research topics for inclusive education

Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Dissertation, Thesis Or Research Project

I f you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

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If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

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CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS article

The dilemma of inclusive education: inclusion for some or inclusion for all.

• 1 Institute of Education, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
• 2 Research Department, Haute Ecole Pédagogique BEJUNE, Biel/Bienne, Switzerland
• 3 Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia

In this paper, we intend to consider different understandings of inclusive education that frame current public and professional debates as well as policies and practices. We analyze two – somewhat opposing – discourses regarding inclusive education, namely, the “inclusion for some” – which represents the idea that children with special needs have a right to the highest quality education which can be delivered by specially trained staff, and the “inclusion for all” – which represents the idea that all children regarding their diverse needs should have the opportunity to learn together. To put the two discourses in a dialogical relation, we have reconstructed the inferential configurations of the arguments of each narrative to identify how the two definitions contribute to position children with and without special needs and their teachers. The results show the possibilities to bridge the two narratives, with respect to the voices they promote or silence, the power relations they constitute, and the values and practices they enact or prevent.

Introduction

Inspired by social justice ideas, the Convention on the Rights of the Child ( UN, 1989 ) and the Salamanca Statement ( UNESCO, 1994 ), many European countries have developed policies and implemented practices to promote inclusive education ( Arcidiacono and Baucal, 2020 ; Nelis and Pedaste, 2020 ). Consequently, more children with special education needs 1 are nowadays learning with their peers in mainstream schools and the number of special schools has decreased. Although this is a trend in different countries in Europe and in the Global North, there are several challenges. Most notably, there is still no clear understanding of inclusive education. Researchers, policy makers, and teacher educators have diverse understandings ( Haug, 2017 ; Van Mieghem et al., 2018 ; Kivirand et al., 2020 ), which range from the idea that special education is itself a form of inclusive education, to the observation that all children are, for the majority, learning together in an inclusive setting ( Ainscow and Miles, 2008 ; Hornby, 2015 ; Kivirand et al., 2020 ). Magnússon (2019) has concluded that the “implementations, interpretations and definitions of the concept vary greatly both in research and in practice, between countries and even within them” ( ibid , p. 678).

These different discourses are present in several societies, but the debates are more heated in contexts which more recently have started to implement inclusive education practices, such as Eastern Europe and former Soviet countries ( Florian and Becirevic, 2011 ; Stepaniuk, 2019 ). One of the reasons for so many challenges in the latter context is the past experience of a strongly segregated educational system. This historical context is illuminated in the views of teachers, parents, and the general public.

In this paper, we will analyze two – somewhat opposing – discourses regarding inclusive education encapsulating two positions that are in the core of many current debates about inclusive education. The first one (“inclusion for some”) represents the idea that children with special needs have a right to highest quality education which can be best delivered by specially trained staff in a specialized and often segregated environment, while the second one (“inclusion for all”) represents the idea that all children regarding their diverse needs should have the equal opportunity to learn together in a regular education setting.

In this paper, we are going to put the two discourses in a dialogical relation. Through an argumentative analysis based on the reconstruction of the inferential configurations of arguments, we intend to identify how the two definitions contribute to position children (with and without special needs) and teachers, whose voices they promote and whose voices are silenced, what power relations they constitute, and what values and practices they enact or prevent. The possibility to map out the reasoning beyond these arguments is discussed as the starting point for bridging the existing conceptions about inclusive education. Prior to introducing the two narratives, we introduce briefly the background of inclusive education in Estonia which forms the context of the current study.

Inclusive Education in Estonia

Similarly to many Eastern European countries, Estonia has a long special education tradition, which is influencing acceptance of the principles and the actual practices of inclusive education. These principles have been established at the legislative level in Estonia since 2010, most notably the law states that students with special needs have the right for studying in their schools of residence with their peers ( Basic Schools and Upper Secondary Schools Act, 2010 , 2019 ). In accord with the changes in the legislative framework, the number of pupils with special educational needs in mainstream schools has increased; however, another phenomenon has appeared – the number of students enrolled in special classes in mainstream schools has also increased ( Räis et al., 2016 ). These special classes are often taught by teachers of special education and not by regular teachers. Although many school leaders understand the need for inclusive education, their main concern is a lack of availability of support specialists – including special needs teachers, speech therapists, and phycologists ( Räis and Sõmer, 2016 ). Although the expertise of support specialists is highly valued in Estonian schools and kindergartens, more and more teachers have recognized the importance of their own professional development related to supporting diverse learners. For example, the comparison of TALIS 2013 and TALIS 2018 survey data ( OECD, 2020 ) showed that teachers’ participation in professional development activities related to supporting diverse learners has significantly increased in Estonia and at the same time teachers indicated that training in this area is for them still the largest need for professional development. Consequently, diverse in-service training courses are available for teachers. An analysis of the course content at one of the major universities in Estonia providing teacher education showed that the core content of these courses has tended to focus on didactical methods of teaching students with special educational needs rather than on strategies of inclusive pedagogy. However, more recent in-service courses have emphasized social justice, possibilities for participation, and inclusive pedagogies as well (e.g., Kivirand et al., 2021 ). This brief overview illuminates that very different perspectives and practices are present in Estonia. We will explore these in more detail in the next sections.

Two Discourses of Inclusive Education

Inclusion for some.

There have been several articles published in 2020 in Estonian national newspapers arguing that inclusive education is a dream or ideology that does not take into account actual circumstances of reality. In one of such articles ( Ehala, 2020 ), a university professor, who regularly writes about education, cites a recent study conducted in Estonia on the added value of education on children’s cognitive abilities. The study showed that 80% of the children’s knowledge and skills can be explained by individual abilities and home background, and only 20% by the influence of school. The professor argued that children with physical disabilities could be included, but it is problematic to include children who have been raised according to very different principles or who have significant cognitive disabilities. He specified that inclusive education would only be possible in societies which are very homogeneous, most importantly regarding child raising practices and family values. This would result in a situation where there are few differences between children’s behaviors and are used for similar norms and regulations. He pointed out as: “Inclusive education is a mirage created by our sense of justice, but its implementation puts young people in a learning environment that is not in line with their home preparation and developmental needs. They are just too special and different so that everyone could learn together in a way that no one suffers.” He concluded that we simply need different kinds of environments for different children.

Many of these ideas are also pointed out by some teachers. In 2019, a new educational strategy was prepared for Estonia and in this process, several meetings were held in different places across the country. Many teachers were critical regarding the recent policy reform related to inclusive education. On the one hand, teachers are concerned about the learning process and outcomes of the regular children and, on the other hand, their own preparation to support students with special needs. Working with special needs students requires specialized knowledge and expert skills, which many teachers simply do not have. Similar to these views, a group of master students wrote an article in a national newspaper in June 2020 ( Kupper et al., 2020 ) where they stated that although they support the idea of inclusive education, it is only justified if it is carefully organized and sufficient support is available. They also added that inclusive education is certainly not suitable for students with more severe special needs. They point out as: “Inclusion may not be effective in case the teacher does not receive enough support and guidance regarding how to work with a special needs student and the rest of the class at the same time. If, figuratively speaking, the teacher’s strength does not overcome the situation, then the increase in behavioral problems, drop-out rates and developmental delays are real dangers.”

Moreover, this article also shed light into the perspective of parents of special needs students. They argued as: “A familiar and close-to-home school with a teacher assistant or support specialist does not outweigh the assurance that the child’s safety and well-being is guaranteed throughout the day and is cared for by a sufficient number of professionals.” Moreover, “Studying at a school close to home may not always be possible if the child needs a much more complex service due to his or her situation, including, for example, special therapies and additional activities. If such a solution is not offered during the school day, parents must find the time and opportunity, usually at the expense of working hours, to provide the necessary service to the child. Thus, the difficulty of the whole situation lies with the parents, who, despite the child’s special needs, must be able to maintain optimism, offer equal care and love to the other children of the family in other words, try to live as normal a life as possible while maintaining the ability to work, good relations with the employer and income and one’s own emotional balance.”

In brief, all these perspectives argue that the development of different students will benefit from specialized learning environments and special teachers who have good expert knowledge and skills for preparing specific educational experiences for maximizing each student’s individual potential. Similar viewpoints have also been presented in the international literature: for example, Kauffman and Hornby (2020) criticized inclusive education ideology and leading scholars in the field for the unrealistic claims regarding its implementation and outcomes. They concluded as: “Appropriate instruction is by far the most important task of education for all students, including those with disabilities. Making appropriate instruction a reality for all students requires special education, including teachers with special training, rather than a generic, ‘one size fits all’ or all-purpose preparation” (p. 10).

Inclusion for All

In contrast to voices arguing for creating different learning environments for different children, scholars, policy makers, teachers, and parents in favor of inclusion for all stress, in different talks and articles, that all children in a society should have an equal right to get adequate opportunities to develop wellbeing, agency, identities, and competences in order to become capable to participate fully and equally in the society ( UNESCO, 1994 ; Ainscow and César, 2006 ; Cigman, 2007 ; Felder, 2019 ). This objective cannot be reached if some children are educated in a segregated context.

Inspired by social constructivist approaches to learning, teacher educators supporting inclusive education argue that child development depends not only on inherited capacities, but it is also constructed by shared social values, access to educational institutions, technologies (including assistive technologies), and other relevant social resources as well as quality of support provided to the child and opportunities to participate fully and equally in a community.

Teacher educators and policy makers would agree that it is true that current educational systems (schools, teachers, initial education of teachers, practices, technologies, teaching and learning materials, etc.) in many countries have been established based on an assumption that “regular” education, schools, and teachers should work only with “typical” children and other children need to be educated in a specially designed and segregated environment, that is, “special” education ( Carrington, 1999 ; Croll and Moses, 2000 ; Dyson et al., 2002 ; Radó et al., 2016 ; Zgaga, 2019 ; Koutsouris et al., 2020 ). However, they would argue that in such an environment, children cannot develop a sense of belonging nor can become full members of the society because of marginalized status and limited opportunities to grow with others ( Freeman and Alkin, 2000 ; Farrell, 2010 ; Koller et al., 2018 ). Moreover, in a special education, setting relationships, practices, and technologies tend to be adapted to their constraints instead of being designed to enable children to fully participate in education and society in spite of constraints. Similarly, parents, teachers, and kindergarten/school leaders favoring inclusive education in Estonia would argue for social justice ideas: the importance of growing up within the community and learning at a kindergarten/school close to their home. A father of a child with speech difficulties, who was contacted by an author of this article and asked why he favored his child attending a regular kindergarten instead of a specialized kindergarten, pointed out as: “I can’t distinguish my child, who has special (or rather specific) needs, from any other child. How can I agree with her being placed in a school which labels her directly and indirectly as a person who does not fit the norm? Especially when attending kindergarten, she is as special and as normal as every other child who she plays with and a child who plays with her. This should be the norm for any healthy development of a child.” Similarly, a teacher and master student ( Konetski-Ramul, 2021 ) and a head of support specialists services ( Labi, 2019 ) have argued for inclusive education in articles published in the national teachers’ newspaper in Estonia. In these articles, the authors urged for not separating students with special needs easily to special classes or special schools, e.g., Labi (2019) pointed out as: “If today we separate one quarter of children for fear that their involvement could negatively affect the well-being of the other three quarters of children, then as adults there are people in the labor market, in families, or even in the queue at the store, who cannot cope with each other. It is more sustainable to grow together, learn from each other and cope with each other throughout the school journey.” Many parents of special needs children would also argue that the most important goal for them is for their children to adapt to society and learn to live with other people. To illustrate this idea, a mother of a young child with multiple disabilities pointed out during a public speech in Estonia that her family’s “goal is to support him so he would become a taxpayer.”

In order to have an equal opportunity, all children need to be educated in regular education that have conditions, capacities, and resources to be able to adapt to the children needs, capacities, and constraints. Following this, in a case when a school, teachers, discourses, practices, and technologies are not aligned with the needs of some students, it cannot be an acceptable reason for the exclusion of the child, but for adapting the education to the child and his/her learning and developmental needs ( Farrell, 2010 ; Arcidiacono and Baucal, 2020 ).

The majority of Estonian teachers has adopted learner-centered views about education as reported in international comparison studies, such as TALIS 2013, 2018, and a smaller group has also learned to implement these in practice (many Estonian teachers are still rather traditional and subject-oriented in their teaching practice; OECD, 2014 , 2020 ; see also Leijen and Pedaste, 2018 ). Teachers who have accepted the child-centered view might not consider a class as a unified mass, instead they might perceive children anyway as special and different, notice variety, individual differences and adapt their teaching accordingly ( Breeman et al., 2015 ). Following, adapting their teaching for a child with special needs would not be so different from any other adaptation of teaching for the child’s needs and interests. While discussing the possible challenges of inclusive education during an in-service course taught by the first author of the paper in autumn 2019, a teacher pointed out that “it is very interesting and positively challenging to teach a group of students with a large variety. These are (my) favorite classes.” This indicates that teachers might find diversity and variety enriching for themselves as professionals.

Goal of the Paper

The aim of this paper is to show, through the conceptual analysis of the two above-mentioned discourses, that it is possible to put these two narratives in a dialogical relation to identify their contribution to position children (with and without special needs) and teachers with respect to the voices they promote or silence about inclusive education, the power relations they constitute, and the values and practices they enact or prevent.

Materials and Methods

We propose an analytical approach based on the argumentum model of topics (AMT) that aims at systematically reconstructing the inferential configuration of arguments; namely, the deep structure of reasoning underlying the connection between a standpoint and the argument(s) in its support ( Rigotti and Greco Morasso, 2009 ). The general principle underlying the reconstruction of the inferential configuration of argumentation is that of finding those implicit premises that are necessary for the argumentation to be valid.

In the AMT, two fundamental components should be distinguished when bringing to light the inferential relation binding the premises to the conclusion of an argumentation. First, an argument envisages a topical component, which focuses on the inferential connection activated by the argument, corresponding to the abstract reasoning that justifies the passage from the premises (arguments) to the conclusion (standpoint). The inferential connection underlying the argument is named with the traditional term maxim. Maxims are inferential connections generated by a certain semantic ontological domain named locus. Second, an endoxical component, which consists of the implicit or explicit material premises shared by the discussants that, combined with the topical component, ground the standpoint. These premises include endoxa, i.e., general principles, values, and assumptions that typically belong to the specific context, and data, basically coinciding with punctual information and facts regarding the specific situation at hand and usually representing the part of the argument that is made explicit in the text ( Rigotti and Greco Morasso, 2011 ). Despite its particular concern for the inferential aspects of argumentation, the AMT accounts not only for the logical aspects of the argumentative exchange, but also for its embeddedness in the parties’ relationship, and thus proves to be particularly suited for the argumentative analysis of public discourses.

In the present paper, we refer to the AMT to reconstruct the inferential structure of some arguments proposed by the two above-mentioned discourses, i.e., the type of reasoning underneath the arguments. In this sense, the model is assumed to be a guiding framework for the analysis, since it provides the criteria for the investigation of argumentative positions and for the identification of different components of each discourse. It is used to highlight points of contention and dialogue, as well as the explicit and implicit arguments advanced by the involved sustainers of the two narratives. The application of this analytic method in the study of public discourses, such as the role of inclusive education, is assumed to reinforce the possibilities of understanding how people discursively position themselves as involved partners in the management of the selected issue, namely, inclusive education.

According to the AMT, the following analytical components must be identified as: the maxim on which the argumentation is based and the relative locus at work; the endoxon, i.e., the premises shared by the discussants, and the datum, i.e., the punctual information and facts regarding the specific situation at hand (usually representing the part of the argument that is made explicit in the text) to which the argument is linked. The results of the AMT’s reconstruction will be represented through graphical tools adopted to show the above-mentioned components.

Generally speaking, the different arguments used by the parties can be viewed in terms of a constellation of features ( Goodwin, 2006 ), including various interactional structures connected to aims, perceptions, directives, accounts, etc. In the present paper, we will limit our conceptual analysis of two narratives to some elements that are essential for the aim of the study, although we are aware that this is a partial choice. Accordingly, the locus at work for the maxims will not appear in our schemes and only the arguments sustaining the main ideal view of each narrative and the presumed positions associated with the selected arguments will be presented.

In the next sections, we propose two examples of AMT based on selected arguments for each discourse.

Reconstructing the Inferential Structure of the First Discourse Argument

The first discourse (“inclusion for some”) proposes as a standpoint that students with special needs require specialized educational settings. The argument advanced to sustain this position is that specialized settings are accommodating to the student’s capacities and needs.

Figure 1 shows the representation of such an argument based on the AMT. On the right hand of the diagram, the inferential principle, i.e., the maxim, on which the argumentation is based is specified as: “to provide a beneficial property to the student, it is required to adopt a system that guarantees this beneficial property.” The AMT representation allows consideration of the contextual premises that are implicitly or explicitly used in argumentation. This may be found on the left hand of the diagram, where a second line of reasoning is developed that supports the former one. This is why the first conclusion on the left becomes the minor premise on the right. In this way, the crossing of contextual and formal premises that is characteristic of argumentation is accounted for in the AMT. The endoxon refers in this case to common knowledge about the main idea of the accommodation principles: “To accommodate to the student’s capacities is a beneficial property.” The datum (“Specialized settings are accommodating to student capacities”) combined with the endoxon produces the conclusion that “Specialized settings have beneficial properties.”

Figure 1 . AMT-based reconstruction of the first discourse argument.

In the first discourse, if the accommodation is considered beneficial for a student with special needs, and if specialized settings are recognized as environments that can guarantee a process of accommodation, then it is valuable to require that students with special needs should be placed in specialized settings.

Reconstructing the Inferential Structure of the Second Discourse Argument

The second discourse (“inclusion for all”) proposes as a standpoint that all students require regular educational settings. The argument advanced to sustain this position should be summarized as follows: Regular settings offer equal opportunities to all students. Figure 2 shows the representation of such an argument based on the AMT.

Figure 2 . AMT-based reconstruction of the second argument.

On the right hand of the diagram, the inferential principle, i.e., the maxim, on which the argumentation is based is specified as: “if the offer of equal opportunities is an important educational goal, and there is a way to guarantee such a goal, then this way should be adopted.” Concerning the contextual premises that are implicitly or explicitly used in argumentation, the endoxon refers to common knowledge about the main idea of the educational goals: “Education should offer equal opportunities to all students.” The datum (“Regular settings offer equal opportunities to all students”) combined with the endoxon produces the conclusion that “All students require regular educational settings.”

The discourse indicates that if offering equal opportunities to all students (by exposing them to similar conditions) are considered an important educational goal, and if regular settings are recognized as environments that can guarantee to offer equal opportunities, then it is valuable to require that all students be placed in regular settings.

Implicit in Two Discourses

The models referring to the two discourses about inclusive education are showing in both cases reasonable arguments advanced to sustain the positions and the perspectives they intend to promote. For each discourse, accountable elements are proposed to show the pertinence of the approach and to sustain the idea of education that is considered as adequate for society.

The two discourses position the children as the main key-players in the educational endeavor: In fact, inclusive education should sustain the requirement for appropriate settings (special and regular) that are able to allow students (with and without special needs) to develop their capacities and to become members of the society. In this sense, the two discourses share a similar preoccupation and aim to play in the service of children’s development. However, it is also true that both discourses promote reasons that seem to position the children within different frames, for example, in terms of temporality. In fact, the first discourse (“inclusion for some”) focuses on the need to guarantee a process of accommodation to the children’s needs in order to guarantee a system that allows students to develop their capacities. In this sense, a short-term perspective is promoted, because the goal behind the sustained discourse is to be able to act adequately in the “here and now” of the contingent situations. By contrast, the second discourse (“inclusion for all”) advances the idea that offering equal opportunities to all students constitute the main goal of education. In this sense, a long-term perspective is promoted in terms of capacity to ensure the conditions that will guarantee the future realization of students as full members of the society. These elements, connecting the two discourses along a temporal dimension, will be discussed in the next section of the paper, as well as the implications in terms of positions that children and teachers should take according to their voice, the power relations that are connected to this, and the values that are enacted or prevented.

Although we have identified these two discourses in the current ongoing debate on inclusive education in Estonia, they encapsulated long lasting conflicting positions that can be recognized in many countries and communities. Moreover, these discourses also reflect political, policy, cultural, and identity “wars” that are present in many countries since the Salamanca Statement ( UNESCO, 1994 ), calling societies to put forward the inclusive education on their education policy agenda. The “war” on inclusive education is related to the fact that educational policies are inherently political, since they always involve values, interests, power games, choices, prioritization, and allocation of resources ( Barton, 1997 ). Moreover, different sides propose different values and ideals; that is, they postulate different desired outcomes and different visions of the future citizen ( Magnússon, 2019 ). However, it is worth noting that current conflicting debates are just another step in an historical process of a struggle of regular schools between exclusion and inclusion of children and youth perceived and treated as different from dominant groups, in relation to various characteristics, such as socioeconomic status, gender, and race ( Boroson, 2017 ). In fact, the meaningful inclusion of individuals who are different from the majority has been fraught in many ways. The evolution of educational systems with respect to the inclusion of students who are different in terms of race, gender, or ability was considered to be of questionable worth, an obstacle on teachers’ time and a threat to the status quo ( West, 2000 ). Although today education in mainstream schools is guaranteed ( Snyder et al., 2016 ), many educators and families still have a concern or even fear the “intrusion” into general education classrooms of students who are different than majority in terms of personal characteristics (physical, socioemotional, or cognitive) or ethnic, cultural, and socioeconomic background ( Boroson, 2017 ). By considering the two discourses highlighted in this paper, we can consider that, on the one hand, those who are pro-specialist settings would argue that segregation works in favor of child with special education needs; on the other hand, those who view inclusion as a social justice issue might consider specialist settings as segregating like other forms of educational and historical segregation (e.g., gender and faith).

Two conclusions could be made from this. First, as with previous inclusion “wars,” the current one will be resolved when conflicting sides will manage to dialogize their conflicting positions. The second conclusion is that the current “war” is just an episode in a continuous historical story on social inclusion, so after that one, there will be some new inclusion “war” that might not be imaginable from the perspective of our current experience and knowledge. Having said that, our main objective is to identify their frameworks in terms of assumptions, power relationships, voices, rights, and values, as well as priorities and practices in order to propose a bridging between them and to dialogize current relation that is dominantly conflicting.

As it is already said, both discourses put a stress on children’s needs and recognize the duty of the education system to provide adequate conditions for their education. However, there is also an important difference in relation to the position and rights of children with special needs. The “inclusion for some” discourse recognizes the rights of children with special needs, but at the same time, it advocates that their rights need to be limited by practical constraints related to the implementation of the full inclusion in the regular school. In this way, this discourse gives a voice to children with special needs, but also to educational practitioners who are in many occasions not competent enough nor have adequate conditions and resources to ensure quality education to children with special needs in regular schools. Although both voices are represented in the discourse “inclusion for some,” it prioritizes somewhat the voice of educational practitioners. On the other hand, the “inclusion for all” discourse privileges the voice of children with special needs and their rights that need to be served by the society in the same way as the rights of all other citizens. It also recognizes practical and policy constraints at the level of the education system, schools, and practitioners, but it does not position their voices and concerns at the same level as the rights of children with special needs. Thus, it advocates that schools and practitioners ought to be equipped by adequate policies, training, and resources to be capable of serving the rights of children with special needs for the quality education in inclusive conditions.

Difference in prioritization of voices is related to the difference in basic values and distribution of power. The discourse “inclusion for some” suggests that the current potential of the education system, schools, and teachers should be put at the first place and that rights of children with special needs should be realized progressively following the improvement of the potential of the education system to ensure high quality inclusive education. In this way, it gives more power to the majority, to the education system, and practitioners since it calls that rights on quality education need to be aligned with the potential of the education system to serve this right. However, in this way, it also creates an opportunity for using current lack of capacities in regular schools for ensuring inclusive education as a reason for postponing the realization of rights of children with special needs. If for some reason there is no political will or if the majority of educational practitioners is not willing to transform their beliefs, competences, and practices, then it might effectively maintain current conditions for some time (potentially endlessly). On the other hand, the “inclusion for all” discourse privileges the right of children with special needs over current conditions and lack of capacities and resources advocating that the latter needs to be transformed as quickly as possible. Consequently, it places higher power to the children with special needs and their fundamental rights than to eventual practical and political constraints of various kinds. Nevertheless, it might be related to some unintended negative consequence in the implementation of inclusive education. Forcing a full implementation of inclusive education when regular schools and practitioners are not prepared adequately might result in various negative consequences. These consequences might be counterproductive in terms of defending rights of children with special needs and effectively postpone the implementation of inclusive education. Therefore, in spite of differences in terms of basic values and power relations putting forward in two discourses, it is possible to identify a common interest. It is related to the successful implementation of inclusive education and the minimization of risk both for children with special needs and for education practitioners and schools including children without special needs.

Concerning the implementation of inclusive education, there are two opposite perspectives creating a major conflict between the two discourses. Being grounded on previous founding ideas, the “inclusion for some” advocates for some form of special education provision mostly in separate and specialized schools, while the “inclusion for all” discourse stands up for desegregation and full inclusion of children with special needs in regular schools. According to UNESCO (2020) , the implications in developing forms of education that are effective for all children are related to three levels: educational (to develop ways of teaching that respond to individual differences and that therefore benefit all children), social (to change attitudes to difference by educating all children within a non-discriminatory society), and economic (it is likely to be less costly to establish and maintain schools).

These positions reflect their difference in terms of future priorities ( Ydo, 2020 ). The “inclusion for some” discourse is focused to optimize provision of education as an ultimate goal. Hence, it prefers providing education in a specialized environment since it enables full accommodation to specific educational needs of children attending special schools. In this way, children with special needs might have best opportunities to learn in their way and to achieve education goals. On the other hand, the discourse “inclusion for all” calls for a more comprehensive ultimate goal. These goals ought to be to empower and enable children with special needs to become active citizens who will participate fully and equally in the society and to pursue their own life projects. Projecting this ultimate goal for education of children with special needs, the discourse “inclusion for all” pursues a full inclusion in regular schools since education in segregated institutions prevents children with special needs from becoming full members of the society. This difference in terms of the ultimate goal of education of children with special needs might seem as unresolvable. It also can make sense why the “war” between the two discourses and the communities organized upon them is very frequently concentrated on the special school issue. However, in our view, this opposition might be bridged by relating the two discourses to different time perspectives (as it has been already mentioned earlier). The common ground might be that all children with special needs are fully included in regular schools in order to enable and empower them to become active and equal future citizens, but to keep special schools and special education teachers as additional resources where different students from regular schools can get different forms of supplementary support according to their needs occasionally or in a longer period. This approach would require establishing a good and productive professional collaboration between regular and special schools as resource centers, as well as between teachers from regular schools and special education teachers. Based on a good professional collaboration and complementary professional competences of all teachers (including special education teachers), children with special needs would get an additional support during classes in regular schools or when it is needed in a special school (for example, when the child needs a specialized treatment or to get additional training for using some assistive technology). It is true that this arrangement could be challenged by some practical issues and would require a modification of regular institutional organization and practices. However, it would improve opportunities for children with special needs to become competent future citizens, and for the education system and the society to become inclusive.

Furthermore, additional common ground might be related to the pace of the long-term implementation of inclusive education. The discourse “inclusion for all” provides a strong argument why inclusive education is the principal way to empower and enable children with special needs to grow up with a feeling that they are equal members of the society and with a dignity to take part fully in the life of the community so to pursue their life projects and contribute to the society. However, the discourse “inclusion for some” pinpoints in a good way that journey toward the ultimate goal cannot be straightforward nor quick because it is related to the transformative potential of the society and the education system imposing important constraints. Although these constraints are malleable and temporary, they need to be addressed in any implementation plan for inclusive education. Therefore, we assume that the two discourses can be bridged in the sense that one of them crystalizes and advocates what ought to be long-term goals for the implementation of inclusive education, while the second one articulates practical constraints and barriers that need to be overcome in order to make inclusive education real.

In this paper, we utilized the AMT for analyzing two somewhat opposing discourses regarding inclusive education, namely, the “inclusion for some” and “inclusion for all.” We reconstructed the inferential configurations of the arguments of each narrative, identified how the two definitions contribute to position children with and without special needs and their teachers. The results showed several similarities and differences between the discourses. We also identified some possibilities to bridge the two narratives; most importantly, by relating to different time perspectives, these two discourses stress: “Inclusion for some,” which tends to focus on the present situation and attending to the particularities of the child, is valuable for realizing the long-term and sometimes idealistic goals of “inclusion for all” and vice versa , “inclusion for all,” which stresses participation and learning with peers, is beneficial for realizing the goals of “inclusion for some” – to maximize each child’s potential in real life – since regular schools resemble society more closely than segregated schools. Productive professional collaboration between different parties is required to realize both visions of inclusive education. We also suggest further investigations to deepen this research line in the future, through face-to-face interviews with politicians, school managers, teachers, and parents who could better delineate the different positions according to their role and involvement with children with special needs.

Author Contributions

All the authors originated the paper’s ideas and designed the conceptual analysis. ÄL was engaged in presenting the context of the study, as well as interpreting and discussing the findings and writing the conclusion. FA focused on the method, analysis, and interpretation of the narratives. AB focused mainly on interpreting and discussing the findings. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript to be published.

This research was conducted with financial support by the European Regional Development Fund under Grant Enhancement of Research and Development Capacity of Teacher Education Competence Centre Pedagogicum [grant no. NSVHI19074], as well as the contribution of the Research Department, University of Teacher Education BEJUNE (Switzerland).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

1. ^ In line with OECD definition, in this paper, we refer to “children with special education needs” as an umbrella term indicating children who require additional resources or accommodating dominant educational practices in order to ensure equal learning opportunities to them. The term refers to children with disabilities, children with learning difficulties, and children living in disadvantage conditions ( OECD, 2007 ).

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Keywords: inclusive education, special education, public discourse, argumentum model of topics, dialogue

Citation: Leijen Ä, Arcidiacono F and Baucal A (2021) The Dilemma of Inclusive Education: Inclusion for Some or Inclusion for All. Front. Psychol . 12:633066. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.633066

Received: 04 January 2021; Accepted: 16 August 2021; Published: 10 September 2021.

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*Correspondence: Äli Leijen, [email protected]

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• Published: 02 June 2023

The concept of inclusive education from the point of view of academics specialising in special education at Saudi universities

• Abdullah Madhesh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7820-1820 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  278 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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Inclusive education is one modern trend that many countries seek to adopt as an innovative concept and pursue to practice as an application in conjunction with scientific progress, the education of people with disabilities, and in order to fulfil and abide by the relevant international conventions. As a result, this study aims to discover what inclusive education means among Saudi universities and academics specialising in special education. To achieve the goal of the study, qualitative research was used by employing semi-structured interviews as the single elementary tool for data collection by interviewing the study sample, which consisted of 12 faculty members specialising in special education. Through complete analysis, the study reached a set of general results, which is the presence of ambiguity in the concept of inclusive education among the participants, with confusion between the concept of inclusive education and some other concepts such as “integration,” “mainstreaming,” and “placement.” In addition, there is a belief that there is a correlation between the concept of inclusive education and special education. Finally, the study concluded with some recommendations on the topic of research.

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Introduction.

Inclusive education is one of the recent trends that many international organisations interested in educating people with disabilities seek to promote in various educational systems around the world. Therefore, many relevant international organisations have urged the need to adopt this concept as a cornerstone in any educational system that seeks to be an integral part of the global education system and other related human rights, such as the right to citizenship and the right to belonging. For example, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 stated that education is a human right for everyone (Munongi, 2022 ). Specifically, with regard to inclusive education, in 1994, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) organised its international conference in Salamanca, Spain, under the title “The International Conference on Education for People with Special Needs: Access and Quality,” which resulted in the 1994 Salamanca statement and framework. This statement was signed by 92 countries and 25 international organisations. The main objective of this statement was to promote and develop inclusive education systems globally (Ainscow et al. 2019 ).

Historically, there is no specific starting point for the concept of inclusive education agreed upon by scholars and specialists in this field, and several factors contributed to the emergence of this concept. Factors include questions about special education practices, medical and psychological practices towards people with disabilities, the emergence of some social theories, such as critical and social theory, and the rise of disability studies (Slee, 2011 ). However, many scholars agree that the Salamanca statement and framework of 1994 played a critical role in inclusive education and was a strong milestone for the concept of inclusive education globally. (Magnússon, 2019 ).

Subsequently, many successful efforts contributed to the promotion of inclusive education. One of which was the invitation of UNESCO in 2000 to the concept of education for all and the adoption of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities by the United Nations (UNCRPD) (Rieser, 2012 ). Another was the adoption of procedural evidence for the enactment of laws and legislation for inclusive education in 2009 by UNESCO. Finally, the adoption of the World Education Forum included several goals: (a) the right to education, (b) equality in education, (c) inclusive education, (d) quality education, and (e) lifelong learning (Madhesh, 2019 ).

Inclusive education in Saudi Arabia

Despite Saudi Arabia’s signing of the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (UNESCO, 1994 ), inclusive education still faces a great deal of uncertainty in the Saudi context at both a theoretical and practical level. Madhesh ( 2019 ) confirmed that the Regulations of Special Education Programs and Institutes (RSEPI) in Saudi Arabia did not adopt the concept of inclusive education, nor did it provide a clear stipulation, but it does promote special education and its concepts in all theoretical and practical aspects. Indeed, many practices of exclusion in Saudi education are labelled as inclusive, riding the wave of the global trend toward inclusive education (Madhesh, 2019 ). However, some efforts are currently seeking to promote the concept and practices of Inclusive education in the correct manner compatible with relevant global philosophies, including the current study.

Definition of inclusive education

Inclusive education does not have a single, universally agreed-upon definition, as explained by Roger Slee in his famous book The irregular school: Exclusion, schooling, and inclusive education (Slee, 2011 ). Bates et al. ( 2015 , p. 1929) argue that “there is, as yet, no consensus about what inclusive education is or how it should be implemented in schools.” The absence of a unified definition of inclusive education was attributed to several reasons. These reasons varied based on the diversity of each research school that touched on this aspect. For example, Loreman et al. ( 2014 ) attributed this absence to a fundamental reason, including the lack of a unified definition of inclusive education approved by relevant international organisations. On the other hand, Jahnukainen ( 2015 ) emphasised that the lack of a unified definition of inclusive education is due to the overlap and confusion in the use of various and multiple terms such as “integration,” “mainstreaming,” and “placement” as well as the variation in terms from one country to another and one educational system to another.

In addition, the lack of agreement on a unified definition of inclusive education may be attributed to the divergence of view. This perspective has caused several debates regarding the concept of inclusive education itself in terms of acknowledgment of its importance or opposition to its generalisation and adoption by specialists in the field. However, various factors and efforts have contributed to the emergence of many definitions of inclusive education that share some of their general concepts. They all aim to reach a concept that is applied and practiced rather than theorised.

One of the most important factors that contributed to the clear vision of the concept of inclusive education, the diversity, and the multiplicity of its definitions is the diversity of international institutions and research schools. Each sought to create a definition commensurate with its orientations towards this concept. In these limited subsequent lines, I will review some definitions to reach a concept that contains the basics that must be present for this practice to be called inclusive education. To begin, one important definition, which was introduced at the Salamanca Conference in 1994, concluded with the definition of inclusive education as a process of solving and responding to the different needs of all students. Society as a whole focuses more on teaching and learning processes while also accepting different cultures and societies so that people are perceived to be less excluded from the education system and society in general. The process includes changes and treatments of content, curriculum, structure, and strategy. This process holds a common vision that includes all children of the same age with the sole and complete belief that the regular education system is responsible for educating all children while meeting their diversity and educational needs (Ainscow et al. 2013 ).

In 2009, the International Conference on Education included an additional definition of inclusive education. It was introduced as a process in which regular schools and all early-year environments are transformed and adapted so that all children and students are supported to meet their expectations and academic and social needs. This includes the removal of all barriers in diverse environments, communication, and interaction, curricula, teaching, socialisation, and assessment at all levels (Forlin, 2013 ). One of the important definitions in this field, although it may be seen as more general than others, is what Loreman and Deppeler ( 2002 ) tended to, that inclusive education is a right of all students with disabilities and including these students in order to obtain the same educational services provided to non-disabled students in the same classrooms with celebration and acceptance of difference and diversity. Ainscow et al. ( 2006 ) define inclusive education as the reduction of barriers to learning, the full participation of all students, and an increase in the school’s ability to accommodate all students regardless of their differences. This is an effort to treat them in ways that reflect that they are of equal value and status.

Indeed, the definitions, as mentioned earlier, are many and varied, but I must conclude with points mentioned by Loreman ( 2009 ) as characteristics that distinguish inclusive education as a distinctive practice from others. These factors can be summarised in the following:

All children can enrol at the closest school to their home.

All schools have a “zero-rejection policy” when it comes to enrolling and educating children at the school closest to their homes. All students are welcome and appreciated.

All children learn in regular and heterogeneous classrooms with peers of the same age.

All children follow substantially similar study programmes, with curricula that can be adapted and modified if necessary and teaching methods varied to respond to all needs without discrimination.

All children participate fully in regular educational activities and events in schools and classrooms with a celebration and appreciation of diversity in these classrooms.

All children are supported to make friends and achieve social success with their peers.

Adequate resources and training shall be provided to all specialists and stakeholders within the school, classroom, and educational district to support the proper implementation of inclusive education.

This study implements the above definition as a valid concept of inclusive education that is used as a criterion for studying and analysing the responses of the participants in this study along with the theoretical framework of this study (as discussed below). A condition for achieving an accurate practice of inclusive education, in addition to this definition, is the availability of two methodologies, including the following: The flexible curriculum strategy, as the definition above clarifies. The need to implement the differentiation strategy, which entails planning and developing a variety of inclusionary teaching methods in an interactive manner by attending to the needs of every student, as well as assessing each student’s performance according to their study plan and abilities, but there are no universal assessment standards for all students.

Indeed, many people who specialise in or are interested in disability studies have an issue with the idea of inclusive education since it can be ambiguous or confused with other ideas. These misunderstandings may have a significant impact on this concept in several ways. This includes the existence of a clear and approved definition, advocacy of the importance of activating it, seeking to enhance its practices and monitoring, and evaluating these practices in accordance with the scientific research practices they are based on. As a result, this study aims to eliminate the confusion and overlap surrounding the idea of inclusive education while also attempting to provide clear images and practices that have been developed and clarified by numerous scholars and specialists in this field worldwide. This is because the foundation for the validity of any practice in educational systems is the presence of a clear and accurate definition of such practice. Slee and Tait ( 2022 ) asserted that inclusive education is a global movement that has no rigid definition and is “contingent-changing” with the demands of specific aspects such as the country, politics, economy, time, and culture, despite the fact that this study is only focused on a Saudi setting. However, despite the dedication of many nations to inclusive education and the countless academic studies that have been done in this field since the Salamanca statement (1994), inclusive education still encounters the same problems and obstacles in many nations throughout the world.

Consequently, this study was guided by the following research question: what does Inclusive Education mean among Saudi university academics specialising in special education?

The theoretical framework of this study

This study uses Roger Slee’s inclusive education theory (Slee, 2011 , 2018b ) as a conceptual and philosophical framework. This framework had an impact on this study in a number of ways, including how it defined the problem, developed the main question, analysed the data, and then interpreted and connected it to a related literature review. This theory highlights a number of ideas, including the idea that every person has the right to receive appropriate and adequate educational services in public classrooms at the closest school to their house, regardless of their needs or ability. This concept also resists all forms of segregation and discrimination in educational organisations. One of the ideas in this theory is the ambiguity in the definition of inclusive education and how it overlaps with other ideas like “integration,” “placement,” and “accommodation.” Through this process, some special education practices are coloured and made to feel more like inclusive education, leading to practices that are carried out under the name of inclusive education but do not actually fit into it. Another concept that was adopted by this study is that inclusive education and special education are opposites to each other, and their practices are inversely related and not, as some portray it, as part of a whole.

Methodology

The method used in this study is the qualitative approach. This approach was employed due to the researcher’s quest to reach a deeper understanding of the concepts of inclusive education among the participants. Denzin and Lincoln ( 2017 ) emphasised that qualitative research has the greatest potential to provide a deep understanding of the issues surrounding the topic of research. Moreover, qualitative research allows the researcher to hear directly from participants’ experiences and perceptions about their personal experiences without going through other data collection methods (Merriam and Tisdell, 2015 ). Finally, this study seeks to allow hearing from the participants directly and to give them the opportunity to express all of their opinions without directing or determining their responses or being influenced by the limited responses, as sometimes happens in questionnaires.

Semi-structured interviews were used to collect data in this study for several reasons. The researcher will summarise the discussion here on the most important reasons. First lies in the interview feature as a tool that provides a deep knowledge of the investigated phenomenon that goes beyond the researcher’s current assumptions about this phenomenon (Josselson, 2013 ). Second, because different people have different perspectives and backgrounds, conducting interviews is a highly effective method that can be used to collect a lot of information that is interesting, useful, and pertinent to the research phenomenon. As a result, the information gathered through the interviews contributes to the researcher’s knowledge and insight. Third, it supports understanding alternative perspectives on this phenomenon (Brennen, 2021 ).

To carry out the interviews, the researcher followed specific steps. First, the participants determined the time of the interview. All interviews were conducted remotely using the Google Meet application. The researcher recorded the interviews after notifying the participants of this intention and also took notes during the interview. Each interview took between 45 and 60 min. The main interview questions focused on the following:

How do you define inclusive education?

Can you give me some examples of inclusive education practices?

Is there a difference between inclusive education and special education?

Do you think there are inclusive education practices in the Saudi context? Can you mention some examples?

Study sample (participants)

This study used a purposive sampling strategy to select the participants. This strategy allows the selection of a participant who can provide the required data that adds the required quality, credibility, and rationality to the study (Padgett, 2016 ). As a result, there was a set of inclusion criteria for selecting participants, namely: (a) to have a doctorate, (b) to be a specialist in the education of people with disabilities, (c) to be a facility member in the special education department at any Saudi governmental university. The number of participants reached was 12 facility members from 7 universities. The variation in years of experience and discipline among the participants did not affect the responses. The collected data showed no variation that might be attributed to this diversity.

Table 1 shows some demographic information about the participants in this study so that the following coding (FM: Faculty Member) was used in the sense of a faculty member in order to preserve the privacy and confidentiality of the participants and in line with the ethics of the research:

Data analysis

The thematic analysis (ta) procedures and validation.

The researcher employed the deductive approach in dealing with the collected data using the Thematic Analysis (TA) six-phased method (Braun and Clarke, 2006 ). The researcher read all transcripts severally to familiarise himself with the data while simultaneously evoking the theory and definition that the researcher adopted in this study, Roger Slee’s inclusive education theory (Slee, 2011 , 2018b ). Loreman ( 2009 ) definition, in addition to the availability of the two strategies, is a flexible approach and differentiation in assessment. In this regard, Braun and Clarke ( 2012 , p. 58) argued that a deductive approach to data coding and analysis is a top-down approach, where the researcher brings to the data a series of concepts, ideas, or topics that they use to code and interpret the data.

During the reading circle phase, the researcher highlighted and coded all the meanings of inclusive education, whether explicitly or implicitly mentioned. After that, the researcher classified the highlighted codes, generated three experiential themes, and named them: identical definition, the ambiguity of definition, and relationship conception. Wiltshire and Ronkainen ( 2021 ) pointed out that experiential themes are created by describing participants’ viewpoints and beliefs about the phenomena being studied.

For validation, the three experiential themes were sent to three academics and seven participants for their opinions (Scharp and Sanders, 2019 ). After collecting their feedback, the first theme was changed by adding the word “close” to become ‘identical or close definition.’ They argued that some definitions do not fully coincide with the concept of inclusive education but are close to it.

After applying the procedures for analysing the collected data according to what was explained above, the study reached a set of results that will be presented according to the previously classified themes:

Identical or close definition

By analysing the manuscript of all interviews (12 interviews), the participants did not appear to have a concept of inclusive education completely identical to the definition adopted in this study, but there were only two responses that were reasonably close to this definition. FM8 emphasised that inclusive education “is the inclusion of the child with disabilities in the general classification with his normal peers of the same age, with the necessity of having an individual plan for his education while providing all the capabilities he needs, and that this classroom is close to the child’s home” (FM8, line 9–10). On the other hand, FM10 stated that inclusive education “means integrating the student in the regular classroom in the neighbourhood school with students of the same age and providing all the services needed to participate effectively” (FM10, line 6).

Through the analysis of the two definitions above, it is clear that the concept of inclusive education among the participants (FM8 and FM10) is somewhat close, with the absence of mentioning some specifications and requirements to fully conform to the inclusive education concept, such as the following: applying the flexible curriculum, promoting the full participation of all students, affirming that every student is valued, celebrating difference and diversity while using differentiation in student assessment.

Ambiguity of definition

It became clear through the analysis of the collected data that there is ambiguity and confusion in the definition of inclusive education among 10 out of 12 participants, i.e., 83%. This ambiguity appeared through the response of the participants, as it was represented in two basic forms. The first is the lack of clarity on the concept of inclusive education among some participants. For example, FM7 stated that inclusive education is “giving an opportunity to all students that they have the right to education and to overcome all difficulties for their academic success in the least restrictive environment that the student can fit in” (FM7, line 5–7). In addition, both (FM3) and (FM6) emphasised that inclusive education means the least restrictive environment. Through these responses, it became clear that there is ambiguity in the concept of inclusive education among some of the participants in this study.

On the other hand, it became clear that there is great confusion between inclusion and integration among the participants, as this was evident in the responses of 6 participants, they are (FM2, FM 4, FM5, FM9, FM11, FM12). Here are some examples of these responses: FM2 mentioned that inclusive education “is the integrating of students with disabilities into the regular classroom, taking into account the capabilities of the student before this integrating in terms of the degree of his/her disability, whether it allows him/her or not” (PM2, line 5–7). In addition, FM4 defined inclusive education as “integrating students with disabilities whose abilities allow them to be with ordinary students so that they are closer to the education of ordinary students” (FM4, line 3–4). Participant FM5 stated that the concept of inclusive education “is placing people with disabilities in the regular classroom, in short” (FM5, line 3). The previous examples are sufficient in this study to illustrate a situation that is widespread among some specialists in special education departments, which is the confusion between some concepts such as “inclusion,” “integration,” “mainstreaming,” and “placement.”

Relationship conception

Analysing all the participants’ responses about the nature of the relationship between inclusive and special education, it became clear that most participants (11 out of 12 participants) confirmed the existence of a relationship between these two concepts. For example, 7 participants emphasised that inclusive education is a part of special education, as this was evident in the responses of each of them (FM1, FM2, FM3, FM5, FM6, FM9, and FM12). On the other hand, FM4, FM7, FM10, and FM11 confirmed the exact opposite. They believe special education is part of inclusive education and falls under its umbrella. The necessity of the presence of a special education teacher in inclusive classrooms justified this. Indeed, only one participant (FM8) confirmed that these two concepts are contradictory in the philosophical and practical aspects.

As previously mentioned, this study aimed to answer the main research question: what does Inclusive Education mean among Saudi university academics specialising in special education? As a result, this study adopts Loreman’s ( 2009 ) definition of inclusive education in addition to Roger Slee’s (Slee, 2011 , 2018a ) inclusive education theory as a lens and philosophical framework through which the results are analysed and discussed. By analysing the above results, they will be discussed according to the main themes that the researcher classified the participants’ responses.

First, regarding the identical or close definition of inclusive education, the results indicated a complete congruence between the adapted definition and concept of inclusive education in this study. Throughout the participants’ responses, it became clear that no single response matches the definition and concept of inclusive education in all its required aspects and characteristics. This absence of congruence indicates and is attributed to the absence of a unified, approved, and comprehensive definition in the Saudi field for inclusive education. This is in complete agreement with what Florian ( 2014 ) stated; there is no agreement on a unified definition of inclusive education, and there is a need for studies seeking to find a solution to this. Although there is no formal and internationally approved definition of inclusive education (Loreman et al. 2014 ; Slee, 2011 ), the various definitions have common concepts and characteristics. All of them agree in rejecting any practices of exclusion for students with disabilities, whether from the general classroom, curriculum, teaching methods, or evaluation.

On the other hand, there was a closeness between what the two participants mentioned about the concept of inclusive education with the adopted definition in this study, which is Loreman’s definition (2009). Where some important characteristics emerged in these two responses that characterise inclusive education. These characteristics were represented in the child’s presence in the general class, in the closest school to their home, and with same-age peers while providing all the required services to enhance participation in full effectiveness. This reflects that there are individual attempts to seek a correct definition of inclusive education that produces a correct practice of this concept. However, these individual attempts do not dispense the need for organised work by all relevant authorities to adopt a unified and operational definition of inclusive education (Qvortrup and Qvortrup, 2018 ). Nor do they present all existing and future practices to this concept in order to judge each practice clearly and impartially. In short, Ainscow ( 2020 ) emphasised that unless there is a unified and shared understanding of inclusive education, progress in the correct practices of this concept will be difficult and challenging. So, there is a need to work towards unifying this definition.

Second, by analysing the above results, it became clear that there is an ambiguity in the definition of inclusive education among some faculty members in Saudi universities. For instance, two participants linked inclusive education to the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE). Indeed, inclusive education is a broader and more comprehensive concept than LRE and linking it to this theory reduces it to mere accommodation or placement only (Maciver et al. 2018 ). In this context, Skilton-Sylvester and Slesaransky-Poe ( 2009 ) emphasised that a Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) is based primarily on the principle of placement as a priority differs from inclusive education as a broader and more complex concept.

Furthermore, there is confusion between inclusive education and the concept of integration, which was evident in the responses of 50% of the participants. The confusion between these two terms is a worldwide phenomenon among those concerned, including specialists and others, in the field of inclusive education. Loreman et al. ( 2014 ) assert that there is confusion and overlap in the use of many terms such as “integration,” “mainstreaming,” and “inclusion” as synonymous with one practice meaning inclusive education. Such confusion was a consequence of some reasons, such as the use of the two terms “inclusion” and “integration,” as synonymous in many studies related to inclusive education (Hassanein, 2015 ). Indeed, there is a difference and disparity between these two concepts in many respects.

First, integration comes from outside the school, so the focus is on the student and their abilities to include him/her in the Least Restrictive Environment, whether in the general classrooms or self-contained classes (Dash, 2006 ). Meanwhile, inclusion comes from inside the school in terms of creating all needed environments from all sides to be suitable for welcoming and valuing all students with disabilities (Nunez and Rosales, 2021 ). Second, “integration” considers the school as a partner in the accommodation and placement process. At the same time, the full responsibility for the success of this practice lies on the student with the disability (Frederickson and Cline, 2015 ). While the concept of “inclusion” views the school as an essential and important part of the preparation and initialisation process to implement inclusive education practices. This means it bears the responsibility to adapt curricula, teaching methods, and services that must be prepared to include students with disabilities (Madhesh, 2019 ) successfully. Third, “integration” does not mean restructuring school environments to accommodate students with disabilities. On the contrary, “inclusion” means restructuring these environments to suit the needs of all students regardless of their diversity (Obrusnikova and Block, 2020 ).

Additionally, with regard to the analysis of the results that clarify the relationship conception between inclusive education and special education from the point of view of the faculty members in Saudi universities, it was evident that the majority affirms the existence of a correlation between these two concepts (11 out of 12 participants) so that 7 participants confirmed that inclusive education is part of special education. On the contrary, 4 participants confirmed that special education is part of inclusive education. Indeed, only one participant emphasised that this relationship is inverse and that inclusive education is the opposite of the concept and practice of special education. This is accurate, so many relevant studies agree that inclusive education is a philosophy and practice that is completely opposite to special education.

For example, special education stems from the ontological stance of the medical model of disability, which believes that disability is a pathological structure in the individual that must be treated and reformed to suit the surrounding environments (Dirth and Branscombe, 2017 ; Slee, 2011 ). At the same time, inclusive education stems from the ontological concept of the social model of disability, which affirms that disability is a product of the obstacles and barriers that exist in society and the surrounding environments, which causes the individual with a disability to be hindered from exercising his life appropriately and naturally (Barnes, 2019 ; Oliver, 2013 ).

Moreover, the concept of special education is based on the classification and labelling of each individual with a disability in order to distinguish them. In contrast, inclusive education seeks to resist any practices of classification or labelling that result in discrimination between individuals (Kauffman and Hornby, 2020 ). Additionally, one of the key distinctions between these two ideas is that special education frequently offers educational services to students with disabilities in their available educational settings, such as private institutions, separate classrooms affixed to public schools, or partially in general classrooms. These function with the reliance on the student’s ability as a criterion to choose the appropriate educational placement (Madhesh, 2019 ). On the contrary, the concept of inclusive education resists all forms of segregation and the practices of providing educational services in isolated and private environments and believes only in the option of the general classroom in the nearest school to the student’s home, which supports active and full participation (Dovigo, 2017 ).

Conclusion and recommendations

This study concluded several vital outcomes. First, there is no approved and unified definition of inclusive education in the Saudi context to be adopted or referred to by specialists in this field. Second, there is confusion and ambiguity about the concept of inclusive education among Saudi university faculty members specialising in special education, in addition to great confusion and overlapping between the concept of inclusive education and other concepts such as “integration”, “mainstreaming” and “placement”. Third, there is a deep-rooted understanding of an interrelated relationship between inclusive education and special education among these faculty members. This is contrary to reality as each concept carries an agenda and practices that are completely opposite to the other. From the foregoing, this study leads to some recommendations:

The necessity to seek, by the authorities related to the education of people with disabilities in the Saudi context, to adopt a comprehensive and unified definition of inclusive education. Then apply and evaluate all related practices in line with it to avoid ambiguity and discrepancy in practice.

Promoting correct concepts about inclusive education among academics and stakeholders through seminars, conferences, and various scientific and social events.

Supporting scientific studies that examine the reasons for this conceptual and applied shortcoming about inclusive education among Saudi university faculty members specialising in special education and the consequences thereof.

Enact laws and legislation that are based on the correct concept of inclusive education and strive to implement them.

Evaluate current practices according to the correct and previously approved definition of inclusive education.

Data availability

The collected data of this study is interview transcripts in Arabic language and is not possible to share publicly for participants’ confidentiality.

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Madhesh, A. The concept of inclusive education from the point of view of academics specialising in special education at Saudi universities. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 278 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01802-y

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Best Education Research Topics | Inspiration & Ideas

Introduction

What is education research, how do you choose a research topic in education, research topics for education research.

Education research plays a vital role in shaping the future of teaching and learning by exploring new methods, policies, and practices that can improve educational outcomes. Whether you are an educator, a student, or a researcher, selecting the right research topic in education is crucial for contributing meaningful insights to the field. This article provides inspiration and ideas for choosing compelling education research topics, covering a range of areas such as early childhood education, educational leadership, academic performance, and more. By exploring various educational research topics, you can address current challenges in education and help shape the policies and practices that impact learners at all levels.

Education research is the systematic study of teaching and learning processes, educational policies, and the factors that influence educational outcomes. It encompasses a wide range of topics, from the effectiveness of different teaching methods to the impact of social, economic, and cultural factors on student achievement. The goal of education research is to generate evidence-based insights that can inform educational practice, guide policy decisions, and ultimately improve the quality of education for all learners.

Researchers in the field of education use various methodologies to explore their topics, including qualitative methods like interviews and case studies , and quantitative methods such as surveys and experiments. These methods allow researchers to collect and analyze data that can provide a deeper understanding of how education systems work and how they can be improved. For example, a study might examine the impact of early childhood education on long-term academic success, or investigate the effectiveness of professional development programs for teachers.

Education research is critical not only for advancing theoretical knowledge but also for addressing practical challenges in the classroom. By understanding what works, for whom, and under what conditions, educators and policymakers can make more informed decisions that benefit students. Furthermore, education research often highlights the disparities and inequities in educational opportunities and outcomes, prompting efforts to create more inclusive and equitable learning environments. Whether the focus is on curriculum development, teacher training, student assessment, or policy reform, education research provides the foundation for continuous improvement in education.

Choosing a research topic in education involves careful consideration of your interests, the relevance of the topic, and its feasibility. Here are three key factors to guide you in selecting an effective research topic in the field of education.

Identify your interests and passions

The first step in choosing a research topic is to reflect on your own interests and passions. What aspects of education do you find most compelling? Whether it's early childhood development, educational technology, or inclusive education, starting with a topic that genuinely interests you will help keep you motivated throughout the research process. Your personal experiences in the field—whether as a teacher, student, or parent—can also provide valuable insights and inspiration for your research. By focusing on a topic that resonates with you, you're more likely to engage deeply with the material, leading to more meaningful and insightful research.

Consider the relevance and impact of the topic

Once you've identified areas of interest, it's important to consider the relevance and potential impact of the topic. Ask yourself whether the topic addresses current challenges or gaps in the field of education. For instance, with the increasing integration of technology in classrooms, a research topic that examines the effects of digital tools on student learning could be highly relevant. Similarly, topics that explore issues like educational equity, teacher retention, or the effectiveness of remote learning have significant implications for policy and practice. Selecting a topic with clear relevance ensures that your research will contribute to ongoing discussions in the field and have a tangible impact on educational outcomes.

Assess feasibility and resources

Feasibility is another critical factor to consider when choosing a research topic. Before committing to a topic, evaluate the resources available to you, including access to data, research materials, and time. Consider whether the topic can be explored within the scope of your project, whether it's a dissertation, thesis, or a smaller research paper . For example, a topic that requires extensive fieldwork or access to specific populations might be challenging if you have limited time or resources. It's also important to think about the availability of literature and previous studies on the topic, as these will form the basis of your literature review and provide context for your research. Choosing a topic that is feasible ensures that you can conduct thorough and rigorous research without becoming overwhelmed by practical constraints.

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Education is a broad and multifaceted field that offers a wealth of research opportunities across various areas of study. This section provides an in-depth exploration of potential research topics in education within seven key areas: early childhood education, educational leadership, academic performance, college students, educational psychology, multicultural education, and student motivation. Each of these areas presents unique challenges and questions, making them rich grounds for research that can contribute to the improvement of educational practices and policies.

Early childhood education

Early childhood education is a critical phase in a child's development, setting the foundation for future learning and growth. Research in this area can address various aspects of early education, from curriculum design to the impact of early intervention programs.

One promising research topic in early childhood education is the role of play-based learning in cognitive and social development. Play in physical education and in casual classroom settings is often viewed as a natural and essential part of childhood, and many educators advocate for its inclusion in early education programs. However, there is ongoing debate about the most effective ways to integrate play with formal learning objectives. Research could explore how different types of play, such as free play, guided play, and structured play, influence children's cognitive abilities, social skills, and emotional well-being. Additionally, studies could examine the long-term benefits of play-based learning, comparing outcomes for children who participate in play-focused programs with those in more traditional, academically focused settings.

Another important area of research is the impact of early childhood education on later academic achievement. There is substantial evidence that high-quality early education programs can lead to better academic outcomes in later years, particularly for children from disadvantaged backgrounds. Researchers could investigate the specific elements of early childhood programs that contribute to these positive outcomes, such as teacher qualifications, class size, parental involvement, and the use of evidence-based curricula. This research could also examine how early education programs can be tailored to meet the needs of diverse populations, including children with disabilities and those from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds.

Finally, the transition from early childhood education to primary school is a critical period that can have lasting effects on a child's academic trajectory. Research could explore strategies for smoothing this transition, such as the alignment of curricula between preschool and primary school, the role of family engagement, and the effectiveness of transition programs designed to prepare children for the shift to more structured, formal education. Studies could also investigate the emotional and social challenges children face during this transition and how schools and families can support children through these changes.

Educational leadership

Educational leadership is a key factor in the success of schools and educational institutions. Effective leadership can inspire teachers, improve student outcomes, and drive innovation in education. Research in this area can explore various aspects of leadership, from the characteristics of successful leaders to the strategies they use to achieve their goals.

One important topic in educational leadership is the impact of leadership styles on school performance. Different leadership styles, such as transformational, transactional, and instructional leadership, have been shown to influence various aspects of school culture and effectiveness. Researchers could examine how these leadership styles affect teacher motivation, student achievement, and school climate. For example, a study could compare schools led by transformational leaders, who focus on inspiring and motivating staff, with those led by instructional leaders, who emphasize curriculum and teaching practices. This research could provide insights into which leadership approaches are most effective in different educational contexts.

Another critical area of research is the role of school principals in promoting equity and inclusion. Principals play a crucial role in shaping the culture of their schools and ensuring that all students, regardless of their background, have access to a high-quality education. Research could explore how principals can foster an inclusive school environment, support diverse learners, and address disparities in academic achievement. This could include studies on the strategies principals use to implement inclusive practices, the challenges they face in promoting equity, and the impact of their efforts on student outcomes.

Educational leadership also involves decision-making and the ability to manage change effectively. As schools face increasing pressure to adapt to new technologies, policies, and societal expectations, the ability of leaders to guide their institutions through these changes is more important than ever. Research could investigate how school leaders make decisions in complex, dynamic environments, and how they manage the process of change. This could include studies on the decision-making processes of successful leaders, the factors that influence their decisions, and the outcomes of their decisions for students, teachers, and the broader school community.

Academic performance

Student academic performance is a central concern in education research, as it is often used as a measure of both student success and the effectiveness of educational systems. Understanding the factors that influence academic performance can help educators develop strategies to support all students in reaching their full potential.

One key area of research is the impact of socio-economic status (SES) on academic performance. Numerous studies have shown that students from lower SES backgrounds tend to perform worse academically compared to their more affluent peers. Researchers could explore the specific mechanisms through which SES affects academic outcomes, such as access to resources, parental involvement, and exposure to stressors. Additionally, research could investigate interventions that aim to mitigate the effects of SES on academic performance, such as tutoring programs, after-school activities, and school-based support services.

Another important topic is the role of teacher quality in student achievement. Research has consistently shown that teachers are one of the most significant factors influencing student performance. Studies could examine what specific teacher characteristics, such as qualifications, experience, and instructional practices, have the greatest impact on student outcomes. Furthermore, researchers could investigate how professional development programs for teachers can enhance their effectiveness in the classroom, leading to better academic results for students.

The use of technology in education is another area that has significant implications for academic performance. With the increasing integration of digital tools and platforms into the classroom, research could explore how technology affects student learning. This could include studies on the effectiveness of online learning compared to traditional face-to-face instruction, the impact of educational apps and games on student engagement and achievement, and the challenges and opportunities of using technology to support diverse learners. Additionally, research could examine how teachers can effectively integrate technology into their teaching practices to enhance student learning.

College students

The college years are a critical period of personal and academic development, making them a rich area for education research. Research on college students can explore a wide range of topics, from factors that influence college choice to strategies for supporting student success and well-being.

One important research topic is the impact of financial aid on college access and retention. The rising cost of higher education has made financial aid an essential resource for many students. Researchers could investigate how different types of financial aid, such as grants, scholarships, and loans, affect students' decisions to enroll in and persist through college. This research could also examine the barriers that prevent students from accessing financial aid and how institutions can better support students in navigating the financial aid process.

Another key area of research is the factors that contribute to college student retention and success. While many students start college, not all complete their degrees. Research could explore the reasons why some students struggle to stay enrolled, such as academic challenges, student mental health issues, and financial pressures. Additionally, studies could investigate the effectiveness of programs and services designed to support student retention, such as academic advising, tutoring centers, and mental health resources. Understanding these factors can help colleges develop strategies to support students throughout their college journey.

The mental health of college students is another critical issue that has gained increasing attention in recent years. College students face a range of stressors, including academic pressures, social challenges, and the transition to independence. Research could explore the prevalence of mental health issues among college students, the factors that contribute to these issues, and the effectiveness of campus mental health services. Additionally, studies could examine how colleges can create supportive environments that promote student well-being and reduce the stigma associated with seeking help for mental health concerns.

Educational psychology

Educational psychology is the study of how people learn and develop in educational settings. This field of research can provide valuable insights into the cognitive, emotional, and social processes that underlie learning, as well as the factors that influence educational outcomes.

One important area of research in educational psychology is the role of motivation in learning. Motivation is a key factor that drives student engagement and academic achievement. Researchers could explore the different types of motivation, such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and how they impact learning outcomes. For example, studies could examine how intrinsic motivation, or the desire to learn for its own sake, affects students' persistence and performance in challenging subjects. Additionally, research could investigate how teachers can foster motivation in the classroom, such as through the use of praise, rewards, and goal-setting strategies.

Another critical topic in educational psychology is the impact of cognitive development on learning. Cognitive development refers to the changes in thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving abilities that occur as children grow. Research could explore how different stages of cognitive development affect students' ability to learn and process information. For example, studies could examine how younger students' limited working memory capacity impacts their ability to solve complex math problems, or how older students' advanced reasoning skills allow them to engage in abstract thinking. Understanding these developmental differences can help educators design instruction that is appropriate for students' cognitive abilities.

The role of social and emotional learning (SEL) in education is another important area of research in educational psychology. SEL refers to the process through which students develop the skills to manage their emotions, build healthy relationships, and make responsible decisions. Research could explore how SEL programs impact students' academic performance, behavior, and overall well-being. Additionally, studies could investigate the best practices for implementing SEL in schools, such as integrating SEL into the curriculum, providing professional development for teachers, and creating a supportive school climate that promotes social and emotional growth.

Multicultural education

Multicultural education is an approach to teaching and learning that seeks to promote equity, respect for diversity, and inclusion in the classroom. Research in this area can explore how educators can create learning environments that reflect and honor the diverse cultural backgrounds of their students.

One important research topic in multicultural education is the development and implementation of culturally responsive teaching practices. Culturally responsive teaching involves recognizing and valuing students' cultural identities and incorporating their cultural experiences into the curriculum and instructional practices. Researchers could explore how teachers can develop culturally responsive teaching practices and the impact of these practices on student engagement and achievement. For example, studies could examine how incorporating students' cultural traditions, languages, and perspectives into the classroom can enhance their sense of belonging and motivation to learn.

Another key area of research is the role of multicultural education in reducing achievement gaps. Achievement gaps between students of different racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic backgrounds are a persistent issue in education. Research could explore how multicultural education can address these gaps by promoting equity and inclusion in the classroom. For example, studies could examine how culturally responsive teaching practices can help close achievement gaps by providing all students with access to high-quality, culturally relevant instruction. Additionally, research could investigate the impact of multicultural education programs on students' attitudes toward diversity and their ability to interact effectively with people from different cultural backgrounds.

The integration of multicultural education into teacher preparation programs is another important research topic. Preparing teachers to work in diverse classrooms is essential for promoting equity and inclusion in education. Research could explore how teacher preparation programs can equip future educators with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to implement multicultural education in their classrooms. For example, studies could examine the effectiveness of coursework, field experiences, and professional development opportunities that focus on multicultural education. Additionally, research could investigate how teacher preparation programs can address the biases and stereotypes that educators may bring to the classroom and how they can foster a commitment to social justice and equity in education.

Student motivation

Student motivation is a critical factor in academic success and is influenced by a range of internal and external factors. Understanding what drives students to engage in learning can help educators design more effective instructional strategies and support student achievement.

One important research topic in student motivation is the impact of goal setting on academic performance. Goal setting is a powerful motivational tool that can help students focus their efforts and persist in the face of challenges. Research could explore how different types of goals, such as short-term versus long-term goals or mastery-oriented versus performance-oriented goals, affect students' motivation and academic outcomes. For example, studies could examine how setting specific, challenging, and achievable goals can enhance students' motivation to succeed in difficult subjects. Additionally, research could investigate teachers' roles in preparing students in setting and achieving their goals, such as through the use of goal-setting frameworks, feedback, and reflection activities.

Another key area of research is the role of self-efficacy in student motivation. Self-efficacy refers to a student's belief in their ability to succeed in specific tasks or situations. Research has shown that students with high self-efficacy are more likely to take on challenging tasks, persist in the face of difficulties, and achieve higher academic outcomes. Researchers could explore how self-efficacy develops and how it can be enhanced through instructional practices, such as providing opportunities for success, offering constructive feedback, and modeling effective problem-solving strategies. Additionally, studies could examine how self-efficacy interacts with other motivational factors, such as interest, effort, and resilience, to influence student performance.

The impact of classroom environment on student motivation is another important research topic. The classroom environment, including the physical space, social dynamics, and instructional practices, plays a significant role in shaping students' motivation to learn. Research could explore how different aspects of the classroom environment, such as the presence of supportive relationships, the availability of resources, and the use of engaging instructional strategies, influence students' motivation and engagement. For example, studies could examine how a positive classroom climate, characterized by mutual respect, collaboration, and high expectations, fosters students' motivation to participate and succeed in learning activities. Additionally, research could investigate how teachers can create a motivating classroom environment by using strategies such as differentiation, student-centered learning, and the incorporation of students' interests and preferences into the curriculum.

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New Research Says Including Students With Disabilities in General Ed Classrooms Benefits Everyone

Invested teachers make all the difference.

Oh, great. Not the dreaded “No, leaving your student in the inclusion class isn’t going to put them behind” conversation I used to have at the beginning of every school year. I could never decide which was more painful—reassuring a parent about their non-SPED Johnny’s math future via email, at school drop-off, or in the hallway during 8th grade orientation in front of all the other parents. It was always disappointing to see some parents view my inclusion class as a threat to their child’s math progress. Despite my assurances that the rigor and pace would match my other courses, I still saw students drop from my inclusion class. I wish I had known about this research back then, because what was once anecdotal now has statistical evidence to back it up.

Inclusion class does not negatively impact students without disabilities

Dr. Katharine Parham Malhotra ‘s research shows that including students with disabilities (SWD) in general education classrooms does not negatively impact the academic performance of their peers without disabilities (SWOD). Inclusion classes are classrooms that include students of all learning styles and abilities. Generally, no more than one-third of all students in the classroom should have an IEP. The study found that, despite concerns, math and reading test scores remained stable for students in grades 3 through 8. Moreover, Malhotra’s study suggests that inclusive education may have positive long-term effects on high school outcomes for SWD.

Key findings from Malhotra (2024):

• Stable academic performance. The inclusion of SWD did not negatively affect the math and reading test scores of their peers without disabilities, with scores remaining consistent across grades 3 through 8.
• Increased graduation rates. High school graduation rates increased by nearly 3 percentage points after the inclusion policy was fully implemented, indicating potential long-term benefits for all students.
• Improved promotion rates. Students in 9th grade were 6.7 percentage points more likely to be promoted to the next grade following the implementation of the inclusion policy, suggesting enhanced academic preparedness.
• Attendance and dropout rates. While attendance rates remained largely unchanged, there was a slight increase in dropout rates among SWD during the initial years of the policy. However, this trend did not continue in the long term.

Can we trust this research?

Not all research holds the same value! Here’s what our We Are Teachers “ Malarkey Meter ” says when it comes to this publication, based on four key factors.

• Peer-reviewed? This study likely underwent multiple rounds of peer review and was thoroughly examined by colleagues during Malhotra’s dissertation stage.
• Sample size: This research analyzed data from an entire school district, covering multiple schools and years, assessing the policy’s impact comprehensively.
• Trustworthy sources: Katharine Parham Malhotra is a budding researcher in the Education Policy field, and while she was a solo author on this study, rest assured: Her training and mentors are top-notch (many, many eyes saw this piece!). Additionally, this study was published in Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis —a solid journal in the field.
• Methodology: The study tracked the gradual rollout of the inclusion policy in different schools over several years. By comparing schools that started the policy at different times, the researchers could see the impact of the policy more clearly. This approach helps to make the findings more reliable because it accounts for changes over time and differences between schools. Malhotra achieved a causal methodology, and that is hard to do!

What does this mean for teachers?

This research reinforces the value of inclusive education, not just for students with disabilities but for all students. Here’s how teachers can apply these findings:

• Advocate for inclusive practices. This study confirms that inclusion classes do not harm students without disabilities and can have long-term benefits for SWD. Teachers can use this evidence to advocate for inclusive policies in schools and districts while ensuring balanced ratios.
• Support all learners. Recognize that the inclusion class benefits everyone in the classroom. Work to create a classroom environment where all students, regardless of ability, can succeed together.
• Reflect on teaching practices. Consider how you can better support students with disabilities in your classroom. Collaborate with special education professionals to implement strategies that benefit all students.
• Thoughtful participation. Dr. Parham Malhotra told We Are Teachers, “This study demonstrates that when teachers are committed to inclusive education and actively participate in thoughtful IEP meetings, all students , including those with disabilities, can benefit in the long term. The success of such policies relies heavily on teachers’ dedication to creating supportive, inclusive environments.”

While stakeholders may debate inclusion classes, Dr. Malhotra’s research provides compelling evidence that they benefit all students. By supporting inclusive practices, advocating for inclusion policies, and reflecting on teaching methods, we create classrooms where all students succeed. Let’s continue to build a more inclusive and equitable environment for all—and stand firm against the negative concerns!

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Using inclusive language in your presentations

• Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion
• Practice Management

Supercharge Your Presence

November 2022

• Slides (PDF, 3MB)
• Transcript (PDF, 179KB)
• Related resources (PDF, 993KB)

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By using inclusive language, you can help create respectful and welcoming communications that impact more people.

This presentation covers:

• Strategies for promoting psychologically safe, inclusive, respectful, and welcoming environments during presentations and public speaking engagements.
• Strategies to raise awareness, guide learning, and support the use of culturally sensitive terms and phrases that center the voices and perspectives of those who are often marginalized or stereotyped.
• Role of psychologists’ use of inclusive language in advancing principles of equity, diversity, and inclusion.

This program does not offer CE credit.

Vanessa Hintz, PsyD

A licensed clinical psychologist, workshop leader, and keynote speaker. She currently serves as the senior director of Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion Engagement and Outreach for the American Psychological Association. In her career, Hintz has worked in various clinical settings with children, adolescents, and adults with a wide array of presenting issues. She is an active proponent of multicultural practice and theory and works dynamically to understand how individuals make meaning of the world within their various cultural contexts. Hintz is also a self-proclaimed "Psych Geek," and incorporates elements of popular culture into her work when beneficial. Hintz has engaged with practitioners and scholars in the fields of academia, consultation, and training, utilizing expertise in psychology and human behavior to provide insights focused on principles of equity, diversity, and inclusion.

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Research: Why Inclusive Hiring Must Include Refugees

• Betina Szkudlarek

Six ways companies of any size can engage this overlooked talent pool.

When companies seek to engage in more inclusive recruitment, they often overlook recruitment initiatives focused on refugees. The number of global refugees, asylum seekers, and others in need of international protection surpassed 50.3 million people at the end of 2023, per the U.N. Refugee Agency. The authors cite their findings from two of their studies: first, that managers who have never recruited from this group tend to not only undervalue the benefits of this talent pool, but also hold various misconceptions and biases around recruiting and hiring refugees; and second, that traditional recruitment processes prevent managers from tapping into non-traditional talent pools. From their studies based on conversations with managers, talent leaders, and job seekers from refugee backgrounds, the authors offer 6 ways companies can better recruit from this talent pool: scrutinize your hiring criteria, be proactive and creative with recruitment, reevaluate your selection processes, consider utilizing external support, reach out to industry peers, and think of inclusive recruitment beyond direct recruitment.

As organizations seek to be more inclusive in their recruitment and hiring practices, one area they can improve upon is expanding their talent acquisition playbook to include refugees.

• BS Betina Szkudlarek , PhD, is Professor of International Management at the University of Sydney Business School, Australia. Betina is a world-renowned expert on refugee workforce integration and cross-cultural management and a Strategic Sustainability and Growth Consultant with the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations. She has a strong corporate presence and wide experience in researching, consulting and training in various areas linked to diversity management and global leadership. Her research has been featured by the Wall Street Journal, BBC, and ABC, among others. Her work in the domain of refugee workforce integration and SDG impact has been recognised with multiple prizes, including the United Nations Award for Excellence in SDG Integration (UN PRME Global Forum, New York 2023).
• EL Eun Su Lee , PhD, is Assistant Professor in Management at the University of Newcastle, Australia. Her research focuses on migrants’ integration journeys in foreign countries and the role of stakeholders in facilitating such integrative efforts. Her work has been published in top-tier international journals such as Human Resource Management Journal and International Journal of Management Reviews. Eun Su has also won a number of international awards with Prof Szkudlarek; these prestigious awards include AIB Insights Award for Actionable Insights (Miami, 2022), NBS Research Impact on Practice Award and International HRM Scholarly Award (Seattle, 2022).

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Q&A: Understanding and Preventing Youth Firearm Violence

Jessika Bottiani discusses her research on the significant disparities in youth firearm violence and how understanding those gaps can help future prevention efforts.

Leslie Booren

August 26, 2024

This summer the United States Surgeon General Dr. Vivek Murthy released a landmark advisory on firearm violence , declaring it a public health crisis. According to the advisory, gun violence reaches across the lifespan and is currently the leading cause of death for children and adolescents in America.

Researchers at Youth-Nex, the UVA Center to Promote Effective Youth Development, have been examining some of the root causes of youth firearm violence disparities to better understand this crisis and how future prevention efforts may work.

Recently, the Society for Research on Adolescence (SRA) recognized Dr. Jessika Bottiani, an associate research professor at the UVA School of Education and Human Development and faculty affiliate at Youth-Nex, and her co-authors with the 2024 Social Policy Publication Award for a paper on the prevention of youth firearm violence disparities . SRA highlighted this review as work that should be read by all policymakers.

We sat down with Bottiani to learn more about this research review.

Q: Your paper examined research on youth firearm violence and firearm risk. What did you find?

A: Our review and synthesis of data demonstrated striking differences in firearm risk across intersectional identities. We separated out different types of firearm violence (e.g., homicide, suicide, injury), which revealed distinctions in risk across different demographic groups–most saliently gun homicide among Black boys and young men in urban settings.

A staggering degree of inequity in firearm fatalities is shouldered by Black boys and young men in this country, where the rate of firearm homicide is more than 20 times higher among Black boys and young men ages 15-24 than for white boys and young men in the same age groups. We also saw higher rates of gun suicide among white and Indigenous American boys and young men in rural areas of the United States.

When we examined rates by geography, we identified intersectional differences in risk that are important for policymakers to understand. For example, we saw that higher rates of firearm homicide among Black boys and young men were most salient in urban areas of the Midwest and south of the United States. Overlaying data onto maps demonstrated how young male suicide by firearm is also clustered geographically, for example, in rural counties in the Midwest and west for Indigenous young males, and in in rural counties in the west for White male youth (who have the second highest rate of suicide by firearm after Indigenous young males).

Q: Why was a review of the research specifically focused on disparities in youth firearm violence needed?

A: A lot of systematic and scoping reviews on firearm violence had come out in the literature around this time, but none of them focused on understanding why Black boys and young men in urban areas were so disproportionately affected, or why we were also seeing gaps affecting rural White boys and young men. This paper presented data that revealed the degree of these disparities and tried to understand the root causes.

We don’t pay enough attention to the role of racist historical policies and regulations that have calcified into today’s racially segregated geographies and poverty. With this paper, we wanted to reveal the way in which youth gun violence is inextricably bound to the history of race, place, and culture in the United States. The paper also delves into cultural norms around guns and masculinity. We feel insights on these aspects of context are vital for understanding how to address youth firearm violence.

Q: What future prevention efforts do you suggest in your paper?

A: We put forth a number of evidence-based solutions for settings ranging from emergency rooms to schools to address firearm violence at the individual level. Yet perhaps more importantly, we also provide suggestions for tackling the structural and sociocultural factors that underlie firearm violence.

At the community level, our recommendations range from violence interrupters to programs and policies that seek to disrupt racial segregation and redress housing inequities. We also note the potential for media campaigns addressing sociocultural norms to be a tool for prevention.

We provided a review of gun restriction and safety policies, and their potential effectiveness in addressing youth firearm violence (while also acknowledging the political climate wherein such policies have been increasingly challenged). We point out that some recent firearm related policies, purportedly race neutral in their language, had harmful impacts specifically on communities and people of color.

Individual level interventions or policies that seek to address only one piece of the puzzle are bound to be ineffective at scale. Rather, what is required are multisector, place-based initiatives that address structural factors related to poverty and the built environment in under-resourced segregated neighborhoods.

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NSF announces 4 new Engineering Research Centers focused on biotechnology, manufacturing, robotics and sustainability

Engineering innovations transform our lives and energize the economy.  The U.S. National Science Foundation announces a five-year investment of $104 million, with a potential 10-year investment of up to $208 million, in four new NSF Engineering Research Centers (ERCs) to create technology-powered solutions that benefit the nation for decades to come.   

"NSF's Engineering Research Centers ask big questions in order to catalyze solutions with far-reaching impacts," said NSF Director Sethuraman Panchanathan. "NSF Engineering Research Centers are powerhouses of discovery and innovation, bringing America's great engineering minds to bear on our toughest challenges. By collaborating with industry and training the workforce of the future, ERCs create an innovation ecosystem that can accelerate engineering innovations, producing tremendous economic and societal benefits for the nation."  

The new centers will develop technologies to tackle the carbon challenge, expand physical capabilities, make heating and cooling more sustainable and enable the U.S. supply and manufacturing of natural rubber.  

The 2024 ERCs are:  

• NSF ERC for Carbon Utilization Redesign through Biomanufacturing-Empowered Decarbonization (CURB) — Washington University in St. Louis in partnership with the University of Delaware, Prairie View A&M University and Texas A&M University.   CURB will create manufacturing systems that convert CO2 to a broad range of products much more efficiently than current state-of-the-art engineered and natural systems.    
• NSF ERC for Environmentally Applied Refrigerant Technology Hub (EARTH) — University of Kansas in partnership with Lehigh University, University of Hawaii, University of Maryland, University of Notre Dame and University of South Dakota.   EARTH will create a transformative, sustainable refrigerant lifecycle to reduce global warming from refrigerants while increasing the energy efficiency of heating, ventilation and cooling.    
• NSF ERC for Human AugmentatioN via Dexterity (HAND) — Northwestern University in partnership with Carnegie Mellon University, Florida A&M University, and Texas A&M University, and with engagement of MIT.  HAND will revolutionize the ability of robots to augment human labor by transforming dexterous robot hands into versatile, easy-to-integrate tools.     
• NSF ERC for Transformation of American Rubber through Domestic Innovation for Supply Security (TARDISS) — The Ohio State University in partnership with Caltech, North Carolina State University, Texas Tech University and the University of California, Merced.   TARDISS will create bridges between engineering, biology, and agriculture to revolutionize and on-shore alternative natural rubber production from U.S. crops.  

Since its founding in 1985, NSF's ERC program has funded 83 centers (including the four announced today) that receive support for up to 10 years. The centers build partnerships with educational institutions, government agencies and industry stakeholders to support innovation and inclusion in established and emerging engineering research.  

Visit NSF's website and read about NSF Engineering Research Centers .  

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