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How to Develop Critical Thinking in Science: Strategies for Success

Article 23 Nov 2024 55

Developing critical thinking in science is about more than solving problems or conducting experiments—it's about equipping yourself with the ability to evaluate evidence, make logical connections, and approach challenges with curiosity and objectivity.

Whether you're a student, an educator, or someone exploring the scientific process, this guide will provide strategies for sharpening critical thinking skills that are as practical as they are impactful.

What Does Critical Thinking Mean in Science?

Critical thinking in science involves analyzing information systematically to reach reasoned conclusions. It's about asking the right questions, considering multiple perspectives, and backing decisions with evidence rather than assumptions. Think of it as the ability to see beyond surface details and dig deeper into the "why" and "how" of a problem.

For example, critical thinking helps us differentiate between reliable sources and misinformation when studying climate change, enabling a clearer understanding of global issues.

The Key Components of Critical Thinking

Critical thinking isn't a single skill but a combination of several interconnected abilities. Each component is vital in creating a robust framework for evaluating and solving scientific problems. Let's explore these components in greater depth:

1. Observation:

Observation is the primary point of critical thinking. It involves noticing details, identifying patterns, and gathering data systematically. For example, scientists rely on observation to track how environmental changes affect plant growth or how chemical reactions progress in a lab setting.

This skill requires focus and curiosity—even the most encouraging scientific opportunities can be missed without sharp observation.

2. Analysis:

Once observations are made, analysis helps us understand how these elements fit together. This involves dissecting complex problems into manageable components and examining their relationships.

For example, a biologist might analyze how various species interact, determining predators, prey, or symbiotic partners when studying an ecosystem. Analysis prevents us from oversimplifying problems and ensures we recognize the complexity of scientific phenomena.

3. Interpretation:

Data is just raw information. Interpretation gives it meaning. Critical thinkers evaluate data within a specific context, asking questions like, "What does this result suggest?" or "How does this fit with existing theories?"

This might mean interpreting the results of a physics experiment to understand the gravitational force better. Interpretation bridges the gap between evidence and conclusions.

4. Problem-Solving:

Critical thinking thrives on solving challenges logically and creatively. In science, this often involves hypothesizing solutions, testing them, and refining approaches based on the results.

For example, engineers working on renewable energy technologies must solve immediate design issues and anticipate and address future challenges like scalability or environmental impact. Problem-solving combines deductive reasoning with innovative thinking to create viable solutions.

5. Reflection: Learning From Past Decisions

Reflection is a vital yet often overlooked component of critical thinking. By evaluating past decisions and their outcomes, scientists and learners can identify strengths and areas for improvement.

For example, after completing an experiment, a student might reflect on whether their methodology was efficient or if alternative approaches could yield better results. Reflection fosters growth and helps refine strategies for future challenges.

5. Bringing It All Together

These components—observation, analysis, interpretation, problem-solving, and reflection—form the backbone of critical thinking in science. Each element builds upon the others, creating a comprehensive process for evaluating information and making informed decisions.

These skills require time and practice, but their value in science and beyond is immeasurable. Whether you're a student conducting experiments or a professional addressing global issues, these components will equip you to approach complex problems with clarity and confidence.

Why Is Critical Thinking Important in Science?

Science thrives on curiosity, inquiry, and discovery—and critical thinking is the cornerstone of every breakthrough.

At its core, critical thinking allows scientists, students, and professionals to navigate complexity, evaluate evidence, and develop innovative solutions to challenging problems and break down their importance:

1. Solve Problems More Effectively

Science is full of puzzles that demand logical and systematic approaches. Critical thinking provides the clarity needed to tackle these challenges, whether identifying a flaw in an experimental setup or debugging a technical issue. Instead of jumping to conclusions, critical thinkers analyze the situation, explore multiple possibilities, and choose the most viable solution.

For example, a researcher conducting a study on climate change might encounter unexpected variations in data. Instead of dismissing these outliers, they would investigate potential causes—like instrumentation errors or external variables—ensuring the results are accurate and credible.

2. Drive Innovation

Every scientific advancement, from the invention of the lightbulb to the discovery of antibiotics, stems from looking at existing problems through a new lens. Critical thinking encourages us to challenge assumptions, think creatively, and push the boundaries of knowledge.

Take the discovery of DNA's double helix structure, for example. James Watson, Francis Crick, and Rosalind Frank didn't only accept prior models of molecular structures. Instead, they critically analyzed the available data, tested new hypotheses, and arrived at a basic understanding of DNA's role in heredity.

3. Make Better Decisions

Evidence-based decision-making is essential in science. Critical thinking ensures that decisions are informed by data and logic rather than bias or assumptions. This is especially essential in fields like medicine, where misinterpretation of information can have life-or-death consequences.

For example, a medical researcher deciding which treatment to test must evaluate existing studies, weigh potential risks, and consider patient outcomes. Critical thinking provides a framework for high-stakes decisions, ensuring they are grounded in evidence and reason.

Real-Life Example: The Apollo 13 Mission

One of the most compelling examples of critical thinking in action is the Apollo 13 mission. In 1970, NASA engineers faced an unprecedented challenge when an oxygen tank explosion jeopardized the lives of three astronauts. Time and resources were limited, and the situation demanded quick yet carefully reasoned solutions.

Using critical thinking, the engineers analyzed the spacecraft's available resources and devised a creative solution: they repurposed materials on board to create an improvised carbon dioxide filter. Their ability to think critically under pressure saved the crew and demonstrated the life-saving potential of evidence-based, analytical problem-solving.

The Bigger Picture

Critical thinking doesn't just lead to breakthroughs—it ensures that science progresses in a rigorous, reliable, and relevant way. By approaching problems with curiosity, skepticism, and logic, scientists can build knowledge that stands the test of time. Whether you're a student tackling a school project or a researcher addressing global challenges, critical thinking is the tool that transforms ideas into meaningful discoveriIt'sIt's not just a skiit'sit's the mindset that fuels the engine of science.

Proven Strategies to Develop Critical Thinking in Science

Let's explore practical methods for sharpening critical thinking skills that apply to students, educators, and professionals alike.

1. Inquiry-Based Learning

Inquiry-based learning encourages asking questions rather than simply memorizing answers. By exploring "why" and "how" questions, students build a foundation for analytical thinking.

Example Activity:

Instead of teaching students that water boils at 100°C, a "k, "what factors could change the boiling point of water? This question opens the door to exploring concepts like pressure and impurities.

Tip for Educators: Create lesson plans that involve solving real-world problems. Tasks like designing a sustainable energy solution engage students in critical and creative thinking.

2. Socratic Questioning

Named after the philosopher Socrates, this technique involves asking open-ended questions to encourage more profound thought.

Examples of Socratic Questions in Science":

"What evidence supports this hypothesis "i"?"

"What are the alternatives to this solution"?"

"How would changing one variable affect the outcome" me?"

Socratic questioning helps you challenge assumptions and refine your reasoning, especially useful in forming hypotheses and designing experiments.

3. Hands-On Experiments

Science is inherently practical, and engaging in experiments can help bridge theory with application. Critical thinking is naturally developed when troubleshooting experiments or interpreting unexpected results.

A biology student investigating plant growth might hypothesize that increased sunlight accelerates growth. However, through experimentation, they discover that overexposure can harm the plant. This process reinforces the critical evaluation of preconceived ideas.

4. Reflective Practices and Metacognition

Reflection analyzes one's thought processes, while metacognition refers to thinking about feelings. Both are invaluable for improving critical thinking.

Practical Steps to Reflect:

After completing a science project, ask yourself:

What went well?

What could have been done differently?

How did my assumptions affect my conclusions?

This iterative approach helps refine your reasoning skills over time.

Implementing Critical Thinking in Science Education

For educators, fostering critical thinking in students requires intentional effort. Here are some actionable steps:

1. Curriculum Design

Design lessons that integrate critical thinking with scientific principles. Case studies on historical scientific discoveries can illustrate how critical thinking shaped outcomes.

Teaching students about the discovery of penicillin could involve asking them to analyze Alexan Fleming's thought process when he noticed bacterial growth inhibition.

2. Equipping Educators

Teachers should obtain training on how to encourage critical thinking in their classrooms. Debate, peer review, and collaborative projects promote engagement and analytical thinking.

3. Assessment Methods

Instead of traditional tests, rubrics evaluate students' critical thinking. Assessments could include:

Analyzing scientific literature.

Presenting a solution to a real-world problem.

Reflecting on the experiment's outcomes.

Challenges and Solutions in Developing Critical Thinking

Resistance to Change: Traditional rote-learning methods can hinder critical thinking.

Limited Resources: Not all schools have access to advanced labs or materials.

Encourage flexible thinking through group discussions and brainstorming sessions.

Use low-cost or virtual experiments to teach core scientific concepts.

For example, a rural school in India taught agricultural science using everyday materials like soda bottles and seeds, fostering critical thinking even without advanced tools.

Real-Life Applications of Critical Thinking

Scientific breakthroughs.

Many of the world's most significant discoveries stemmed from critical thinking:

The Wright Brothers successfully built the first functional airplane by challenging traditional ideas about aerodynamics.

Rosalind Franklin: Her crucial analysis of DNA's structure laid the groundwork for understanding genetic material.

Classroom Success Stories

A high school teacher in Finland implemented inquiry-based learning in her science classes. Over a year, her students showed a 30% improvement in problem-solving and reasoning skills, as measured by standardized tests.

Developing critical thinking in science is a lifelong journey that pays off in countless ways. From solving complex problems to making informed decisions, critical thinking provides the tools to thrive in any scientific field.

Key Takeaways:

Focus on asking questions and analyzing evidence.

Practice through hands-on experiments and reflective thinking.

Use real-world problems to apply scientific concepts.

By embracing these strategies, you can transform how you approach science, think, and learn in every area of life. Let's prioritize critical thinking as a foundation of science education, equipping future generations with the confidence and creativity needed to tackle the challenges of tomorrow.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

What is critical thinking in science?

Critical thinking in science involves analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting information to reach reasoned conclusions. It focuses on observing patterns, breaking down complex problems, testing hypotheses, and making evidence-based decisions. This skill is essential for scientific discovery and innovation, enabling scientists to question assumptions and approach problems methodically.

How can critical thinking improve problem-solving in science?

Critical thinking improves problem-solving by providing a structured approach to analyzing challenges. It helps to recognize the root causes of issues, explore multiple solutions, and evaluate outcomes. For example, a chemist troubleshooting a failed reaction can use critical thinking to assess variables like temperature, reactant purity, or experimental conditions, leading to more precise adjustments.

How do we develop critical thinking skills in science?

You can develop critical thinking skills by:

Engaging in inquiry-based learning (asking "why" and "how" questions).

Participating in hands-on experiments and analyzing unexpected results.

Practicing Socratic questioning to challenge assumptions.

Reflecting on past experiments to identify areas for improvement.

Educators can also support students by integrating case studies, debates, and problem-solving activities into lessons.

Why is critical thinking essential in science education?

Critical thinking prepares students to tackle real-world challenges by fostering analytical reasoning and evidence-based decision-making. It helps them understand scientific concepts deeply rather than relying on rote memorization. Additionally, critical thinking encourages curiosity and creativity, essential traits for aspiring scientists and innovators.

Can critical thinking be applied outside of science?

Absolutely! While critical thinking is essential in science, its applications extend to every aspect of life. From making informed health decisions to solving everyday problems at work, critical thinking helps evaluate options, reduce errors, and make logical choices. For example, a business professional might use critical thinking to analyze market trends and make strategic decisions.

How to Develop Critical Thinking in Children

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Help & FAQ

'What does the term Critical Thinking mean to you?' A qualitative analysis of chemistry undergraduate, teaching staff and employers' views of critical thinking

School of Chemistry

Research output : Contribution to journal › Article › Research › peer-review

Good critical thinking is important to the development of students and a valued skill in commercial markets and wider society. There has been much discussion regarding the definition of critical thinking and how it is best taught in higher education. This discussion has generally occurred between philosophers, cognitive psychologists and education researchers. This study examined the perceptions around critical thinking of 470 chemistry students from an Australian University, 106 chemistry teaching staff and 43 employers of chemistry graduates. An open-ended questionnaire was administered to these groups, qualitatively analysed and subsequently quantified. When asked to define critical thinking respondents identified themes such as 'analysis', 'critique', 'objectivity', 'problem solving', 'evaluate' and 'identification of opportunities and problems'. Student respondents described the smallest number of themes whereas employers described the largest number of themes. When asked where critical thinking was developed during the study of chemistry students overwhelmingly described practical environments and themes around inquiry-based learning. When teaching staff were asked this question they commonly identified critiques, research, projects and practical environments to some extent. This research highlights that there is only limited shared understanding of the definition of critical thinking and where it is developed in the study of chemistry. The findings within this article would be of interest to higher education teaching practitioners of science and chemistry, those interested in development of graduate attributes and higher order cognitive skills (HOCS) and those interested in the student and employer perspectives.

Access to Document

10.1039/c6rp00249h

Student perceptions of “critical thinking”: insights into clarifying an amorphous construct

First published on 27th May 2022

“Critical thinking” has been situated as an important skill or way of thinking in chemistry education. However, despite its perceived importance, there has not been an established consensus definition for chemistry and science education with many resources operating from working definitions. The many definitions obfuscate what “critical thinking” is and entails and thus makes it an amorphous construct within education. Previous work in chemistry education has explored how different groups define “critical thinking” and found that the groups had limited agreement. The work here seeks to expand the literature base on what we know about “critical thinking” by probing perceptions of the construct further. Using semi-structured interviews and constructivist grounded theory, I explored student perceptions of “critical thinking” in the context of organic chemistry courses. From the analysis, I generated four major themes. Students perceived that “critical thinking” (1) involved the application and use of knowledge, (2) was contrasted to passive approaches to learning, particularly rote memorization, (3) was learned from previous experiences prior to organic chemistry, and (4) was motivated by a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic forces. I assert that these overarching commonalities across student perceptions align with the previous literature and the scientific practices in three-dimensional learning, thus offering a potential way forward for clarifying the construct and being more explicit about what we want students to know and do.

Introduction

In 1990, Facione published the “Delphi Report” which was a major attempt at operationalizing “critical thinking” using a panel of 46 experts on the construct ( Facione, 1990 ). Within the “Delphi Report”, “critical thinking” was defined as “purposeful, self-regulatory judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference, as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based…. The ideal critical thinker is habitually inquisitive, well-informed, trustful of reason, open-minded, flexible, fair-minded in evaluation, honest in facing personal biases, prudent in making judgments, willing to reconsider, clear about issues, orderly in complex matters, diligent in seeking relevant information, reasonable in the selection of criteria, focused in inquiry, and persistent in seeking results which are as precise as the subject and the circumstances of inquiry permit,” ( Facione, 1990 ). Though the definition from the “Delphi Report” has been leveraged in chemistry education ( Danczak et al. , 2017, 2020 ), it's important to note that past and present conceptualizations of “critical thinking” have not always aligned with this definition and that the panel did not reach a full consensus. Furthermore, the panel of experts used in the report consisted primarily of philosophers and did not include discipline-based education experts at the time.

Aside from defining “critical thinking”, research has also struggled to conceptualize the construct as involving general skills that could transfer between domains ( Ennis, 1962 ; Charen, 1970 ; Lau, 2011 ) or as discipline-specific skills that are dependent on content knowledge ( Siegel, 1989 ; Mulnix, 2012 ). In 2012, the National Academies considered “critical thinking” to be part of the 21st century competencies that were necessary for “deeper learning” which entailed transferring knowledge from one situation to another. However, this report from the National Academies concluded common definitions had not been established for constructs like “critical thinking” and acknowledged that “research to date provides little guidance about how to help learners aggregate transferable competencies across disciplines” ( National Research Council, 2012b ).

The amorphous nature of “critical thinking” creates major problems for measuring and promoting whatever it is. Despite its nebulous nature, various instruments have been published to assess “critical thinking”, all of which operate from their own conceptualization of the construct, indicating that one instrument may not be appropriate for all contexts ( Ennis, 1962 ; Watson and Glaser, 1964 ; Wright and Forawi, 2000 ; Banning, 2006 ; Forawi, 2016 ; Danczak et al. , 2020 ; Insight Assessment, 2020 ; The Critical Thinking Co., 2021 ; Assessment Day Ltd ). Furthermore, some have sought to explore strategies and develop frameworks to help promote and develop “thinking critically” ( Abrami et al. , 2015 ; Duncan et al. , 2018 ). In their meta-analysis of “critical thinking” strategies, Abrami and colleagues concluded that individual practice, discussion, real-world examples, and mentoring could all be helpful for developing “critical thinking” ( Abrami et al. , 2015 ). Abrami and colleagues were careful to define “critical thinking” in their meta-analysis, but it implies that much of our research on “critical thinking” operates from conceptualizations of the construct that may be different.

Despite these divergent perspectives on a seemingly important construct, there has been some overlap amongst definitions. For example, the application and use of knowledge ( Glaser, 1941 ; Dunning, 1954 ; Gupta et al. , 2015 ; Barron et al. , 2021 ), the contrast of “critical thinking” to rote memorization ( Dunning, 1954 ; George, 1967, 1968 ; Rickert, 1967 ; Facione, 1990 ; Tsai, 2001 ; Mulnix, 2012 ; Santos, 2017 ), and the idea that “critical thinking” must be explicitly taught to students are notable commonalities ( George, 1967, 1968 ; Rickert, 1967 ; Byrne and Johnstone, 1987 ; Facione, 1990 ; Barak et al. , 2007 ; Vieira et al. , 2011 ; Mulnix, 2012 ) have all been noted. However, commonalities across many studies and perspectives may differ from one another as well.

As noted earlier, given the divergence in what “critical thinking” is understood to be, researchers in chemistry education have advocated for abolishing the term altogether and being more explicit about what we want students to know and do with ( Cooper, 2016 ; Stowe and Cooper, 2017 ). These authors have also suggested that the scientific practices in A Framework for K-12 Science Education ( National Research Council, 2012a ) and three-dimensional learning (3DL) ( 3DL4US, n.d. ) could act as the component parts of “critical thinking” ( Cooper, 2016 ; Stowe and Cooper, 2017 ). However, this particular stance implies that systematic curricular and pedagogical overhaul may be necessary to have longitudinal impacts on how students approach learning due to the need for consistent practice ( Kogut, 1996 ; Oliver-Hoyo, 2003 ). Certainly, other scholars’ definitions of “critical thinking” have relied on various scientific practices covered in the Framework such as argumentation or asking questions ( Siegel, 1989 ; Osborne et al. , 2004 ; Crenshaw et al. , 2011 ; Mulnix, 2012 ; Hand et al. , 2018 ).

In our previous research on student perceptions of transformational intent and classroom cultures in organic chemistry, my colleagues and I noted that many students would use the term “critical thinking” to describe their experiences. However, these responses were often vague and unclear as to what students were doing when they engaged in this way of thinking, highlighting that the term had a taken-for-granted meaning amongst students ( Bowen et al. , 2022 ). In a related study on student perceptions of “critical thinking”, Danczak and colleagues found that there was limited agreement amongst undergraduates, teaching assistants, teaching faculty, and chemical industry employers’ definitions of “critical thinking” ( Danczak et al. , 2017 ), further highlighting the amorphous nature of the construct amongst different groups in chemistry.

With this in mind, I became more interested in what students perceived “critical thinking” to be and what it might entail. My aim for this study was to extend the literature base on student perceptions of this amorphous, yet pervasive, construct in science education (such as the work done by Danczak et al. , 2017 ). I wanted to go beyond how students defined “critical thinking” and probe the experiences and factors that informed their understanding and use of this way of thinking. To assist in this endeavor, I employed a constructivist grounded theory approach and used semi-structured interviews with students across three different organic chemistry courses at a large, research-intensive Midwestern university in the United States. My rationale for choosing students in organic chemistry was to align with our previous work in these courses where students often used the term to describe their experiences ( Bowen et al. , 2022 ). My research questions for this study were as follows:

(1) What are the commonalities across student perceptions of “critical thinking”?

(2) What insights do student perceptions of “critical thinking” offer to help clarify the construct in instruction?

Theoretical framework

Sociocultural perspectives have been recently employed in chemistry education research to explore graduate teaching assistants’ teaching identity ( Zotos et al. , 2020 ), how students identify the significance of course material they are learning through writing ( Petterson et al. , 2022 ), and how students perceive their courses’ learning cultures ( Bowen et al. , 2022 ). These perspectives situate the significance of social interactions and contextual factors on how people think, talk, and act. Within the context of this study, I work from the assumption that student conceptualizations of “critical thinking” have largely been informed by their sociocultural experiences. That is, students come to understand “critical thinking” via social interactions with instructors, peers, and family and the ways of thinking and doing supported by their learning environments ( Vygotsky, 1978b ; Rogoff, 1990 ). Therefore, students’ understanding of “critical thinking” may be the product of socialization where their understanding has been heavily shaped and informed by others who have purported a certain way of conceptualizing “critical thinking” ( Rogoff, 1990 ; Miller and Goodnow, 1995 ; Lemke, 2001 ; Gutiérrez and Rogoff, 2003 ; Nasir and Hand, 2006 ; Calabrese Barton et al. , 2008 ).

With the adoption of this sociocultural view, I believe “critical thinking” is informed by expectations and norms of that space ( Becker et al. , 2013 ; Chang and Song, 2016 ; Bowen et al. , 2022 ). My aim was to use this theoretical perspective in conjunction with my methodological approach to identify emergent themes that not only provide insight into what students think “critical thinking” is but where they source this understanding, how they see it developing, and what factors are influential for encouraging them to engage in it.

Methodology

Course contexts.

I invited students in organic chemistry taught by three different professors. Two of the professors were teaching the transformed curriculum, Organic Chemistry, Life, the Universe, and Everything (OCLUE) which has been previously discussed elsewhere, and the third professor taught a more traditional organic chemistry course ( Cooper et al. , 2019 ; Bowen et al. , 2022 ). OCLUE is informed by A Framework for K-12 Science Education ( National Research Council, 2012a ) and leverages three-dimensional learning ( 3DL4US, n.d. ). In the context of this transformed curriculum, students are often asked to engage in scientific practices in the context of fundamental, core ideas in chemistry ( Cooper et al. , 2017 ). Students in OCLUE are frequently encouraged to engage in causal mechanistic reasoning ( Crandell et al. , 2019, 2020 ) and construct explanations ( Houchlei et al. , 2021 ), among other practices outlined in the Framework. On the other hand, the traditional course is typically organized via functional group rather than core ideas, and students are not often required to provide reasoning or engage in scientific practices. In a previous analysis of assessments between these two courses, it was found that the traditional course had more questions that could be answered via recall ( Stowe and Cooper, 2017 ). Previous research from my colleagues and I in these two types of organic chemistry courses also found that more students in OCLUE perceived they were expected to use their knowledge throughout the course while more students in the traditional course perceived they were expected to rely on rote memorization and knowledge ( Bowen et al. , 2022 ). However, in both types of courses, students used terms like “critical thinking” to describe their experience which influenced me to initiate this study.

Participants

Interview question development, data collection.

Students were notified of being selected, and an interview time was scheduled. Students were e-mailed a welcome document which included some of the major questions covered in the interview (this document is included as supplementary information). Interviews were semi-structured and conducted online via Zoom with each interview lasting between 30–75 minutes. Interviews were recorded using the Zoom recording feature with live transcriptions to assist with the transcription process later on. At the end of each interview, participants were given the option to choose a pseudonym, e-mail one, or have one generated for them.

After each interview, I reflected and took notes, detailing any questions or ideas that came up during the conversation. Most interviews were transcribed immediately after conducting them. Each interview underwent two rounds of transcription. First, I listened to each interview with the Zoom transcriptions and corrected them. Then, I listened to the audio once again with the transcript in hand, checking it for accuracy, and making edits when necessary. Once a master transcript of each interview was made, the transcripts were further deidentified by redacting instances where they referred to their specific professor or themselves by name.

In grounded theory, the use of theoretical sampling is considered an important component of the method ( Charmaz, 2006 ; Corbin and Strauss, 2015 ; Timonen et al. , 2018 ), however, grounded theory articles have been published without the use of theoretical sampling across education more broadly, including in this journal ( Randles and Overton, 2015 ; Dunn et al. , 2019 ; Flaherty, 2020 ; Barron et al. , 2021 ). Given the timeframe of the study, the online nature of the course, and logistical issues, I was unable to engage in theoretical sampling as traditionally defined, and instead I relied more on convenience and random sampling.

Constructivist grounded theory

At its core, CGT can be viewed as principles and practices for engaging in qualitative work ( Charmaz, 2006 ). The methodology is a highly inductive approach, meaning that all concepts and ideas described emerge directly out of the data ( Charmaz, 2006 ; Corbin and Strauss, 2015 ; Creswell and Poth, 2017 ). Like some other types of qualitative methods, constructivist grounded theory acknowledges that “objectivity” is largely unobtainable, and instead researchers can rely on their personal experiences to help make sense of the ideas emerging from the study ( Charmaz, 2006 ; Corbin and Strauss, 2015 ). Although it is often said themes “emerge” from qualitative data (language that I use here), to me this means that themes were derived via inductive methods and thus not meant to imply the themes were independent of my perspectives and thoughts. That is, the themes I interpreted were generated by me in an inductive manner. Though some may argue that grounded theory must lead to a strong, well-supported theory, recent conceptualizations have instead argued that sometimes CGT leads to a conceptual, or analytical, framework which may be less comprehensive than a theory but still productive for making sense of the data ( Timonen et al. , 2018 ).

Data analysis

Once all available interview transcripts had undergone open and initial coding, I engaged in a focused and axial coding stage. Here, I identified codes that were relevant to the research questions (though I kept note of the other codes in case anything changed). These relevant codes were then analyzed further to develop larger and more encompassing emergent themes. At this point, the initial codes were combined, modified, or re-coded, if necessary. The final stage of coding is known as theoretical coding and is the stage that develops the theory or analytical framework of the study. This stage involves analyzing and establishing relationships between the themes and categories captured in earlier stages of coding ( Timonen et al. , 2018 ), and is often referred to as the core category ( Charmaz, 2006 ; Corbin and Strauss, 2015 ; Flaherty, 2020 ). Once relationships were identified, a final write-up of the categories, themes, and subsequent relationships between them was completed to establish the analytical framework that arose inductively from the data in this study on how students perceive “critical thinking”. As I will show later, this core category is explained narratively and woven into the previous literature on what “critical thinking” means and entails with a remarks on how to move forward with “critical thinking” in chemistry education.

Reliability and validity

Reflexivity is an important part of qualitative work, and I engaged with it through the use of memo writing, which is also an important procedure in the grounded theory methodology. In the spirit of transparency, upon initial generation of the themes presented here, my thought was that I had essentially re-affirmed pieces of what was already known or theorized about the construct of “critical thinking” (as evidenced in the literature review). However, after discussions with other scholars and additional reflection, I concluded that not only had I extended the empirical evidence base of what people perceive about “critical thinking” but had established additional evidence that supports a way forward for such a nebulous construct.

I have attempted to include thick descriptions of my methodological approach and as many quotes from the interviews as possible to allow readers to better understand my interpretations ( Merriam and Tisdell, 2016 ). Finally, the peer review process offers a powerful way of supporting this work. Although I conducted this study by myself, it has been assessed by the expertise of my colleagues in accordance with the inclusion in this journal.

Results and discussion

Given the nebulous nature of “critical thinking”, my methodological approach (which focused on looking for common themes), and my initial interpretations at the start of data analysis, I found it more productive to focus on the commonalities of “critical thinking” shared amongst students in the sample. However, it's important to note, student perceptions of “critical thinking” in this study were not identical, but the commonalities between them may offer an analytical and practical handle that can be leveraged to better understand how students conceptualize similar constructs and how we can support student learning.

From my analysis, I synthesized findings into four major themes which sought to detail student perceptions of what “critical thinking” is (theme #1), what it is not (theme #2), the perceived origin of their conceptualization and how it develops (theme #3), and the motivational factors that encourage students to engage in it (theme #4). All four themes and associated subcategories are included in Table 2 . In accordance with constructivist grounded theory, it is imperative to acknowledge that these themes were developed by me, and that someone else could have developed different themes from the same set of data (hence the influence of sociocultural factors). My approach was inductive and my findings were based on how pervasive these themes were across student perspectives. That is, I wanted to highlight what I interpreted as the most salient factors. Prior to discussing these themes, I believe it important to mention some minor findings that highlight commonalities across students that were not explored in substantial detail to warrant incorporation into a theme. I refer to these findings as minor findings.

Minor findings

Furthermore, despite the different curricular and pedagogical approaches in the organic chemistry courses in this study, all students perceived that they were using “critical thinking” in their organic chemistry courses at the time of the interview. Unsurprisingly, all students were familiar with the term “critical thinking” despite its nebulous nature. This related to the fact that most participants (eleven out of fourteen) mentioned that “critical thinking” had been mentioned (and even expected of them) but had not been made explicit to them in the past. These minor findings provide additional context to the themes and further support my decision to explore commonalities across student responses.

Theme #1: “critical thinking” involves the application and use of knowledge

“ …you’re presented pieces of information or like concepts like being able to absorb that and apply it in a new given situation and being able to like work through like a problem with what you already know I guess, is how I would, specifically like applying it. I think that's how I would define [critical thinking]… ” (Amanda 85; OCLUE)

“ …I said in my opinion [critical thinking is] learning something new and using that knowledge to apply to future concepts and ideas ” (Virginia 21; OCLUE)

For both Amanda and Virginia, the application of concepts and ideas to “future” problems was important for their understanding of “critical thinking”. The perspectives of these students was also noted in previously mentioned literature ( Glaser, 1941 ; Dunning, 1954, 1956 ; George, 1967 ; Vieira et al. , 2011 ; Gupta et al. , 2015 ; Barron et al. , 2021 ). In total, eleven out of fourteen students discussed “critical thinking” as applying and using knowledge in general.

“ …with organic chemistry there, we have different principles and theories that, um, we build upon, and that's like our foundational understanding of certain concepts like… um, in recitation it was like Le Chatelier's principle so there's always like facts and scientific evidence and theories that are, build upon what we learned in class and those kind of tie back into what we, the reactions we do ” (Hailee 51; OCLUE)

“ …so critical thinking, and in my opinion, is just utilizing all these building blocks that intro classes and intermediate classes prepare you for, to be able to get to these more advanced classes… ” (Damien 47; traditional)

Both quotes above highlight how previous information learned, sometimes in another course ( i.e. , introductory courses) would need to be used for new problems in organic chemistry or upper-level courses. Therefore, to these students, connecting concepts together and building off of previous knowledge was important for engaging in “critical thinking” and was how they situated it. In total, ten out of fourteen participants had responses in this subcategory.

“ …You can really like apply what's going on to like a situation like you're not just doing it, like you're actually… like, like, get what's going on, versus just like going with the flow like what someone's telling you is happening. Like you can see why it's happening ” (Arisha 55–57; OCLUE)

“ So, just in general, critical thinking to me is… instead of asking, like, answering what something is, it's how something is, why something is ” (Milo 39; traditional)

I argue here that in order for students to engage in reasoning and parse out why a phenomenon happens, students must apply concepts and use their knowledge in some way. In fact, in many cases (Arisha's response being one example), responses in this subcategory mentioned “application” and “reasoning” or “understanding why” together. In our previous work we noted a similar co-occurrence in student perceptions of what they were expected to do, with many responses associating the application of knowledge to understanding why ( Bowen et al. , 2022 ). In total, eight out of fourteen students had responses in this subcategory.

“ I think of it as like, okay, from all the lectures, and all the notes, and even like, the beSocratic homeworks, and recitations like, there's just like, a bunch of information, and I just tried to see like, what, you know, I try to like, put it all together and really see patterns amongst that and, um, like, the general overarching like, takeaways I can think of… ” (Adelynn 11; OCLUE)

On the other hand, a couple of students also discussed the process of analyzing questions with the ultimate goal of figuring out which information needed to be applied, as Noelle notes:

“ …I guess just like, um, like you’re given a problem, you need to analyze it, you know, so I guess, analyzing it first, and then thinking back on what you know that can be applied in order to find a solution for it. ” (Noelle 43; OCLUE)

Although the number of responses in these two subcategories was much smaller than the others, with only three students across both subcategories having coded segments assigned to them, I find them to be important for inclusion considering they represent the ways students conceptualized “critical thinking” and how it involved the application and use of knowledge.

Theme #2: “critical thinking” is contrasted against more passive approaches to learning

“ Just the ones where you kind of like copy notes from a board and the next day or a week later, you're tested on exactly what you, you know, word by word from what you copied. I think that doesn't allow for critical thinking to happen ” (Clara 49; traditional)

“ …not critical thinking is straight memorization without asking like the who, what, why, when, like, um, not exploring like the ideas that came before just like taking the baseline facts… ” (Rebeka 29; OCLUE)

As can be seen, Clara, a student in the traditional organic chemistry course, mentions situations where students are tested over how well they can regurgitate copied information as being the opposite of what “critical thinking” is. Similarly, Rebeka contrasts “critical thinking” to memorization and further expands on this by stating that “critical thinking” involves the “who, what, why, when…”. All fourteen participants contrasted their conceptualization of “critical thinking” with rote memorization, and it was, by far, the dominant subcategory in this theme, indicating strong commonalities across student conceptualizations. However, it's worth noting that some participants were quick to say that this did not mean memorization was entirely “bad”, a perception which I plan to explore in a different study.

“ …like trying to do the problem but just for like, you kind of expect the answer or you know it already, and I think there's like, not a true test of what you actually know ” (Adelynn 47; OCLUE)

“ …I think it's in those moments like if we were to just kind of sit there and guess, and think, oh, I think I've seen that answer before where I just, you know, a really vague, um, principle, you know something and then you just click the answer and you just keep going and you don't really understand why you chose it but you get it right and you just kind of move on and not knowing the deeper meanings for the answers or why the processes work the way they do and the foundational level ” (Hailee 31; OCLUE)

From the perspective of these students, knowing or recognizing an answer to a problem can hinder a student from looking beyond the answer into understanding why the answer is correct. Only Adelynn and Hailee had responses allocated to this subcategory, therefore it is a small but important part of their perception into what is not “critical thinking”.

“ …reading things it has like, it has neither the, you’re not like, spending enough time in it, and also like, you're not even like, I guess, mentally challenging yourself, and there's no critical thinking involved in it whatsoever. ” (Whitefox 43; traditional)

“ Another example that might apply is like, reading over your notes. Like, you might think that like that information is getting into your brain more because you're like, reading over it, but I just don’t think that's like, very critical thinking because it's not like, taking stuff you know and trying like, to apply it to something that you don’t know the answer to yet. ” (Adelynn 47; OCLUE)

Earlier in the interview, Whitefox noted that “ …I find rereading notes is one of the most like, inefficient in terms of like, yield for studying ,” (Whitefox 27). This perspective coupled with their quote above highlight how Whitefox contrasts this passive approach to “critical thinking”. Similarly, Adelynn also noted that rereading notes was not effective and connected it back to how it does not encourage one to apply knowledge. Similar to the previous subcategory, only two students (Whitefox and Adelynn) had responses in this subcategory.

Theme #3: prior experiences inform “critical thinking” which is further developed through practice

“ …I would say that one, one of the classes that really allowed me to see how things kind of pieced together, um, and from a variety of disciplines was actually my hydrogeology course, um, of Fall 2019, and that was really cool to see how chemistry, physics, geology biology, all combined to impact, you know, subsurface movement of water, and, and, and different pollutants that could travel to various areas and how it impacts, you know, agriculture or forest land or, or your drinking water… ” (Damien 155; traditional)

“ …everyone grows up in a different environment, the way in the way like, parents teach you, the way that you, um, interact with your friends when you're younger too, it all just plays a role into how you think, and I think that it can be very different for people… ” (Reina 67; OCLUE)

All students in the study relied on their prior experiences in the context of “critical thinking”. I only show two examples above due to space limitations but students also mentioned their families ( i.e. , mirroring approaches of family members), social pressures ( i.e. , engaging in “critical thinking” in order to compete in a class), and work ( i.e. , working in a hospital) as informing their understanding of “critical thinking”. I found it interesting that students did not discuss their organic chemistry course in the context of developing their “critical thinking” given that scholars and instructors assert that organic chemistry develops these generalized “critical thinking” skills ( Dixson et al. , 2022 ). According to the students in this sample, they arrived at organic chemistry already having some conceptualization of what “critical thinking” was and how to do it; that is, they were engaging in a practice they had been using and learned previously.

“ I would say the more that you really, and like, authentically immerse yourself in the content and the material. And the more that you kind of want to be in the classroom setting. And the more effort, like I said, that you put in, I think practicing and putting in the effort is a really big thing. I think the more that you do that, the more that you'll be rewarded and that reward comes from critical thinking ” (Clara 95; traditional)

“ I think you have to like be in that field and keep applying that critical thinking for that field over and over again that helps you make, become quicker, forming connections between concepts and also simply because the more concepts you have the easier it is to form connections between them. So I think the more exposure, you have to that field, you’re going to be able to form, be able to, be able to critically think in that field ” (Whitefox 79; traditional)

The idea of practicing being necessary for the development of “critical thinking” was noted in the literature ( Kogut, 1996 ; Oliver-Hoyo, 2003 ; Abrami et al. , 2015 ). In some cases, students’ perceptions went further, such as when they discussed reflecting on responses and learning from their mistakes in the context of practicing. This highlights that students do perceive one must consistently practice to get better at something, a theme which could be pedagogically useful.

Theme #4: intrinsic and extrinsic factors motivate “critical thinking”

“ …I think when I critical think in my classes I learn more, and I understand things more. And so, I think if we want students to succeed, or you yourself as a student, you want to succeed, pushing yourself to critically think about that is something that's going to help… ” (Ella 75; OCLUE)

In Ella's quote, they note that by engaging in “critical thinking” they ultimately learn more, highlighting how engaging in that way of thinking helps with their learning. On the other hand, Clara (below) notes that when they are working with a problem at the appropriate challenge level, they find this fun and engaging, and this is what helps them think “critically” about the content.

“ So, a question where I feel like I have some of the pieces, but I need to find the, the other ones, those types of questions I really like to critically think about because I feel like I have all the tools needed and I just have to kind of set it up. So that, that becomes fun. I, I want to say like when it's a question that is the right amount of difficulty… ” (Clara 119–121; traditional)

In total, twelve out of fourteen participants leveraged intrinsic factors to motivate themselves to think critically.

“ …So, like on the [homework] how she has is like okay, like each slide is like one step for the problem. So it's like okay let's do like when it's like the multiple step reactions and she's like okay like what's, what's step one and then you click next and like okay now based on that, what's step two, and you do that, draw it out whatever, so I like that because then I like gets me thinking about every step focuses on every step, versus like, there have been like some problems versus like okay here's this, here's a giant box like draw the whole reaction, it's like four steps, but it just like gets all mixed up, so I like it how she actually breaks it up sometimes, that helps me so ” (Noelle 131; OCLUE)

In Noelle's experience, the homework questions that were broken up and scaffolded encouraged them to “critically think”. This was largely due to the prompting in the task which encouraged students to think about each facet individually before bringing all of the information together. Aside from prompting, some students were motivated by their grades and performing well in the course:

“ …so I guess, to be motivated to think critically means you need to be motivated to be a high achiever in the class, and think that there's that kind of motivation come from both like past experiences, especially if you have like a tracker record of like it's doing good you want to keep the track record going, um, and also, I also know people who are like who have a track record of doing average, they have no incentive they're like, oh, I'm just aiming for a B or I'm just aiming for a C, I hear that quite a lot, people are like, not, I guess, uh, they're not aiming for an A ” (Whitefox 101; traditional)

From Whitefox's perspective, one must be “motivated to be a high achiever” in order to “critically think”. However, Whitefox was not alone in this perspective, and various students talked about the role of grades as a motivating factor. For example:

“ So, I mean, I think it is possible to, like, critically think even though you don’t have like an interest in it, if you want, if there's like a different motivation behind it, I guess… Which I think for most people would be like being successful and like getting good grades ,” (Amanda, 129–131; OCLUE)

Amanda also notes the role that grades can have for motivating students to engage in certain ways of doing, in this case “critical thinking”. Other students talked about how grades hinder them from engaging in “critical thinking” with some situating grades as inaccurate of a student's “actual” learning. Regardless, for a handful of students, grades were a motivating source. In total, eleven out of fourteen students discussed extrinsic factors and their role with “critical thinking”.

Differences between OCLUE and traditional organic chemistry

In OCLUE, students primarily saw themselves “critically thinking” on their weekly homework assignments (as long as they took them seriously), recitations, and course assessments. For example, Arisha, Hailee, and Ember describe how OCLUE encouraged them to think “critically” on homework, recitations, and exams, respectively:

“ I think we definitely are expected to use like the term critical thinking like we're supposed to take the knowledge we learned in lectures and be able to like, apply it to our homework and exams. ” (Arisha 9; OCLUE)

“ …I know one that we did in recitation was kind of like describe, like it was like explain this reaction, so you have to draw out the reaction, and then you have to explain why it happened like that. And sometimes its flipped where she'll ask a question like, um, why does why, like why is carbon… what am I thinking of? Why are fats not soluble in like, why is oil not soluble in water, something like that, she'll tell you to explain it, and then she'll tell you to like, draw a picture that also aids the explanation… ” (Ember 21; OCLUE)

“ …you have to really know what you're doing to do well on the test because it's not a multiple choice test and it's not just facts or, you know, like s-simple concepts, it's really broad concepts that all build off of each other so I think you would, you wouldn't be able to get by at all with just memorizing… ” (Hailee 35; OCLUE)

On the other hand, students in the traditional course perceived that they were primarily asked to engage in “critical thinking” on in-class activities (of which there were two for the semester), recitations, and homework (though for different reasons), and not as much on their course assessments. For example:

“ …I would say that the critical thinking, parts have been present throughout the whole semester, but most, mostly in, um, the you know the activity, like I mentioned… and I feel that critical thinking part comes out in recitation more than it does in lecture. ” (Damien 93; traditional)

“ …I would say not as much critical thinking on the quizzes and exams because it's multiple choice. I would say critical thinking is used much more on the homework since there's, uh, a good bit of questions that require like, you to draw the molecule or to type out the name, so. ” (Milo 101; traditional)

Here, Milo talks about how the multiple-choice assessments do not encourage “critical thinking” but discusses how “critical thinking” on the homework involves more open-ended responses. Though Damien perceived that “critical thinking” was taking place throughout organic chemistry, they primarily discussed it in the context of the activities (and recitations) which students perceived had them relate multiple concepts together.

Upon further digging into these activities in the traditional course, I found something quite interesting. As readers may recall, OCLUE is informed by three-dimensional learning which incorporates three-dimensional items on homework, recitations, and assessments, all of which students perceived involved “critical thinking” while the traditional course is not transformed. In an effort to enhance and expand transformation efforts at my institution, there is a fellowship program for faculty members that acts as professional development to help interested faculty engage with and utilize three-dimensional learning in their courses. The faculty member who taught the traditional organic chemistry course in this study was part of this fellowship program in the past. Though their course looks largely traditional, they have attempted to incorporate more three-dimensional items into their instruction and assessments. One way they have done this is through the two activities in their course. That is, the two activities, which most of the students in the traditional course mentioned as getting them to use “critical thinking” were developed in a professional development program that sought to instruct faculty on how to incorporate three-dimensional learning into their learning tasks. Though the degree to which the courses incorporate three-dimensional learning is quite different, it is interesting to see students mention “critical thinking” in the context of three-dimensional activities in both courses.

The core category

Since the core category should describe what the study was about, taken together, all four major themes inform my core category of conceptualizing “critical thinking”. With the focus on how students perceived what “critical thinking” is (themes #1 and #2), what experiences influenced their perception and how “critical thinking” develops (theme #3), and what motivates them to do it (theme #4), my aim was to provide an analytical and practical handle on what students believe “critical thinking” to be, despite its amorphous nature noted by students in this study and throughout the literature. These themes therefore address my first research question of what commonalities exist across student perceptions. In a similar study by Danczak and colleagues, they noted similar themes across student responses, including the application of knowledge. They concluded that students primarily defined “critical thinking” as “to analyse and critique objectively when solving a problem” ( Danczak et al. , 2017 ). Although some students mentioned the idea of “objectivity”, it was not a major point of convergence. However, the focus on analyzing and solving problems was also noted in student responses in this study.

Although the themes can be useful in their own right, my overarching goal has to clarify what students meant when they mentioned “critical thinking”. I argue all four themes represent student perspectives in this sample, and I believe can extend the literature base on our understanding of how students conceptualize “critical thinking”. To address my second research question of what insights student perceptions can provide to help clarify the construct, I posit that students seemingly do not conceptualize “critical thinking” as thoroughly as some definitions, such as in the “Delphi Report” ( Facione, 1990 ), nor do their definitions align across all facets. That is, students also recognize the amorphous nature of the construct. Previously I mentioned that others have advocated for abolishing the term “critical thinking” and instead situating the scientific practices in three-dimensional learning as component parts of the construct to make it explicit what we want students to know and do ( Cooper, 2016 ; Stowe and Cooper, 2017 ). Using the themes from this study, I add credence to this assertion, and I will discuss the core category and subsequent themes in the context of two facets: (1) the amorphous nature of “critical thinking” and (2) the alignment of student perceptions with the scientific practices in 3DL.

Despite having previous experience with “critical thinking” and stating they had come across the term before, students confirmed its amorphous nature in various ways throughout the interview. The different conceptualizations noted are likely rooted in the ways that students have been trained in their previous experiences. From theme #3, students were drawing on a variety of experiences to conceptualize “critical thinking”, and the diversity across these experiences make it even more difficult for a consensus definition to be established.

Within CER, Stowe and Cooper have suggested that we completely avoid the term “critical thinking” and instead be more specific about what we want students to know and do ( Cooper, 2016 ; Stowe and Cooper, 2017 ). Throughout the literature and this study, it is clear that “critical thinking” is something more than having declarative knowledge. Themes #1 and #2 highlight that students perceived that this knowledge must be put into practice and that rote memorization is not “thinking critically”. In the literature I noted there was overlap amongst definitions that described “critical thinking” as the application of knowledge ( Glaser, 1941 ; Dunning, 1954 ; Gupta et al. , 2015 ; Barron et al. , 2021 ), contrasting the construct against rote memorization ( Dunning, 1954 ; George, 1967, 1968 ; Rickert, 1967 ; Facione, 1990 ; Tsai, 2001 ; Mulnix, 2012 ; Santos, 2017 ), and that practice is important for its development ( Oliver-Hoyo, 2003 ; Abrami et al. , 2015 ). All three commonalities were also noted in student perceptions of the construct and are represented in the major themes identified, indicating potential points of nucleation for clarifying the construct and what we want students to do when we say “critical thinking”. That is, these general overarching commonalities may act as foundations of what “critical thinking” is and entails but will require more explicit and detailed descriptions of what students are expected to know and do, an idea I will discuss next.

As evidenced by the first theme, the students ultimately perceived that “critical thinking” involves the application and use of knowledge. This, in conjunction with the fact that students perceived passive approaches to learning (theme #2), especially rote memorization, was contradictory to “critical thinking”, illustrates that students do see the construct as being something more than regurgitation of declarative knowledge and facts. With regard to theme #3, the scientific practices offer explicit ways to engage students in the act of doing science. That is, in a three-dimensional environment leveraging the scientific practices, students have many opportunities and access points to engage in scientific thinking and practice ( Bang et al. , 2017 ). Although the findings from theme #3 imply that students are not relying on organic chemistry to inform their perception of “critical thinking”, there is more to consider. At the time of the interview, it may have been too early for students to reflect on their experiences in organic chemistry to recognize how the course had impacted their perception and understanding. Regardless, the data demonstrate that current student perceptions align well with the intended purposes of the scientific practices in three-dimensional learning. Other perspectives and studies have also found ideas like “application”, “use of knowledge”, and contrasts to rote memorization as being important for “critical thinking”, indicating that previous work in conjunction with this study pinpoint a convergence point for the construct that aligns with the scientific practices. While we have no control over intrinsic factors that motivate students, we can, however, leverage the extrinsic factors many students relied upon, such as prompting. For example, my colleagues have conducted research into the role of prompting on learning tasks that impact how students respond ( Crandell et al. , 2019 ; Noyes and Cooper, 2019 ; Noyes et al. , 2022 ). That is, through the lens of three-dimensional learning, they have found effective ways for prompting students to engage in causal mechanistic reasoning and recognize its influence on student thinking. Though grades were mentioned as an extrinsic motivating factor, I have opted to explore this perception in more detail in another publication.

I have noted alignment between what students perceive is “critical thinking” and the scientific practices since the practices would clarify the meaning of “critical thinking” and explicitly communicate what students need to do. The use of three-dimensional learning does necessitate a curricular overhaul, however, and would not be accomplished with a simple intervention. Regardless, I posit that the use of three-dimensional learning and the scientific practices offer a potential way forward for engaging students in the work of “critical thinking” that not only aligns with the evidence presented in this study, but to the perspectives that have been noted in the literature.

In relation to the alignment between student perceptions and the scientific practices, it is likely this work may require consistent instruction. All students in the study relied on past and present experiences outside of organic chemistry as influential for their understanding for “critical thinking”. That is, organic chemistry was not the source of “critical thinking” skills for any of these students, as some may imply. Regardless, within theme #3, I noted that students perceived they would need to consistently practice to get better at “critical thinking”. In some cases, this practice was described as “immersion” and involved reflection and learning from mistakes. As I have noted, the idea of consistent practice has also been suggested in the literature, including a meta-analysis of strategies related to developing “critical thinking” ( Oliver-Hoyo, 2003 ; Abrami et al. , 2015 ). That is, though “critical thinking” has historically assumed many definitions, it has consistently been suggested that it requires practice. This may suggest that one-off interventions are not as effective at providing students enough opportunities to practice and develop their thinking ( Noyes et al. , 2022 ). This point aligns with the use of three-dimensional learning scientific practices in that the underlying goal of this curricular approach is to provide consistent opportunities throughout the course, often in the form of formative assessments, so that students can receive feedback on their thinking. Such an approach can further support the use of the three-dimensional scientific practices in instruction.

By adopting a systematic and systemic approach rather than an intervention-based approach, instructors can better communicate that consistent practice and ways of doing (such as the application of knowledge) are valued. In previous research on student reasoning in chemistry courses, it was found that students in OCLUE were more likely to retain their reasoning ability over time ( Crandell et al. , 2020 ). Considering that OCLUE engages students in the scientific practices throughout the entire semester on homework, recitations, and assessments, I argue that students are given plenty of opportunities to engage in the practices, ultimately contributing to their ability to use them later. That is, OCLUE is a whole course overhaul with intentional decisions to engage students, consistently, in the scientific practices of three-dimensional learning. Similarly, theme #3 also illustrated that students are drawing on a variety of previous experiences to inform their view of “critical thinking”. Given the previous discussion on the amorphous and nebulous nature of the construct, it's difficult to imagine that a single intervention would shift how students conceptualize “critical thinking”.

Limitations

A second limitation is that this study included a small number of students (fourteen). These students were offered extra credit to participate in the interview (though other students not randomly selected for interview received a separate extra credit activity), and though I tried to ensure I was randomly selecting from a range of experience, these students may have been self-selecting and not representative of the student population at the university. Furthermore, all students were from the same large, research-intensive university and may not represent perspectives across different institutional contexts. In conjunction with this, a third limitation is that students were aware of my position as a chemistry education researcher and overall intentions of transforming curricula and pedagogy. Thus, it is possible students may have catered their responses to my interests or to “protect” their professors. For example, I noted earlier that students in the traditional course largely did not see themselves using “critical thinking” on exams, when I asked Milo why this was, they prefaced their response by saying that they really enjoyed the professor and course and did not want their response to cause any changes in the course.

Implications for research

To reiterate, student conceptualizations were not identical, though my themes highlight the major commonalities across student responses that could be leveraged. For example, studies could explore how students perceive certain scientific practices as being related to “critical thinking”. There may be practices that students already use due to their previous academic experiences, however, there may be other practices that are important but that students are less familiar with and have a more difficult time using. Furthermore, additional work is needed to understand why organic chemistry is situated as important for developing “critical thinking” even though students in this study had already conceptualized the construct before getting to this course. The future study(ies) could comment on whether students need time to digest their experience before recognizing the impact it has on their perception, or if their prior experiences are fully dominating over their organic chemistry experience.

Implications for teaching

Regardless of whether an instructor chooses to learn more about three-dimensional learning, I recommend that instructors think about the things they want students to know and do and spend some time defining these aspects of their instruction, especially if they are using terms like “critical thinking”. Furthermore, instructors should make these definitions and learning goals very explicit to students. Constructs such as “critical thinking” and “problem solving” are often used in lectures, yet students may not be entirely clear on what is expected of them or what exactly they need to do. In some cases, students may assume they know, but their definition or understanding may be quite different than what the instructor intends. I recommend instructors concretely define what they want students to know and do instead of shrouding expectations in terms with many different definitions (without ever defining what they mean). Given the nebulous nature of the term, Stowe and Cooper have taken the position that the term “critical thinking” should not be used at all ( Stowe and Cooper, 2017 ); however, the ubiquitous nature of “critical thinking” throughout education and society makes this difficult. Therefore, my position is that if instructors use terms like “critical thinking”, or other amorphous terms like “problem solving”, they should be explicit and specific about what students must know and do with regard to these terms. In terms of moving forward, I have posited that the scientific practices and three-dimensional learning offer a route to clarifying the seemingly important construct of “critical thinking”. In this study, I noted how, despite the differences in how “critical thinking” was conceptualized, there were some commonalities that seemed to align with the scientific practices. This offers a potential access point to getting students to do something “more” than just memorize and go deeper into how and why chemical phenomena occur.

Conflicts of interest

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'What does the term Critical Thinking mean to you?' A qualitative
The definition of critical thinking is frequently discussed in the literature, particularly among philosophers, psychologists and education researchers. ... This study aimed to identify the perceptions of critical thinking of chemistry students, teaching staff and employers. The study investigated how each of these groups define critical ...
'What does the term Critical Thinking mean to you?' A qualitative
Good critical thinking is important to the development of students and a valued skill in commercial markets and wider society. There has been much discussion regarding the definition of critical thinking and how it is best taught in higher education. This discussion has generally occurred between philosopher Development of key skills and attributes in chemistry
How to Develop Critical Thinking in Science
3. Make Better Decisions. Evidence-based decision-making is essential in science. Critical thinking ensures that decisions are informed by data and logic rather than bias or assumptions. This is especially essential in fields like medicine, where misinterpretation of information can have life-or-death consequences.
Critical Thinking in the Chemistry Classroom and Beyond
As a consequence, undergraduate chemistry cirricula could be improved if chemists were trained more explicitly in critical thinking. Teaching logic in a chemical context is possible, although it is difficult to connect it to pre-existing student knowledge. KEYWORDS (Audience): Second-Year Undergraduate. KEYWORDS (Domain): Chemical Education ...
'What does the term Critical Thinking mean to you?' A qualitative
This study examined the perceptions around critical thinking of 470 chemistry students from an Australian University, 106 chemistry teaching staff and 43 employers of chemistry graduates. An open-ended questionnaire was administered to these groups, qualitatively analysed and subsequently quantified.
Student perceptions of "critical thinking ...
Abstract "Critical thinking" has been situated as an important skill or way of thinking in chemistry education. However, despite its perceived importance, there has not been an established consensus definition for chemistry and science education with many resources operating from working definitions.
Enhancing Critical Thinking in Vocational Chemistry Education: Active
Vocational chemistry education plays a pivotal role in preparing students for critical roles in industries where chemical expertise is crucial. The ability to think critically is essential for success and innovation in fields such as pharmaceuticals and environmental science. This study examines the impact of active learning strategies in enhancing critical thinking abilities within vocational ...
PDF Critical Thinking in General Chemistry
Critical Thinking in General Chemistry Author: Kogut, Leonard S. Subject: Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 73 No.3, March 1996 p218 Keywords: Chemical Education Research; High School / Introductory Chemistry; First-Year Undergraduate / General; Constructivism; Learning Theories Created Date: 7/30/2001 1:24:14 PM
How Can Socio-scientific Issues Help Develop Critical Thinking in
The aim of this paper is to revisit socio-scientific issues and see them as a way of developing citizens' critical thinking skills through chemistry education. In light of the problems posed by plastics, we present evidence tested with Spanish grade-8 students of how critical thinking skills can be developed through chemistry education in ...
PDF Critical Thinking in Chemistry Education: a Study for Practical
Critical thinking is a concept elusive in nature, with several definitions, addressing both the disposition and the skills of an aspiring critical thinker. Through the theoretical exploration of CT, practical benefits emerge for acquiring CT within the scope of chemistry via the use of questions, explanations and arguments.