assignment about hybridization

Hybridisation

The formation of bonds is no less than the act of courtship. Atoms come closer, attract to each other and gradually lose a little part of themselves to the other atoms . In chemistry, the study of bonding, that is, Hybridization is of prime importance. What happens to the atoms during bonding? What happens to the atomic orbitals? The answer lies in the concept of Hybridisation. Let us see!

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Introducing Hybridisation

All elements around us, behave in strange yet surprising ways. The electronic configuration of these elements, along with their properties, is a unique concept to study and observe. Owing to the uniqueness of such properties and uses of an element, we are able to derive many practical applications of such elements.

When it comes to the elements around us, we can observe a variety of physical properties that these elements display. The study of hybridization and how it allows the combination of various molecules in an interesting way is a very important study in science.

Understanding the properties of hybridisation lets us dive into the realms of science in a way that is hard to grasp in one go but excellent to study once we get to know more about it. Let us get to know more about the process of hybridization, which will help us understand the properties of different elements.

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What is Hybridization?

Scientist Pauling introduced the revolutionary concept of hybridization in the year 1931. He described it as the redistribution of the energy of orbitals of individual atoms to give new orbitals of equivalent energy and named the process as hybridisation. In this process, the new orbitals come into existence and named as the hybrid orbitals.

Rules for Observing the Type of Hybridisation

The following rules are observed to understand the type of hybridisation in a compound or an ion.

• Calculate the total number of valence electrons .
• Calculate the number of duplex or octet OR
• Number of lone pairs of electrons
• Number of used orbital = Number of duplex or octet + Number of lone pairs of electrons
• If there is no lone pair of electrons then the geometry of orbitals and molecule is different.

Types of Hybridisation

The following are the types of hybridisation:

1) sp – Hybridisation

In such hybridisation one s- and one p-orbital are mixed to form two sp – hybrid orbitals, having a linear structure with bond angle 180 degrees. For example in the formation of BeCl 2 , first be atom comes in excited state 2s 1 2p 1 , then hybridized to form two sp – hybrid orbitals. These hybrid orbitals overlap with the two p-orbitals of two chlorine atoms to form BeCl 2

2) sp 2 – Hybridisation

In such hybridisation one s- and to p-orbitals are mixed form three sp 2 – hybrid orbitals, having a planar triangular structure with bond angle 120 degrees.

3) sp 3 – Hybridisation

In such hybridisation one s- and three p-orbitals are mixed to form four sp 3 –  hybrid orbitals having a tetrahedral structure with bond angle 109 degrees 28′, that is, 109.5 degrees.

Studying the Formation of Various Molecules

4 equivalent C-H σ bonds can be made by the interactions of C-sp 3  with an   H-1s

6 C-H sigma(σ) bonds are made by the interaction of C-sp 3  with H-1s orbitals and 1 C-C σ bond is made by the interaction of C-sp 3  with another C-sp 3  orbital.

3) Formation of NH 3  and  H 2 O molecules

In NH 2  molecule nitrogen atom is sp 3 -hybridised and one hybrid orbital contains two electrons. Now three 1s- orbitals of three hydrogen atoms overlap with three sp 3  hybrid orbitals to form NH 3  molecule. The angle between H-N-H should be 109.5 0  but due to the presence of one occupied sp 3 -hybrid orbital the angle decreases to 107.8 0 . Hence, the bond angle in NH 3  molecule is 107.8 0 .

4) Formation of C 2 H 4   and C 2 H 2  Molecules

In C 2 H 4  molecule carbon atoms are sp 2 -hybridised and one 2p-orbital remains out to hybridisation. This forms p-bond while sp 2  –hybrid orbitals form sigma- bonds.

5) Formation of NH 3   and H 2 O  Molecules by sp 2  hybridization

In H 2 O molecule, the oxygen atom is sp 3 – hybridized and has two occupied orbitals. Thus, the bond angle in the water molecule is 105.5 0 .

 A Solved Question for You

Q: Discuss the rules of hybridisation. Are they important to the study of the concept as a whole?

Ans: Yes, the rules of hybridisation are very important to be studied before diving into the subject of hybridisation. Hence, these rules are essential to the understanding of the concepts of the topic. The following are the rules related to hybridisation:

•  Orbitals of only a central atom would undergo hybridisation.
•  The orbitals of almost the same energy level combine to form hybrid orbitals.
• The numbers of atomic orbitals mixed together are always equal to the number of hybrid orbitals.
• During hybridisation, the mixing of a number of orbitals is as per requirement.
• The hybrid orbitals scattered in space and tend to the farthest apart.
• Hybrid bonds are stronger than the non-hybridised bonds.

When you once use an orbital to build a hybrid orbital it is no longer available to hold electrons in its ‘pure’ form. You can hybridize the s – and p – orbitals in three ways.

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Hybridization

The concept of hybridization is defined as the process of combining two atomic orbitals to create a new type of hybridized orbitals. This intermixing typically results in the formation of hybrid orbitals with completely different energies, shapes, and so on. Hybridization is primarily carried out by atomic orbitals of the same energy level. However, both fully filled and half-filled orbitals can participate in this process if their energies are equal. The concept of hybridization is an extension of valence bond theory that helps us understand bond formation, bond energies, and bond lengths.

What is Hybridization?

When two atomic orbitals combine to form a hybrid orbital in a molecule, the energy of the orbitals of individual atoms is redistributed to give orbitals of equivalent energy. This is known as hybridization. 

The atomic orbitals of comparable energies are mixed together during the hybridization process, which mostly involves the merging of two orbitals or two ‘p’ orbitals or the mixing of an ‘s’ orbital with a ‘p’ orbital as well as an ‘s’ orbital with a ‘d’ orbital.

Hybrid orbitals are the new orbitals formed as a result of this process. More importantly, hybrid orbitals can be used to explain atomic bonding properties and molecular geometry. Carbon , for example, forms four single bonds in which the valence-shell s orbital combines with three valence-shell p orbitals. This combination generates four equivalent sp 3 mixtures. These will be arranged in a tetrahedral pattern around the carbon, which is bonded to four different atoms.

Steps to determine the type of Hybridisation

To understand the type of hybridization in an atom or an ion, the following rules must be followed.

• First, determine the total number of valence electrons contained in an atom or ion.
• Then, count the number of lone pairs attached to that atom or ion.
• Now, the number of orbitals required can be calculated by adding the number of duplex or octet and the number of lone pairs of electrons.
• It should be noted that the geometry of orbitals in atoms or ions is different when there is no lone pair of electrons.

Features of Hybridization

• Hybridization occurs between atomic orbitals with equal energies.
• The number of hybrid orbitals formed equals the number of atomic orbitals that mix.
• It is not required for all half-filled orbitals to participate in hybridization. Even orbitals that are completely filled but have slightly varying energy can participate.
• Hybridization occurs only during bond formation, not in a single gaseous atom.
• If the hybridization of the molecule is known, the molecule’s shape can be predicted.
• The larger lobe of the hybrid orbital is always positive, while the smaller lobe on the opposite side is always negative.

Types of Hybridization

Hybridization can be classified as sp 3 , sp 2 , sp, sp 3 d, sp 3 d 2 , or sp 3 d 3 based on the types of orbitals involved in mixing.

sp Hybridization

It occurs when one s and one p orbital in an atom’s main shell combine to form two new equivalent orbitals. The newly formed orbitals are known as sp hybridized orbitals. It produces linear molecules at a 180° angle. It entails combining one’s orbital and one ‘p’ orbital of equal energy to produce a new hybrid orbital known as an sp hybridized orbital. 

• It’s also known as diagonal hybridization. 
• Each sp hybridized orbital contains the same amount of s and p characters. 
• All beryllium compounds, such as BeF 2 , BeH 2 , and BeCl 2 , are examples.

sp 2 Hybridization

It occurs when one s and two p orbitals of the same atom’s shell combine to form three equivalent orbitals. The newly formed orbitals are known as sp 2 hybrid orbitals. It’s also known as trigonal hybridization. It entails combining one’s orbital with two ‘p’ orbitals of equal energy to create a new hybrid orbital known as sp 2 . A trigonal symmetry mixture of s and p orbitals is kept at 120 degrees. All three hybrid orbitals remain in the same plane and form a 120° angle with one another. 

• Each hybrid orbital formed has a 33.33 % and a 66.66 % ‘p’ character. 
• The molecules with a triangular planar shape have a central atom that is linked to three other atoms and is sp 2 hybridized. Boron compounds are examples.

sp 3 Hybridization

When one ‘s’ orbital and three ‘p’ orbitals from the same shell of an atom combine to form four new equivalent orbitals, the hybridization is known as tetrahedral hybridization or sp 3 . The newly formed orbitals are known as sp 3 hybrid orbitals. These are pointed at the four corners of a regular tetrahedron and form a 109°28′ angle with one another. 

• The sp 3 hybrid orbitals form a 109.28-degree angle. 
• Each hybrid orbital has a 25% s character and a 75% p character. 
• Ethane and methane are two examples.

sp 3 d Hybridization

The mixing of 1s orbitals, 3p orbitals, and 1d orbitals results in 5 sp3d hybridized orbitals of equal energy. Their geometry is trigonal bipyramidal. The combination of s, p, and d orbitals results in trigonal bipyramidal symmetry. The equatorial orbitals are three hybrid orbitals that are oriented at a 120° angle to each other and lie in the horizontal plane. 

• The remaining two orbitals, known as axial orbitals, are in the vertical plane at 90 degrees plane of the equatorial orbitals. 
• Hybridization in Phosphorus Pentachloride, for example (PCl 5 ).

sp 3 d 2 Hybridization

When 1s, 3p, and 2d orbitals combine to form 6 identical sp 3 d 2 hybrid orbitals, the hybridization is called sp 3 d 2 Hybridization. These seven orbitals point to the corners of an octahedron. They are inclined at a 90-degree angle to one another.

sp 3 d 3 Hybridization

It has 1s, 3p, and 3d orbitals, which combine to form 7 identical sp 3 d 3 hybrid orbitals. These seven orbitals point to the corners of a pentagonal bipyramidal. e.g. IF 6 .

Shapes of Hybridization

• Linear : The sp hybridization is caused by the interaction of two-electron groups; the orbital angle is 180°.
• Trigonal planar: Three electron groups are involved, resulting in sp 2 hybridization; the orbitals are 120° apart.
• Tetrahedral: Four electron groups are involved, resulting in sp 3 hybridization; the orbital angle is 109.5°.
• Trigonal bipyramidal: Five electron groups are involved, resulting in sp 3 d hybridization; the orbital angles are 90° and 120°.
• Octahedral: Six electron groups are involved, resulting in sp 3 d 2 hybridization; the orbitals are 90° apart.

FAQs on Hybridization

Question 1: Among sp, sp2, and sp3, which hybrid orbital is more electronegative?

The percentage of s character in sp, sp 2 , and sp 3 hybridised carbon is 50%, 33.33%, and 25%, respectively. Because of the spherical shape of the s orbital, it is attracted evenly from all directions by the nucleus. As a result, an s-character hybrid orbital will be closer to the nucleus and thus more electronegative. As a result, the sp hybridised carbon is the most electronegative.

Question 2: What are hybrid orbitals?

Hybrid orbitals are formed by combining standard atomic orbitals and resulting in the formation of new atomic orbitals.

Question 3: What are the five shapes of hybridization?

Linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, and octahedral are the five basic shapes of hybridization.

Question 4: Why does the amide molecule look like sp 3 hybridized but is sp 2 ?

If the atom is either enclosed by two or more p orbitals or has a lone pair capable of jumping into a p orbital, the general process of hybridization will change. As a result, in the case of an amide molecule, the lone pair enters a p orbital, resulting in three adjacent parallel p orbitals.

Question 5: What is Bent’s rule?

A central atom connected to numerous groups in a molecule will hybridise, causing orbitals with more s character to be directed towards electropositive groups and orbitals with more p character to be directed towards electronegative groups.

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• Prof. Donald Sadoway

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Introduction to solid state chemistry, 10. hybridized & molecular orbitals; paramagnetism.

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Session Overview

Prerequisites.

Before starting this session, you should be familiar with:

• Session 9: Drawing Lewis Structures

Looking Ahead

Prof. Sadoway discusses the shapes of molecules ( Session 11 ).

Learning Objectives

After completing this session, you should be able to:

• Define polar bond , polar molecule , dipole moment.
• Identify three types of primary bonds : ionic, covalent, metallic.
• Explain why homonuclear molecules and molecules containing symmetric arrangements of identical polar bonds must be nonpolar .
• Sketch energy level diagrams for molecules using LCAO-MO, and identify the bonding orbitals and antibonding orbitals.
• Explain how paramagnetism occurs**.**
• Describe the components of sigma bonds and pi bonds.
• Explain the source of electronic conductivity and ionic conductivity.

Archived Lecture Notes #2 (PDF) , Section 3

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Lecture Summary

Prof. Sadoway discusses the following concepts:

• Orbitals split into bonding orbitals (lower) and antibonding orbitals (higher). Electrons fill from lowest energy up.
• sigma = no nodal plane separates nuclei
• pi = a nodal plane separates nuclei
• e.g. liquid oxygen is paramagnetic – can be held by a magnetic field

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