing the available healthcare workforce to care for the ill because they cannot secure childcare to enable them to go to work.

According to research on school students, the mean value of daily social association when schools are closed is almost half that of when schools are open. On the other hand, there is an increase in contact between school students and parents and other adults when schools are closed ( Eames et al., 2010 ). The evidence on the effectiveness of closing schools and other measures for social distancing almost entirely comes from research undertaken on this measure during influenza outbreaks, and it has been shown in such outbreaks that school students drive virus transmission ( Brooks et al., 2020 ; Hens et al., 2009 ). It has been shown that closing schools leads to significant reductions in the peak rate of infection compared to the rate of cumulative infection, and based on modeling research, such an approach can have a significant impact on the reproduction of infection rate if the transmission rate of the virus is low ( Nafisah et al., 2018 ). However, the effectiveness of such an approach is unclear in the case of coronavirus outbreaks that have occurred for instance, as a result of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) or Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), and more recently and particularly, COVID-19, which seem to have a different transmission dynamic ( Bayham and Fenichel, 2020 ; Shen et al., 2020 ).

The strategy employed to close schools differs by country and the decision may be made at a national, regional, or local level. In addition, there may be reactive closures of schools because of the personal choice of numerous parents to withdraw their children from school in reaction to the rate of student infection ( Shen et al., 2020 ).

According to Hannum et al. (2008) , distance learning is a platform that many schools use to meet the learning needs of students. It has also been determined that distance learning is an effective approach at the college, university, and high school level parents' perspective ( Hannum et al., 2008 ; Irvin et al., 2010 ). When school students are required to remain at home, as is the case during the current COVID-19 pandemic, parents not only need good parenting skills, they also need a good level of education. In addition to monitoring the temperament and the performance of their children, parents should attempt to satisfy their children's educational needs as effectively as possible.

One way in which this additional parenting role is being supported is through giving children and parents access to distance learning materials and techniques via the internet. However, while there has been a tremendous increase in the use of online distance learning at all learning stages in various regions, there are still some barriers to distance learning. These barriers can hamper or completely prevent the utilization of distance learning by some groups. It is therefore important to understand the perceptions of parents regarding the barriers to distance learning because doing so will enable government and education decision-makers to create solutions to remove the barriers that most affect parents and prevent them from supporting their children to attain a good education.

It is envisaged that the outcomes of this research, which focuses on the perceptions of parents with school-age children in the Jordanian context, will add to the education knowledge base on how to provide education to school-age children during the outbreak of COVID-19. It is hoped that administrators of schools will be able to use the information presented in this study to enhance the learning experience and performance of students. In addition, an understanding of the barriers encountered by parents could help school administrators and school boards to develop an efficient environment for distance learning during the COVID-19 outbreak and other crises.

2.1. Sample

Although Facebook is quite an unreliable platform, it is a significant source of information because of its ease of use and large number of users ( Cole-Lewis et al., 2016 ). Thus this study analyzed the available Facebook groups to explore the perceptions of parents about distance learning during the COVID-19 outbreak in Jordan.

Many researchers from Faculty of Nursing reviewed the posts and discussion flow on distance learning in the available nine Facebook groups from March 15 th to April 25 th 2020. The aim of the review was to identify the topics that explained the perceptions of parents about their roles and responsibilities during the COVID-19 outbreak in the country. This review process produced a total of 288 posts and threads from all nine Facebook groups.

2.2. Analysis

A general qualitative method was employed in order to gain a better understanding of the reports of parents regarding their subjective perceptions, attitudes, and convictions about barriers to distance learning during the outbreak of COVID-19. The researchers of this work analyzed all the posts (written words) and comments to understand the data as fully as possible. Most of the posts and comments were in the Arabic language. For purposes of reporting, these were translated from Arabic into English and then back-translated to ensure the preservation of the original content and meaning.

All the posts and comments were coded and de-identified before review. They were then entered into NVivo 11 software (QSR International, USA). The researcher of this work performed a content analysis on the material. A consensus approach was used to resolve any discrepancies that arose between the two researchers. A limited amount of editing of the posts and comments was done to eliminate meaningless content (e.g., repeated words, stutters, etc.) and to correct grammar. An ellipsis was used to show where such content had been removed. Square brackets were used within the quotations to add words that the participants had omitted to make the sentences grammatical or to substitute sensitive information such as ID number or names. The Institutional Review Board at Jordan University of Science and Technology reviewed and approved the research protocol employed in this study.

The nine local parents or child Facebook groups consisted of eight private groups and one public group and between them contained a total of 1,775,469 subjects. Table 1 presents more details on the groups. The qualitative review of the content revealed four underlying themes regarding the perceptions of parents about their roles and responsibilities in relation to distance learning among their children during the COVID-19 virus outbreak. These four themes were personal barriers, technical barriers, logistical barriers, and financial barriers. Table 2 provides some examples of the types of posts and comments that fell under these four themes as well as the subthemes that emerged from each of the main themes.

Table 1

A summary of local Facebook groups.

Table 2

Summary of themes generated from analysis of facebook posts on distance learning during COVID-19 outbreak in Jordan.

3.1. Personal barriers

Many of the posts and threads (144, 50 %) discussed the personal barriers that existed in relation to distance learning activities before and during the outbreak of COVID-19. This theme encompassed four subthemes: (1) lack of training and support (52, 36%), (2) lack of technical expertise (48, 33%), (3) inadequate communication with professionals (24, 17%), and (4) lack of qualifications (20, 14%). Based on the discussions, the parents seemed to have many personal barriers that they felt affected the standard and quality of their children's distance learning experience. It was clear that the parents' own lack of training in how to handle distance learning techniques and materials and the absence of trained personnel who could assist them were key concerns. Moreover, not all parents were able to handle the technology required for distance learning, which prevented them from enabling its efficient use at home. Finally, the parents raised this issue of their own qualifications. Parents with lower levels of education felt that they were not able to assist their children in studying specific subjects and in handling the necessary technology. See Table 2 .

3.2. Technical barriers

Numerous threads from parents (58, 20%) concentrated on technical barriers, from which two subthemes emerged: (1) insufficient investment and maintenance (38, 66%) and (2) insufficient connectivity (20, 34%). The latter issue was experienced a lot during the period of the COVID-19 outbreak covered by the study. Many of the parents’ posts discussed the frequency with which their children were disconnected from the internet and could not proceed with their assignments, classes, or exams. One post concentrated on the quality of the internet speed, which was not suitable for distance learning lessons that used a lot of video content. This point led to an extensive discussion thread, and overall, parents showed a negative attitude toward this barrier during the COVID-19 outbreak. See Table 2 .

3.3. Logistical barriers

Some parents also reported encountering logistical barriers (37, 13%). These were categorized into three subthemes: (1) difficulties in using distance learning and lack of student preparation (19, 52%), (2) dissatisfaction with the distance learning modality (11, 30%), and (3) inability of distance learning to meet students’ needs (7, 18%). Many of the posts made by parents indicated that the introduction of distance learning was not fair, and that their children were not prepared to use distance learning as the main medium of education. In a study, some said that their children lacked computer proficiency and the prerequisite skills to achieve good results through distance teaching ( Irvin et al., 2010 ). Some parents were dissatisfied with distance learning and felt that this kind of learning should not substitute for face-to-face education despite the benefits of distance learning, such as saving time and effort for school students. In addition, the posts of parents regarding this kind of learning revealed that they felt that it did not meet the educational needs of school students, and they dissatisfied with their children level. Some parents also expressed the view that the distance learning method of education lacks flexibility in meeting the needs of a child because if a child does not understand something, the child cannot get clarification at the time when it is needed. See Table 2 .

3.4. Financial barriers

Some parents’ posts (49, 17%) raised the issue of financial barriers, which were subdivided into two subthemes: (1) inability to buy technology (31, 63%) and (2) inability to pay for internet services (18, 27%). Comments covered the difficulty of paying for expensive laptops and related technology that are required for effective distance learning. Moreover, some posts drew attention to the fact that the internet is not free and data usage is not unlimited. In other words, parents need to pay for internet and if their children must spend more time on the internet for studying purposes this will cost them more money. Many lectures and assignments in a range of subjects require a good-quality internet connection or a large amount of data usage, which both add to the cost of distance learning online. See Table 2 .

4. Discussion

This study aimed to describe and clarify the perceptions of parents about the barriers to distance learning during the coronavirus crisis in Jordan. It is important to understand these perceptions to enable government and decision-makers to develop solutions to address the barriers that affect parents. From the analysis, it was clear that many barriers were encountered by parents from personal and financial barriers to technical and logistical issues.

As regards personal barriers, our study found that personal barriers constituted the most apparent type of barrier. These barriers included lack of training and support, lack of technical expertise, inadequate communication, and lack of qualifications. Indeed, lack of training in the use of distance learning was one of the most often reported barriers. Other studies have also recognized the presence of similar of these barriers in post-secondary agricultural learning ( Mbukusa et al., 2017 ). Our finding is also consistent with Irvin et al., (2010) , who identified the lack of trained professionals to be a common barrier in distance learning in the United State. Also, many parents in our study mentioned the lack of technical help. The absence of personnel to manage distance learning has also been identified as a barrier to distance teaching in other studies ( Irvin et al., 2010 ). Parents should have understanding to technology ( Bukhkalo et al., 2018 ). Technology can parents if students are unable to participate in their distance learning lessons because of the unreliability of the home internet and technical devices that are available ( Knouse, 2010 ). The secret of successful distance learning is dependable technology to ensure the online delivery of distance learning classes using engaging distance learning techniques ( Bukhkalo et al., 2018 ). Parents and their school-age children appreciate that technology can improve their experience of distance learning ( Menchaca and Bekele, 2008 ). However, both school students and members of staff in another study identified communication as a barrier to effective distance learning. The only chance for the students to communicate with the distance learning instructor is during the allocated learning time. Facilitators of distance learning have realized that communicating via e-mail can frustrate students because they cannot receive timely assistance or responses via this mode of communication ( Ouma et al., 2013 ). Some students have not engaged in lessons due to a lack of communication with the distance learning instructor. It is important to note that more than 30% of the participating students reported that a lack of personnel to help them acted as barrier to their distance learning. Some students and parents have reported a lack of the required technical expertise; which has also been identified as barrier in post-secondary environments Renes and Strange (2011) .

Our study also found that technical barriers (insufficient investment and maintenance and insufficient connectivity) also impeded distance learning, which is also in line with past research ( Astri, 2017 . Mousavi et al., 2011 ), who found that inability to maintain new technology by the school provider prevented students from benefiting from distance learning efficiently or impeded them from benefiting from distance learning.

Furthermore, in our study, some posts revealed that there were associations between logistical barriers and distance learning as well. These barriers included difficulties in using distance learning and lack of student preparation, dissatisfaction with the distance learning modality, and inability of distance learning to meet students’ needs ( Lloyd et al., 2012 ). The logistical barriers were the only barriers that were found to have an association with completing a course. Nevertheless, the lack of home technology was related to the minimal utilization of and benefits derived from distance learning.

Furthermore, our analysis revealed an apparent pattern in the issues raised across the various barriers, especially the logistical barriers (i.e., it is difficult to implement distance learning), and personal barriers (i.e., lack of training to facilitate distance learning), which was associated with the subject course, format of delivery, preparation of the student, satisfaction with distance learning, and the extent to which distance learning met the needs of the school student.

Lastly, our study found that financing distance learning is another barrier faced by parents because buying technology for distance learning lessons and the cost of doing the lessons via the internet can result in financial challenges. This is in line with a previous study that showed that parents using distance learning classes, those not utilizing distance learning, and those who used distance learning in the past all identified funding as a barrier to distance learning ( Hannum et al., 2008 ). Parents lack computers, access to the internet, and absence of technology expert ( Barter, 2008 ; Irvin et al., 2010 ; Williams et al., 2010 ). Furthermore, the need to buy web cameras for video conferencing adds another burden to the cost of distance learning for remote parents ( Hager, 2011 ).

Other posts on the barriers to participating in distance learning also revealed concerns about money and accessing equipment and technology. The costs related to owning a computer, accessing the internet, and other equipment may be seen as a barrier, particularly if the family has insufficient income to cover such expenses ( Adams and Hannum, 2008 ; Roberts and Hannum, 2018 ). Nevertheless, the perception of the advantages of distance learning also included funding and accessing technology and instrument. Monetary help may be used in buying equipment for technology and support distance learning. Access to suitable technology is a key issue because, according to Owens et al. (2009) , the absence of technology makes it difficult for remote students to complete distance learning classes.

4.1. Implications for practice and recommendations

This study shed a light on parents’ perceptions of the barriers experienced by their children when following distance learning programs of study at home during the COVID-19 outbreak in Jordan. To remove these barriers some modifications are required, including finding ways to develop relationships with other school students and teachers online and implementing support strategies for lower-achieving students. Removing these barriers may enhance the perceptions that parents and their children have in respect of the distance learning modality. This COVID-19 lesson will force a generation of new laws, regulations, platforms and solutions from the government and community for future cases. This lesson will cause using available free tools to transit the traditional school lessons to the online education for future after ending of COVID-19 outbreak to be a part from future teaching and learning Preparing parents and their children to online learning will need additional work for preventing plagiarism and cheating. Moreover, this study was a preliminary qualitative study on perception of parents on distance learning during COVID-19 and other depth approaches such as focusing group and unstructured interviews in futures studies could be used to describe parents perceptions regarding this important subject.

5. Conclusion

Overall, parents were not limited to their daily routines during the pandemic. They performed the responsibility of helping school in teaching students. Many parents faced many types of barriers in their endeavors to assist their children with distance learning during the pandemic. According to posts and comments made on Facebook, these barriers were personal, technical, logistical, and financial. To remove these barriers some modifications are required, including finding ways to develop relationships with other school students and teachers online and implementing support strategies for lower-achieving students.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

S. Abuhammad: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.

Funding statement

This work was supported by The Foundation for the National Institutes of Health (1R25TW010026-01).

Declaration of interests statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

• Abuhammad S. Parents’ knowledge and attitude towards COVID-19 in children: a Jordanian Study. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 2020 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Abuhammad S. Violence against women during COVID-19 outbreak. Int. J. Clin. Pract. 2020 [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Abuhammad S., Khabour O.F., Alzoubi K.H. COVID-19 contact-tracing technology: acceptability and ethical issues of use. Patient Prefer. Adherence. 2020; 14 :1639–1647. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Adams J., Hannum E. Creating Wealth and Poverty in Postsocialist China. Stanford University Press; Palo Alto, California, USA: 2008. Beyond cost : rural perspectives on barriers to education. [ Google Scholar ]
• Anderson R.M., Heesterbeek H., Klinkenberg D., Hollingsworth T.D. How will country-based mitigation measures influence the course of the COVID-19 epidemic? Lancet. 2020; 395 (10228):931–934. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Astri L.Y. Barrier factors that influence satisfaction of e-learning: a literature study. Adv. Sci. Lett. 2017; 23 (4):3767–3771. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bayham J., Fenichel E.P. Impact of school closures for COVID-19 on the US health-care workforce and net mortality: a modelling study. Lancet Public Health. 2020; 5 (5):271–278. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Barter B. 2008. Learning about rural education: graduate students’ perspective. (Symposium (pp. 11-20)). [ Google Scholar ]
• Brooks S.K., Smith L.E., Webster R.K., Weston D., Woodland L., Hall I., Rubin G.J. The impact of unplanned school closure on children’s social contact: rapid evidence review. Euro Surveill. 2020; 25 (13):2000188. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Bukhkalo S.I., Ageicheva A., Komarova O. Distance learning main trends (Doctoral dissertation, НТУ“ ХПІ”) 2018. [ Google Scholar ]
• Cole-Lewis H., Perotte A., Galica K., Dreyer L., Griffith C., Schwarz M.…Augustson E. Social network behavior and engagement within a smoking cessation Facebook page. J. Med. Internet Res. 2016; 18 (8):205–210. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Eames K.T., Tilston N.L., White P.J., Adams E., Edmunds W.J. The impact of illness and the impact of school closure on social contact patterns. Health Technol. Assess. 2010; 14 (34):267–312. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Hager P.J. 1–26. 2011. Concepts and Definitions of Lifelong Learning. The Oxford Handbook of Lifelong Learning. London, UK. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hannum W.H., Irvin M.J., Lei P.W., Farmer T.W. Effectiveness of using learner-centered principles on student retention in distance education courses in rural schools. Dist. Educ. 2008; 29 (3):211–229. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hens N., Ayele G.M., Goeyvaerts N., Aerts M., Mossong J., Edmunds J.W., Beutels P. Estimating the impact of school closure on social mixing behaviour and the transmission of close contact infections in nine European countries. BMC Infect. Dis. 2009; 9 (1):187. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Irvin M.J., Hannum W.H., de la Varre C., Farmer T.W. Barriers to distance education in rural schools. Q. Rev. Dist. Educ. 2010; 11 (2):73–78. [ Google Scholar ]
• Jackson C., Vynnycky E., Mangtani P. The relationship between school holidays and transmission of influenza in England and wales. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2016; 184 (9):644–651. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Knouse S.B. What's wrong with distance learning-and what we can do about it. Compet. Forum. 2010; 8 (1):129–136. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lloyd S.A., Byrne M.M., McCoy T.S. Faculty-perceived barriers of online education. J. Online Learn. Teach. 2012; 8 (1):72–79. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mbukusa N.R., Kibuule D., Lates J. Overcoming barriers of isolation in distance learning: building a collaborative community in learning. Adv. Soc. Sci. Res. J. 2017; 4 (17):34–42. [ Google Scholar ]
• Menchaca M.P., Bekele T.A. Learner and instructor identified success factors in distance education. Dist. Educ. 2008; 29 (3):231–252. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mousavi M., Mohammadzadeh Nasrabadi M., Pezeshki-Rad G.R. Identifying and analyzing barrier and inhibitor factors for implementation and development of E-learning in payame noor university. Quart. J. Res. Plan. Higher Edu. 2011; 17 (1):137–154. [ Google Scholar ]
• Nafisah S.B., Alamery A.H., Al Nafesa A., Aleid B., Brazanji N.A. School closure during novel influenza: a systematic review. J. Infect. Pub. Health. 2018; 11 (5):657–661. [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Owens J., Hardcastle L., Richardson B. Learning from a distance: the experience of remote students. J. Distance Educ. 2009; 23 (3):53–74. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ouma G.O., Awuor F.M., Kyambo B. E-Learning readiness in public secondary schools in Kenya. Eur. J. Open Distance E-learn. 2013; 16 (2):97–110. [ Google Scholar ]
• Renes S.L., Strange A.T. Using technology to enhance higher ducation. Innovat. High. Educ. 2011; 36 (3):203–213. [ Google Scholar ]
• Roberts P., Hannum E. Education and equity in rural China: a critical introduction for the rural education field. Aus. Int. J. Rural Edu. 2018; 28 (2):1–8. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shen K., Yang Y., Wang T., Zhao D., Jiang Y., Jin R.…Shang Y. Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of 2019 novel coronavirus infection in children: experts’ consensus statement. World J. Pediatr. 2020; 13 (3):1–9. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization . 2020. COVID-19 Educational Disruption and Response. https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-emergencies/coronavirus-school-closures [ Google Scholar ]
• Williams P., Sheridan S. Conditions for collaborative learning and constructive competition in school. Educ. Res. 2010; 52 (4):335–350. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wenham C., Smith J., Morgan R. COVID-19: the gendered impacts of the outbreak. Lancet. 2020; 395 (10227):846–848. [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• World Health Organization . 2020. WHO Director-General’s Opening Remarks at the Mission Briefing on COVID-19–12 March 2020; p. 2020. [ Google Scholar ]

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

Effects of Modular Distance Learning Approach to the Academic Performance of Intermediate Indigenous Peoples Learners in Puray Elementary School

2023, Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal

The action research was a quantitative study that aims to know the effects of the Modular Distance Learning Approach on the academic performance of Intermediate Indigenous Learners particularly the "Dumagat-Remontado and to present accurate data and studies that will help the learners, parents, and teachers, especially in this time of the pandemic. From the results presented on the 52 respondents surveyed in Puray Elementary School of Rodriguez, Rizal. The findings of the overall academic performance of 65 indigenous peoples recipients in a modular approach have a stronger sense of responsibility in their study which may have a good effect on their academic performance. The findings of the study in the respondent's demographic profile, sex, age, Who among the household members can provide instructional support to the child's distance learning, devices available at home that the learner can use for learning, Internet connection, preferred distance learning modalities and challenges that may affect the child's learning process through distance education are in the significant relationship between the academic performance of indigenous peoples learners. Based on the findings of the study and conclusions drawn from the findings, the following recommendations are hereby offered: First, we recommend that future researchers should have complete information on the general average of the indigenous people learners to accurately get the relationship between the academic performance and effects of Modular Distance Learning Approach. Since the gathered data used summative test results as part of the academic performance of the pupils in this kind of approach. Secondly, the school should continue to implement special projects like "Project AKBAKAT" to help indigenous people learners with parents who can't assist them in working on their modules due to slow educational attainment. To our education department, modules should be reliable and can easily be understood by the pupils and parents/guardians even if there is no direct guidance from the teachers, to make the modular approach more effective. Finally, for the parents and guardians, we strongly recommend that they should encourage the pupils to work hard in their studies despite the pandemic and help them to understand their lessons because it has a great impact on academic performance in a modular approach.

Related Papers

Gary Garcia

It has been over a year now since the government put a hold on physical gatherings including physical classes due to the health crisis brought by the CoViD-19. And for more than a year of thriving against the pandemic, the government was able to open the economy and some learning institutions up gradually. There has been a lot of modification and adaptation that occurred in order to keep going amidst the crisis, which includes modifying the learning modality of the students in order to instill learning even in a new normal setting. And yet, indeed the firsts will never be easy, during the first phase of the distance learning implemented by the Department of Education (DepEd) on the 6th day of October year 2020, students, parents, and stakeholders were put into the challenge. Distance learning which in form of modular and online learning were the options given to the students nationwide in which purposely implemented to ensure the deliverance of learning despite the geographic location and financial capability of the students’ families to support their needs for the time being. With this, this investigative study has been conducted in order to know and convey the students’ response with regards to distance learning during the first phase of its implementation. Of which the participants were 50 randomly selected Senior High School Students from Agusan Del Sur and Agusan Del Norte and were residing in not so urbanized areas. The study was conducted in a form of qualitative research wherein data were gathered through both physical and online interviews as well as survey questionnaires due to the health protocols and travel restrictions implemented by IATF and which were analyzed through thematic analysis. Upon analyzing the data, it appeared that the distance learning approach is not an ideal learning modality for all. Participants were having a hard time adapting to the new learning setting being far from their peers, they find it hard to learn their lessons without the guidance of their teachers, poor network reception and lack of financial resources is a great factor for them to reach and be reached out by their teachers. Nevertheless, most of the participants choose the notion of academic freeze. Hence, researchers raised a practical aid that can be done to address the problem. In which includes weekly home visitation of teachers to their students to personally address the learning gaps of their students. Keywords: Distance Learning, Modular Learning, Online Learning

AJHSSR Journal

This study seeks to help the Philippine Educational System reflect on the implementation of the Modular distance learning. The study aimed to indicate the assessment of Modular Distance Learning perceived by Social Studies teacher and School principals of public Secondary Schools in Zone 1 of the division of Zambales regarding module content, module printing, module retrieval and distribution. The teacher-respondent is a Social Studies major, BS degree with Master's units, Teacher I and had been in the service for almost a decade.The principal-respondent is a Social Studies major, masteral degree holders, Principal II and had been in the service for almost two decades. Both the teacher and principal respondent always observe the difficulty on Modular Learning implementation as to the retrieval of printed modules and answer sheets respectively.

Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal

Psychology and Education

This research identified the level of participation of the Indigenous People (IP) learners in modular instruction and developed an Indigenous People (IP) student-centered policy intervention to address modular distance learning hindrances among the Grade IV-VI learners of Buenavista. Quantitative method through descriptive survey was used which entailed the development, validation, and facilitation of the researcher-made instruments to gather valid data. Samples were identified through purposive sampling technique to select the 50 Indigenous People (IP) learners. Data were gathered personally by the researcher through the developed questionnaires while observing the standard protocols of safety procedures with communication to Local Inter Agency Task Force (IATF) and the rural health office of the municipality. All the data were analyzed statistically by the researcher using frequency counts, percentage, mean, ANOVA, and t-test. Findings showed that Indigenous People (IP) learnersrespondents have aged 11 years old, females, and in Grade VI. The Indigenous People (IP) learners aged 8, 9, and 11 were very satisfactory participating to modular instruction along with both female and male groups. The Grade IV learners and Grade VI Indigenous People (IP) learners were also very satisfactory in modular instruction. At 0.05 level of significance, the there is no significant difference on the participation rate of Indigenous People (IP) learners when grouped into age and sex but there is a significant difference when grouped according to grade level. No representation of the Indigenous People (IPs) in the modules, demand for learning devices, and helping parents to earn money sometimes hindered in the participation of the IPS in modular instruction. Parental Actions in Reoriented Education Norms with Teachers and Students (PARENTS) was proposed and recommended for implementation to increase the participation rate of the IP students in Modular Instruction.

Psychology and Education , ROMEL LAGRIO

The education sector was greatly affected by the global health crisis of COVID-19, resulting in massive changes in our education setup , which contributed to various problems and challenges encountered during the implementation of the modular distance learning modality. This study aimed to determine the strategies and challenges encountered by teachers in implementing modular distance learning and its impact on students' academic performance. A descriptive research design was employed. The researchers utilized an online survey method for data gathering. A total of 60 teachers and 187 selected Grade 7 learners were the study's respondents utilizing total enumeration for teachers and stratified random sampling for learners.The study's findings show that teachers could employ strategies such as setting a submission schedule and creating a group chat with the learners. Moreover, establish the appropriate health and safety protocols and safety nets for learners against violence and abuse at home and in the community, and train school personnel for the Learning Delivery Modality (LMD).On the other hand, teachers professed that printing modules were time-consuming, the distance of the learner's home from the school hindered the teachers in providing technical assistance, and learners needed help following instructions. Parents answered the modules of the learners. The need for printing materials was a significant challenge.Most of the student's grades during the first quarter were within the range of 80-84, which was considered a satisfactory academic performance. Moreover, the results signified a negligible negative correlation between teachers' strategies in implementing modular distance learning and students' academic performance. The study suggests revisiting the school's plans for implementing modular distance learning and strengthening the partnership of the school, parents, and stakeholders.

Proceedings of SOCIOINT 2021 8th International Conference on Education and Education of Social Sciences

Tarhata S . Guiamalon , SITTIE ALMIRAH ALON

To give consideration of the learners in rural areas where the internet inaccessible for online learning, Modular Learning modality is currently used by all public schools in the Philippines. A modular earning is a form of distance learning that uses Self-Learning Modules (SLM) and is one of the highly convenient for most of the typical Filipino students. It was also the most preferred learning system of the majority of parents/guardians for their children. The SLM is based on the most essential learning competencies (MELCS) provided by the Department of Education. The study was conducted to determine the issues and concerns on the use of Modular Distance Learning Modality among teachers. Of the ten different public elementary schools within the district of Buluan, Dvision of Maguindanao I, It found out that teachers are well-oriented and prepared to perform their tasks and functions on modular distance learning education in times of pandemic. They also have enough trainings and skill development necessary to effectively and efficiently do their job. Parents/guardian can able to support their children in the new learning modality but some of them are hampered because of incapability of facilitating and explaining the modules provided for their children. The study shows the elementary schools have given sufficient funds and resources and it is utilized in its proper allocation. These schools were located at Buluan where strategically located in the southern tip of the Maguindanao Province of Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM). It is composed of seven barangays occupying a total land area of 69,950 hectares. It has a substantial share of the famous Buluan Lake.

JETL (Journal of Education, Teaching and Learning)

Michelle Dimas

Due to Covid-19 pandemic, schools, particularly in the rural areas employed Modular Distance Learning (MDL) to ensure education continuity. This study seeks to investigate the effects of MDL in the academic performance of learners whether there is a significant difference in their performance before and after the implementation of MDL. Mixed method was applied in this study; Quantitative using T-Test to compare the GWA of learners and Qualitative through the use of semi-structured interview to find out the perceived effect of MDL to 15 parents, 10 learners, and 7 teachers and their recommendations. The study revealed that the 2.25% decrease in the GWA of learners after the implementation of MDL denotes a significant difference in their academic performance. MDL strengthens family bonding, independent learning, and is cost-effective. However, it is an additional workload to working parents, there is limited teacher-learner interaction, learners lack socialization with other children ...

Challenges and Barriers Encountered by G10-Agoncillo Learners in the Implementation of Modular Distance Learning at Taal National High School

Waylie Niña De Claro

Modular Distance Learning offered a brand-new avenue in the education industry since the pandemic started. Amidst COVID-19 pandemic, DepEd ensured the continuity of learning through MDL-Self Learning Modules based on the Most Essential Learning Competencies. However, on the first few months of its implementation, several concerns where observed. Some of these were learners’ concerns. In order to address these concerns, this research was conducted to determine the challenges and barriers that G10 - Agoncillo learners from Taal NHS had encountered due to the implementation of Modular Distance Learning. The descriptive method of research was used. A research-made the questionnaire was used to gather data necessary for the study. The data collected were analyzed and statistically interpreted to support the identified questions. The researcher made use of frequency count, weighted mean, and ranking to explain the data gathered. The results of the study revealed that respondents considered “Poor Time Management” as one of their greatest challenges encountered. Moreover, the researcher found out that the respondents have series of solutions to the identified challenges and thus ranked them from the most relevant to least relevant. The study further revealed that a series of suggested activities may help learners address their challenges and barriers properly thus accomplishing their MDL-SLM properly. The researcher recommended that a.) learners should proceed with their suggested solutions to overcome the challenges they encountered, specifically on time management, self-motivation, and learning focus b) parents and guardians should actively support the school in the execution of MDL-SLM by facilitating learning at home c) content writers and teachers should always consider learners’ diversity and needs and d) identified challenges and barriers should be addressed properly to help improve learner’s performance.

Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies

Elizabeth Farin

The world experienced the COVID-19 Pandemic, which severely affected the quality of Education, especially in the Philippines. The option was to change the face-to-face approach to a modular approach. This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of the modular learning approach to students’ academic performance. The study was conducted in Sta. Cruz District in the province of Zambales, Philippines. A Descriptive Research Design was employed. A total of one hundred fifty-four (154) teacher-respondents were randomly selected. There was a significant difference in the perception towards dimensions on the level of effectiveness in the implementation of modular learning approach as to Technical Support, Subject Content, Construction, Delivery and Retrieval Mechanism, Assessment of Student Achievement, Adherence to IATF Health Observance Protocols, and School and Local Government Unit Support. This modality's modular learning approach has improved and increased students’ academic pe...

This study investigated the limitations experienced by students, parents, and teachers in the implementation of Modular Distance Learning in Lagundi-CCL National High School during the school year 2021-2022. The researcher utilized the combination of quantitative and qualitative methods of research. An online research questionnaire utilizing Google Form was used to gather necessary information from the eighty (80) students, eighty (80) parents, and thirty-one (31) teachers who served as the respondents of this paper. Based on the results, the three major limitations experienced by students were: 1) insufficient knowledge of parents/ family members; 2) unavailability of gadgets; and 3) too many activities. In addition, parents' three major limitations were: 1) insufficient knowledge about the lessons; 2) difficulties in schedule of distribution and retrieval of modules; and 3) working parents. Furthermore, the identified limitations of teachers were: 1) too many additional tasks for teachers; 2) unavailability of self-learning modules; and 3) students who were lagging behind. From these limitations the respondents had given their suggestions. The students suggested that: 1) lessen the activities that are given to them; 2) conduct an online class even once a week; and 3) give additional time to answer the learning tasks. Meanwhile, parents' suggestions were: 1) enough information and examples in the modules should be given; 2) lessen the learning tasks; and 3) guide the parents on how to assist their children. Lastly, teachers' suggestions include: 1) proper dissemination of program, projects, and activities related to modular distance learning; 2) capacitate parents and students on MDL; and 3) distribution and retrieval should be done every other two weeks. The researchers crafted a process framework which may serve as basis in the modification of the implementation of modular distance learning which included seven (7) strategic dimensions.

Psychology and Education , Chriszel Van D. Astillero , honeylyn mahinay

This study is conducted to determine the public senior high school learners' assessment on implementing modular learning modality in terms of content and instruction, learning assessment, teacher-learner-parent/guardian collaboration, active and personalized learning, and inclusion. Descriptive-correlational design and stratified proportionate random sampling were utilized. Findings revealed that learners were very satisfied in the implementation of the modular distance learning modality in terms of learning assessment. Transferable skills were also found very challenging. There is no significant difference in the early assessment of the implementation of modular distance learning when grouped according to sex. There is a significant difference in the early assessment of learners in implementing modular distance learning in terms of learning assessment when grouped according to track. No significant difference was found in the early evaluation of the implementation of Modular Distance Learning in terms of content and instruction, teacher-learner-parent/guardian collaboration, active and personalized learning, and inclusion.

RELATED PAPERS

Slovenian Medical Journal

Andrej Čretnik

Brazilian Journal of Development

Sandra Caponi

PROSIDING SEMINAR NASIONAL FISIKA (E-JOURNAL) SNF2017 UNJ

Siti Sarah Munifah

埼玉学園大学紀要 経営学部篇

Akio Katami

Journal of Regional and City Planning

cut nuraini

Frontiers in Chemistry

Rajeshreddy Ninakanti

M.Patricia Henao Trujillo

Atas da 13ª Conferência da Associação Portuguesa de Sistemas de Informação

Henrique O'Neill

Sustainability

Laszlo Vasa

Frontiers in Immunology

Som Nanjappa

Eddy Triharyanto

Microelectronics Reliability

Rahul Joshi

FAVE Sección Ciencias Veterinarias

Fernanda Briseño Rodríguez

Boletín de Arqueología PUCP

Sofia Chacaltana-Cortez

Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering

IFIP International Federation for Information Processing

Omar Khalil

La Tribuna de Cuenca

Marco Antonio de la Ossa Martínez

AIDS and Behavior

Soohyun Nam

International Business Research

Wadie Nasri

Christophe Sola

jkjhygffg bhhnhfgf

Dr. Asiri Naidu

Makassar Dental Journal

Eri Hendra Jubhari

SAGVNTVM. Papeles del Laboratorio de Arqueología de Valencia

Jose Antonio Rodriguez Traver

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024