ap psychology case study examples

AP Psychology: Exploring Key Case Studies

AP Psychology offers students a fascinating journey into the intricate workings of the human mind and behavior. One valuable aspect of the course involves delving into case studies that exemplify psychological theories, concepts, and phenomena. In this guide, we'll explore key case studies that have left an indelible mark on the field of psychology, providing insights into various psychological perspectives.

 1. Phineas Gage: The Case of Frontal Lobe Damage

- overview:.

  - Phineas Gage was a railroad construction foreman who, in 1848, suffered a traumatic brain injury when a metal rod pierced through his skull, damaging his frontal lobes.

- Significance:

  - Gage's case provided early evidence of the link between brain function and personality. Changes in his behavior, impulsivity, and decision-making highlighted the role of the frontal lobes in personality and executive functions.

- Relevance to AP Psychology:

  - Phineas Gage's case is often cited in the biological psychology unit to illustrate the impact of brain damage on behavior and personality.

 2. Little Albert Experiment: Classical Conditioning

  - Conducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920, the Little Albert Experiment involved conditioning a young boy, Little Albert, to fear a white rat through classical conditioning.

  - The experiment demonstrated the principles of classical conditioning, showcasing how a neutral stimulus (the rat) could become associated with fear through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (a loud noise).

  - The Little Albert Experiment is a classic example in the learning unit, illustrating how behaviors can be learned and conditioned through environmental stimuli.

 3. HM (Henry Molaison): Memory and Amnesia

  - Henry Molaison, known as HM, underwent brain surgery in 1953 to treat epilepsy. The surgery removed parts of his temporal lobes, resulting in severe amnesia.

  - HM's case provided crucial insights into the role of the hippocampus in forming new memories. Despite his anterograde amnesia, his procedural memory remained intact.

  - HM's case is foundational in the memory unit, emphasizing the role of specific brain structures in memory formation and the distinction between different types of memory.

 4. Stanford Prison Experiment: Social Psychology

  - Conducted by Philip Zimbardo in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment simulated a prison environment with college students playing the roles of guards and prisoners.

  - The experiment demonstrated the power of situational factors in influencing behavior. Participants' behaviors became extreme, leading to the premature termination of the study.

  - The Stanford Prison Experiment is a key case study in the social psychology unit, illustrating the impact of social roles and environments on individual behavior.

 5. Genie: The Feral Child

  - Genie, a girl who experienced extreme isolation and abuse during childhood, was discovered in 1970. She had limited exposure to language and social interaction.

  - Genie's case shed light on the critical period hypothesis for language acquisition and the importance of early socialization for normal development.

  - Genie's case is discussed in the developmental psychology unit, emphasizing the role of early experiences in shaping cognitive and social development.

 6. Kitty Genovese: Bystander Effect

  - In 1964, Kitty Genovese was brutally attacked and murdered outside her apartment. The case gained attention due to the perceived lack of intervention by numerous bystanders.

  - The Kitty Genovese case is often cited as an example of the bystander effect, where individuals are less likely to intervene in an emergency situation when others are present.

  - The case is explored in the social psychology unit, illustrating social influences on helping behavior and the diffusion of responsibility.

 Conclusion: Case Studies as Windows into Psychological Principles

Exploring key case studies in AP Psychology provides students with valuable insights into the complexities of human behavior and mental processes. These cases serve as windows into psychological principles, offering real-world examples that illuminate theoretical concepts. As students delve into the intricacies of Phineas Gage's frontal lobe damage, Little Albert's classical conditioning, HM's memory deficits, the Stanford Prison Experiment, Genie's isolation, and the Kitty Genovese case, they gain a deeper understanding of psychological phenomena that continue to shape the field today. These case studies not only contribute to academic learning but also encourage critical thinking and the application of psychological principles to real-world scenarios.

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1.2 Research Methods in Psychology

4 min read • june 18, 2024

Sadiyya Holsey

Jillian Holbrook

Overview of Research Methods

There are various types of research methods in psychology with different purposes, strengths, and weaknesses. 

## Examples

Experiment 🧪.

Whenever researchers want to prove or find causation, they would run an experiment. 

An experiment you'll learn about in Unit 9 that was run by  Solomon Asch investigated the extent to which one would conform to a group's ideas.

Each person in the room would have to look at these lines above and state which one they thought was of similar length to the original line. The answer was, of course, obvious, but Asch wanted to see if the "real participant" would conform to the views of the rest of the group.

Asch gathered together what we could call "fake participants" and told them not to say line C. The "real participant" would then hear wrong answers, but they did not want to be the odd one out, so they conformed with the rest of the group and represented the majority view.

In this experiment, the "real participant" was the control group , and about 75% of them, over 12 trials, conformed at least once.

Correlational Study 📈

There could be a correlational study between anything. Say you wanted to see if there was an association between the number of hours a teenager sleeps and their grades in high school. If there was a correlation, we cannot say that sleeping a greater number of hours causes higher grades. However, we can determine that they are related to each other. 💤

Remember in psychology that a correlation does not prove causation!  

Survey Research 💭

Surveys are used all the time, especially in advertising and marketing. They are often distributed to a large number of people, and the results are returned back to researchers.

Naturalistic Observation 👀

If a student wanted to observe how many people fully stop at a stop sign, they could watch the cars from a distance and record their data. This is a naturalistic observation since the student is in no way influencing the results.

Case Study 💼

A notable psychological case study is the study of Phineas Gage :

Phineas Gage was a railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury in 1848. The accident occurred when an iron rod was accidentally driven through Gage's skull, damaging his frontal lobes . Despite the severity of the injury, Gage was able to walk and talk immediately after the accident and appeared to be relatively uninjured. 

However, Gage's personality underwent a dramatic change following the injury. He became impulsive, irresponsible, and prone to outbursts of anger, which were completely out of character for him before the accident. Gage's case is famous in the history of psychology because it was one of the first to suggest that damage to the frontal lobes of the brain can have significant effects on personality and behavior.

Key Terms to Review ( 27 )

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AP Psychology Unit 1 Notes: Scientific Foundations

February 12, 2024.

Get ready for the AP Psychology exam with our free AP Psychology study notes. We've compiled concise unit summaries and key terms and people to jumpstart your AP test prep. These AP Psychology study notes should be used to supplement what you’re learning in your AP Psych class. More study strategies and expert tips can be found in our latest AP Psychology Test Prep Book .

[ READ NEXT: AP Psychology Unit 2 Notes: Biological Bases of Behavior   ]

AP Psychology: Unit 1 Summary

This first unit focuses on the historical origins of the science of psychology, current psychological perspectives, and the research methods psychologists use to gather data about human thinking and behavior. 

History of Psychology

One way to think about the history of psychology is to organize the various theorists and theories into “waves,” or schools of thought. Each wave is a way of thinking about human thought and behavior that dominated the field for a certain period of time until a new way of looking at psychology started to dominate the field. There are five ways: Introspection, Gestalt Psychology, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, and Multiple Perspectives.

Different contemporary psychologists look at human thought and behavior from different perspectives. Contemporary perspectives can be placed into eight broad categories: Humanistic, Psychoanalytic, Biopsychology (or Neuroscience), Evolutionary (or Darwinian), Behavioral, Cognitive, Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural), and Biopsychosocial.

Research and Methodology

Psychology is a science, and it is therefore based on research. Though people are often guided effectively by their common intuition, sometimes it leads us astray. People have the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along; this tendency is called hindsight bias. After an event occurs, it is relatively easy to explain why it happened. The goal of scientific research, however, is to predict what will happen in advance.

An understanding of research methods is fundamental to psychology. Because of that, you are more likely to see a free-response (or essay) question on this topic than on any other. Sometimes psychologists conduct research in order to solve practical problems. For instance, psychologists might compare two different methods of teaching children to read in order to determine which method is better or they could design and test the efficacy of a program to help people quit smoking. This type of research is known as applied research because it has clear, practical applications. Other psychologists conduct basic research. Basic research explores questions that are of interest to psychologists but are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications. Examples of basic research would include studying how people form their attitudes about others and how people in different cultures define intelligence.

Get ahead of the AP game! Our flexible, expert-led AP Psychology Review Course will help you build up your score by breaking down the exam.

Ap psychology: unit 1 key terms & people.

Below, we describe some of the Unit 1 key terms and people you should review ahead of the AP Psychology exam.

• Introspection: The examination of one’s own mental and emotional processes.
• Structuralism: The idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations, a theory developed by Wilhelm Wundt.
• Gestalt Psychology: Gestalt psychology tried to examine a person’s total experience because the way we experience the world is more than just an accumulation of various perceptual experiences. Gestalt theorists demonstrated that the whole experience is often more than just the sum of the parts of the experience.
• Sigmund Freud: Freud revolutionized psychology with his psychoanalytic theory. While treating patients for various psychosomatic complaints, Freud believed he discovered the unconscious mind—a part of our mind over which we do not have conscious control that determines, in part, how we think and behave
• Repression: Freud believed that this hidden part of ourselves builds up over the years through repression – the pushing down into the unconscious events and feelings that cause so much anxiety and tension that our conscious mind cannot deal with them.
• Behaviorism: Behaviorists maintain that psychologists should look at only behavior and causes of behavior – stimuli (environmental events) and responses (physical reactions) – and not concern themselves with describing elements of consciousness.
• B.F. Skinner: Another behaviorist, B. F. Skinner expanded the basic ideas of behaviorism to include the idea of reinforcement – environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses.
• Eclectic: Currently, there is no one way of thinking about human thought and behavior that all or even most psychologists share. Many psychologists describe themselves as eclectic – drawing from multiple perspectives.
• Humanist Perspective: Humanists stressed individual choice and free will. They believe that we choose most of our behaviors and these choices are guided by physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs.
• Psychoanalytic Perspective: Psychologists using this perspective believe that the unconscious mind – a part of our mind that we do not have conscious control over or access to – controls much of our thought and action. Psychoanalysts would look for impulses or memories pushed into the unconscious mind through repression. This perspective thinks that to understand human thought and behavior, we must examine our unconscious mind through dream analysis, word association, and other psychoanalytic therapy techniques.
• Biopsychology (or Neuroscience) Perspective: Biopsychologists explain human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes. Human cognition and reactions might be caused by effects of our genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters in the brain or by a combination of all three.
• Evolutionary (or Darwinian) Perspective: Evolutionary psychologists (also sometimes called sociobiologists) examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection. Some psychological traits might be advantageous for survival, and these traits would be passed down from the parents to the next generation.
• Behavioral Perspective: Behaviorists explain human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning. Behaviorists look strictly at observable behaviors and human and animal responses to different kinds of stimuli.
• Cognitive Perspective: Cognitive psychologists examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events. In this perspective, the rules that we use to view the world are important to understanding why we think and behave the way we do.
• Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural) Perspective: Social-cultural psychologists look at how our thoughts and behaviors vary between cultures. They emphasize the influence culture has on the way we think and act. A social-cultural psychologist might explain a person’s tendency to be extroverted by examining his or her culture’s rules about social interaction.
• Biopsychosocial Perspective: This modern perspective acknowledges that human thinking and behavior results from combinations of biological (“bio”), psychological (“psycho”), and social (“social”) factors. Psychologists who emphasize the biopsychosocial perspective view other perspectives as too focused on specific influences on thinking and behavior (sometimes called “being reductionistic”).
• Hindsight bias: People have the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along; this tendency is called hindsight bias.
• Hypothesis: A hypothesis expresses a relationship between two variables. Variables, by definition, are things that can vary among the participants in the research.
• Theory: A theory aims to explain some phenomenon and allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting data that support the theory.
• Valid: Good research is both valid and reliable. Research is valid when it measures what the researcher set out to measure; it is accurate.
• Reliable: Research is reliable when it can be replicated; it is consistent. If the researcher conducted the same research in the same way, the researcher would get similar results.
• Sampling: The individuals on which the research will be conducted are called participants (or subjects), and the process by which participants are selected is called sampling.
• Experiment: Psychologists’ preferred method of research is the experiment because only through a carefully controlled experiment can one show a causal relationship. An experiment allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable and control for confounding variables.
• Correlation: A correlation expresses a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause. Correlations can be either positive or negative. A positive correlation between two things means that the presence of one thing predicts the presence of the other. A negative correlation means that the presence of one thing predicts the absence of the other.
• Naturalistic observation: Sometimes researchers opt to observe their participants in their natural habitats without interacting with them at all. Such unobtrusive observation is called naturalistic observation. The goal of naturalistic observation is to get a realistic and rich picture of the participants’ behavior. To that end, control is sacrificed.
• Case study method: The case study method is used to get a full, detailed picture of one participant or a small group of participants. While case studies allow researchers to get the richest possible picture of what they are studying, the focus on a single individual or small group means that the findings cannot be generalized to a larger population.
• Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics, as the name suggests, simply describe a set of data. For instance, if you were interested in researching what kinds of pets your schoolmates have, you might summarize that data by creating a frequency distribution that would tell you how many students had dogs, cats, zebras, and so on.
• Correlation: A correlation measures the relationship between two variables. Correlations can be either positive or negative.
• Inferential statistics: Whereas descriptive statistics provide a way to summarize information about the sample studied, the purpose of inferential statistics is to determine whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected.

Next, test your AP Psychology Unit 1 knowledge using our free Key Terms Worksheets!

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Psychology Case Study Examples: A Deep Dive into Real-life Scenarios

Peeling back the layers of the human mind is no easy task, but psychology case studies can help us do just that. Through these detailed analyses, we’re able to gain a deeper understanding of human behavior, emotions, and cognitive processes. I’ve always found it fascinating how a single person’s experience can shed light on broader psychological principles.

Over the years, psychologists have conducted numerous case studies—each with their own unique insights and implications. These investigations range from Phineas Gage’s accidental lobotomy to Genie Wiley’s tragic tale of isolation. Such examples not only enlighten us about specific disorders or occurrences but also continue to shape our overall understanding of psychology .

As we delve into some noteworthy examples , I assure you’ll appreciate how varied and intricate the field of psychology truly is. Whether you’re a budding psychologist or simply an eager learner, brace yourself for an intriguing exploration into the intricacies of the human psyche.

Understanding Psychology Case Studies

Diving headfirst into the world of psychology, it’s easy to come upon a valuable tool used by psychologists and researchers alike – case studies. I’m here to shed some light on these fascinating tools.

Psychology case studies, for those unfamiliar with them, are in-depth investigations carried out to gain a profound understanding of the subject – whether it’s an individual, group or phenomenon. They’re powerful because they provide detailed insights that other research methods might miss.

Let me share a few examples to clarify this concept further:

• One notable example is Freud’s study on Little Hans. This case study explored a 5-year-old boy’s fear of horses and related it back to Freud’s theories about psychosexual stages.
• Another classic example is Genie Wiley (a pseudonym), a feral child who was subjected to severe social isolation during her early years. Her heartbreaking story provided invaluable insights into language acquisition and critical periods in development.

You see, what sets psychology case studies apart is their focus on the ‘why’ and ‘how’. While surveys or experiments might tell us ‘what’, they often don’t dig deep enough into the inner workings behind human behavior.

It’s important though not to take these psychology case studies at face value. As enlightening as they can be, we must remember that they usually focus on one specific instance or individual. Thus, generalizing findings from single-case studies should be done cautiously.

To illustrate my point using numbers: let’s say we have 1 million people suffering from condition X worldwide; if only 20 unique cases have been studied so far (which would be quite typical for rare conditions), then our understanding is based on just 0.002% of the total cases! That’s why multiple sources and types of research are vital when trying to understand complex psychological phenomena fully.

In the grand scheme of things, psychology case studies are just one piece of the puzzle – albeit an essential one. They provide rich, detailed data that can form the foundation for further research and understanding. As we delve deeper into this fascinating field, it’s crucial to appreciate all the tools at our disposal – from surveys and experiments to these insightful case studies.

Importance of Case Studies in Psychology

I’ve always been fascinated by the human mind, and if you’re here, I bet you are too. Let’s dive right into why case studies play such a pivotal role in psychology.

One of the key reasons they matter so much is because they provide detailed insights into specific psychological phenomena. Unlike other research methods that might use large samples but only offer surface-level findings, case studies allow us to study complex behaviors, disorders, and even treatments at an intimate level. They often serve as a catalyst for new theories or help refine existing ones.

To illustrate this point, let’s look at one of psychology’s most famous case studies – Phineas Gage. He was a railroad construction foreman who survived a severe brain injury when an iron rod shot through his skull during an explosion in 1848. The dramatic personality changes he experienced after his accident led to significant advancements in our understanding of the brain’s role in personality and behavior.

Moreover, it’s worth noting that some rare conditions can only be studied through individual cases due to their uncommon nature. For instance, consider Genie Wiley – a girl discovered at age 13 having spent most of her life locked away from society by her parents. Her tragic story gave psychologists valuable insights into language acquisition and critical periods for learning.

Finally yet importantly, case studies also have practical applications for clinicians and therapists. Studying real-life examples can inform treatment plans and provide guidance on how theoretical concepts might apply to actual client situations.

• Detailed insights: Case studies offer comprehensive views on specific psychological phenomena.
• Catalyst for new theories: Real-life scenarios help shape our understanding of psychology .
• Study rare conditions: Unique cases can offer invaluable lessons about uncommon disorders.
• Practical applications: Clinicians benefit from studying real-world examples.

In short (but without wrapping up), it’s clear that case studies hold immense value within psychology – they illuminate what textbooks often can’t, offering a more nuanced understanding of human behavior.

Different Types of Psychology Case Studies

Diving headfirst into the world of psychology, I can’t help but be fascinated by the myriad types of case studies that revolve around this subject. Let’s take a closer look at some of them.

Firstly, we’ve got what’s known as ‘Explanatory Case Studies’. These are often used when a researcher wants to clarify complex phenomena or concepts. For example, a psychologist might use an explanatory case study to explore the reasons behind aggressive behavior in children.

Second on our list are ‘Exploratory Case Studies’, typically utilized when new and unexplored areas of research come up. They’re like pioneers; they pave the way for future studies. In psychological terms, exploratory case studies could be conducted to investigate emerging mental health conditions or under-researched therapeutic approaches.

Next up are ‘Descriptive Case Studies’. As the name suggests, these focus on depicting comprehensive and detailed profiles about a particular individual, group, or event within its natural context. A well-known example would be Sigmund Freud’s analysis of “Anna O”, which provided unique insights into hysteria.

Then there are ‘Intrinsic Case Studies’, which delve deep into one specific case because it is intrinsically interesting or unique in some way. It’s sorta like shining a spotlight onto an exceptional phenomenon. An instance would be studying savants—individuals with extraordinary abilities despite significant mental disabilities.

Lastly, we have ‘Instrumental Case Studies’. These aren’t focused on understanding a particular case per se but use it as an instrument to understand something else altogether—a bit like using one puzzle piece to make sense of the whole picture!

So there you have it! From explanatory to instrumental, each type serves its own unique purpose and adds another intriguing layer to our understanding of human behavior and cognition.

Exploring Real-Life Psychology Case Study Examples

Let’s roll up our sleeves and delve into some real-life psychology case study examples. By digging deep, we can glean valuable insights from these studies that have significantly contributed to our understanding of human behavior and mental processes.

First off, let me share the fascinating case of Phineas Gage. This gentleman was a 19th-century railroad construction foreman who survived an accident where a large iron rod was accidentally driven through his skull, damaging his frontal lobes. Astonishingly, he could walk and talk immediately after the accident but underwent dramatic personality changes, becoming impulsive and irresponsible. This case is often referenced in discussions about brain injury and personality change.

Next on my list is Genie Wiley’s heart-wrenching story. She was a victim of severe abuse and neglect resulting in her being socially isolated until she was 13 years old. Due to this horrific experience, Genie couldn’t acquire language skills typically as other children would do during their developmental stages. Her tragic story offers invaluable insight into the critical periods for language development in children.

Then there’s ‘Little Hans’, a classic Freudian case that delves into child psychology. At just five years old, Little Hans developed an irrational fear of horses -or so it seemed- which Sigmund Freud interpreted as symbolic anxiety stemming from suppressed sexual desires towards his mother—quite an interpretation! The study gave us Freud’s Oedipus Complex theory.

Lastly, I’d like to mention Patient H.M., an individual who became amnesiac following surgery to control seizures by removing parts of his hippocampus bilaterally. His inability to form new memories post-operation shed light on how different areas of our brains contribute to memory formation.

Each one of these real-life psychology case studies gives us a unique window into understanding complex human behaviors better – whether it’s dissecting the role our brain plays in shaping personality or unraveling the mysteries of fear, language acquisition, and memory.

How to Analyze a Psychology Case Study

Diving headfirst into a psychology case study, I understand it can seem like an intimidating task. But don’t worry, I’m here to guide you through the process.

First off, it’s essential to go through the case study thoroughly. Read it multiple times if needed. Each reading will likely reveal new information or perspectives you may have missed initially. Look out for any patterns or inconsistencies in the subject’s behavior and make note of them.

Next on your agenda should be understanding the theoretical frameworks that might be applicable in this scenario. Is there a cognitive-behavioral approach at play? Or does psychoanalysis provide better insights? Comparing these theories with observed behavior and symptoms can help shed light on underlying psychological issues.

Now, let’s talk data interpretation. If your case study includes raw data like surveys or diagnostic tests results, you’ll need to analyze them carefully. Here are some steps that could help:

• Identify what each piece of data represents
• Look for correlations between different pieces of data
• Compute statistics (mean, median, mode) if necessary
• Use graphs or charts for visual representation

Keep in mind; interpreting raw data requires both statistical knowledge and intuition about human behavior.

Finally, drafting conclusions is key in analyzing a psychology case study. Based on your observations, evaluations of theoretical approaches and interpretations of any given data – what do you conclude about the subject’s mental health status? Remember not to jump to conclusions hastily but instead base them solidly on evidence from your analysis.

In all this journey of analysis remember one thing: every person is unique and so are their experiences! So while theories and previous studies guide us, they never define an individual completely.

Applying Lessons from Psychology Case Studies

Let’s dive into how we can apply the lessons learned from psychology case studies. If you’ve ever studied psychology, you’ll know that case studies offer rich insights. They shed light on human behavior, mental health issues, and therapeutic techniques. But it’s not just about understanding theory. It’s also about implementing these valuable lessons in real-world situations.

One of the most famous psychological case studies is Phineas Gage’s story. This 19th-century railroad worker survived a severe brain injury which dramatically altered his personality. From this study, we gained crucial insight into how different brain areas are responsible for various aspects of our personality and behavior.

• Lesson: Recognizing that damage to specific brain areas can result in personality changes, enabling us to better understand certain mental conditions.

Sigmund Freud’s work with a patient known as ‘Anna O.’ is another landmark psychology case study. Anna displayed what was then called hysteria – symptoms included hallucinations and disturbances in speech and physical coordination – which Freud linked back to repressed memories of traumatic events.

• Lesson: The importance of exploring an individual’s history for understanding their current psychological problems – a principle at the heart of psychoanalysis.

Then there’s Genie Wiley’s case – a girl who suffered extreme neglect resulting in impaired social and linguistic development. Researchers used her tragic circumstances as an opportunity to explore theories around language acquisition and socialization.

• Lesson: Reinforcing the critical role early childhood experiences play in shaping cognitive development.

Lastly, let’s consider the Stanford Prison Experiment led by Philip Zimbardo examining how people conform to societal roles even when they lead to immoral actions.

• Lesson: Highlighting that situational forces can drastically impact human behavior beyond personal characteristics or morality.

These examples demonstrate that psychology case studies aren’t just academic exercises isolated from daily life. Instead, they provide profound lessons that help us make sense of complex human behaviors, mental health issues, and therapeutic strategies. By understanding these studies, we’re better equipped to apply their lessons in our own lives – whether it’s navigating personal relationships, working with diverse teams at work or even self-improvement.

Challenges and Critiques of Psychological Case Studies

Delving into the world of psychological case studies, it’s not all rosy. Sure, they offer an in-depth understanding of individual behavior and mental processes. Yet, they’re not without their share of challenges and criticisms.

One common critique is the lack of generalizability. Each case study is unique to its subject. We can’t always apply what we learn from one person to everyone else. I’ve come across instances where results varied dramatically between similar subjects, highlighting the inherent unpredictability in human behavior.

Another challenge lies within ethical boundaries. Often, sensitive information surfaces during these studies that could potentially harm the subject if disclosed improperly. To put it plainly, maintaining confidentiality while delivering a comprehensive account isn’t always easy.

Distortion due to subjective interpretations also poses substantial difficulties for psychologists conducting case studies. The researcher’s own bias may color their observations and conclusions – leading to skewed outcomes or misleading findings.

Moreover, there’s an ongoing debate about the scientific validity of case studies because they rely heavily on qualitative data rather than quantitative analysis. Some argue this makes them less reliable or objective when compared with other research methods such as experiments or surveys.

To summarize:

• Lack of generalizability
• Ethical dilemmas concerning privacy
• Potential distortion through subjective interpretation
• Questions about scientific validity

While these critiques present significant challenges, they do not diminish the value that psychological case studies bring to our understanding of human behavior and mental health struggles.

Conclusion: The Impact of Case Studies in Understanding Human Behavior

Case studies play a pivotal role in shedding light on human behavior. Throughout this article, I’ve discussed numerous examples that illustrate just how powerful these studies can be. Yet it’s the impact they have on our understanding of human psychology where their true value lies.

Take for instance the iconic study of Phineas Gage. It was through his tragic accident and subsequent personality change that we began to grasp the profound influence our frontal lobes have on our behavior. Without such a case study, we might still be in the dark about this crucial aspect of our neurology.

Let’s also consider Genie, the feral child who showed us the critical importance of social interaction during early development. Her heartbreaking story underscores just how vital appropriate nurturing is for healthy mental and emotional growth.

Here are some key takeaways from these case studies:

• Our brain structure significantly influences our behavior.
• Social interaction during formative years is vital for normal psychological development.
• Studying individual cases can reveal universal truths about human nature.

What stands out though, is not merely what these case studies teach us individually but collectively. They remind us that each person constitutes a unique combination of various factors—biological, psychological, and environmental—that shape their behavior.

One cannot overstate the significance of case studies in psychology—they are more than mere stories or isolated incidents; they’re windows into the complexities and nuances of human nature itself.

In wrapping up, I’d say that while statistics give us patterns and trends to understand groups, it’s these detailed narratives offered by case studies that help us comprehend individuals’ unique experiences within those groups—making them an invaluable part of psychological research.

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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The Best AP Psychology Study Guide

Advanced Placement (AP)

AP courses cover a lot of complex information, and it's not always easy to find great study materials and strategies. I've written this AP Psychology study guide as a way to make the process of studying for the AP test and other in-class assessments a little less overwhelming. It will help you figure out how to structure your studying, give you strategies to better understand the material, and provide links to notes and practice resources. If you follow the advice in this guide, you'll be on your way to a high AP Psych score!

What's in This AP Psychology Study Guide?

This guide will help you study for the AP Psychology exam and other assessments in your class by providing study strategies and other resources that pertain to the material covered in the course.

In the first section, you'll learn how to create a study plan for the exam that supports your needs as a student . This section applies exclusively to the final AP exam, so it's less relevant if you're just studying for an in-class test.

The next section provides study tips that are specific to AP Psychology and will serve you well as you prepare for both in-class tests and the final exam.

Finally, the last part of this AP Psychology guide is devoted to notes, outlines, videos, and other online resources that will be useful in your studying.

AP Psychology Study Plans: 2 Options for Your Prep

Before you start studying for AP Psych, you should know the difference between where you are in your knowledge of the material and where you want to be.

Find an official practice test , print it out, and take it as though it were the real AP Psych test (70 minutes for the 100 multiple-choice questions and 50 minutes for the two free-response questions). Then, use the following chart to estimate your final AP score based on your raw scores:

To calculate your final score, you must first add up all the multiple-choice questions you answered correctly (each question is worth 1 point). Next, convert the number of points you earned on the free-response questions to a value out of 50. For example, if you got 8 out of 14 points on the two free-response questions (each question is worth 7 points), it would convert to about 29 out of 50.

Lastly, add your multiple-choice score (out of 100) and your free-response score (out of 50) to find your composite raw AP Psychology score (out of 150). Use the chart above to see the estimate for your final AP score on a scale of 1-5 .

Depending on how much you need to improve and the amount of time you have before the exam, you might choose to structure your studying in different ways. I'll go through a 10-hour plan and a 20-hour plan. The shorter plan is for students hoping to improve by just a single AP point or raise their score within the same AP range so that they feel more comfortable during the test. The longer plan is for students hoping to improve by 2 or more points (and can be extended further if necessary).

I know this doesn't seem like much time, but a few hours of focused studying goes a long way for this particular subject. Psychology is one of the shorter AP tests (just two hours in total), so practice testing won't be as long of a process.

Additionally, questions tend to be based on memorization of definitions of terms and some logical reasoning; there aren't as many complex thought processes involved. Overall, AP Psychology is considered one of the easier AP tests . M ost students will probably be able to earn a high score (4 or 5) by studying for 10 hours or less.

Option 1: 10-Hour AP Psychology Study Plan

• Take a diagnostic test (2 hours)
• Score the test and analyze your mistakes (1.5 hours)
• Study content and revise your strategy, keeping in mind your mistakes on the diagnostic test (2 hours)
• Take another practice test (2 hours)
• Final study session to clear up any issues you had on the second test (1 hour)

Option 2: 20-Hour AP Psychology Study Plan

• Study content and revise your strategy, keeping in mind your mistakes on the diagnostic test (3 hours)
• Study content areas for which you're still missing questions, do more practice questions, and continue to revise your strategy (3 hours)
• Take a third practice test (2 hours)
• Final study session to clear up any confusion (1.5 hours)
• Wrap up your studying with a final practice test (2 hours)

Each of these psychology study plans has the same basic components, but the second one allows you to spend more time studying content and has more room for additional practice tests. If you're trying to improve by 2 or more AP points, it's likely that there are some major gaps in your content knowledge that warrant additional studying.

It's extremely important that you document and analyze your mistakes on each AP practice test if you're hoping to make big improvements. Mistakes come in several different forms, and you should be aware of this so that you can make appropriate changes to your test-taking strategy and study plan after each practice test.

If most of your incorrect answers are the results of careless mistakes or poor time management, the solution to your problem isn't necessarily more content review. These types of mistakes respond better to additional practice testing that increases your familiarity with time limits and question formats .

If, on the other hand, you find that all or most of your incorrect answers are due to gaps in content knowledge, you can use this info to focus your studying on the areas that cost you the most points. I suggest categorizing your mistakes so that you know where to direct your studying. In this case, you might not need to make many modifications to your actual test-taking strategy.

Most students will have a mixture of both types of mistakes , but it's still good to be mindful of where your biggest problems lie so that you can tackle them more efficiently.

AP Psychology Exam: 4 Essential Study Tips

Before you start studying content for AP Psychology, I want to give you a few studying and test-taking tips that will help you get the most out of your time. Here are some pointers to keep in mind when preparing for the AP test and any other in-class assessments throughout the year.

Tip 1: Get Familiar With Important Terms

You'll need to have extensive knowledge of the definitions of psychological terms for both the multiple-choice and free-response sections of the test. Some definitions are relatively intuitive, but others are almost impossible to figure out if you haven't studied them directly.

Be meticulous about going over all the terms covered in your class so that you don't second-guess yourself on the test. This is especially important for free-response questions for which you will be asked to describe how terms relate to certain situations. You need to understand them beyond just the ability to pick their correct definitions out of a multiple-choice lineup. Flashcards are a particularly useful study tool for AP Psychology.

Tip 2: Make the Abstract Concrete

With all the confusing terminology involved in this course, it's easy to get mixed up and think that a term means one thing when it really means another. Since psychology deals with how people act and process information on a day-to-day basis, it's a great idea to connect terms to specific scenarios in your life .

For example, you might connect a term such as "reciprocity norm," which says that people tend to treat others the same way they have been treated, to a situation in which a store employee was rude to you. Maybe they received poor treatment from other customers and were reflecting that back onto you (they also could just be a jerk, but it's nice to give people the benefit of the doubt).

When you make this type of connection, the term becomes stickier in your memory because it's tied to the heavy weight of a real-life experience. You can practice applying psychology terms to your everyday life at any time as the concepts are constantly demonstrated all around us.

Tip 3: Think Logically

Remember to listen to your common sense when answering questions on the AP Psych test. In some cases on the exam, you can figure out the answer with nothing but a little bit of logic. It's common for students to forget this and start to worry when they don't know what every part of the question means.

In this case, take a step back and think about which answer makes the most sense based on what you do know. You might be surprised by how many questions you can answer this way!

Here's an example (which I used in my AP Psychology review article as well ) of what I mean:

There are a few complex terms here and the question might seem pretty wordy, but it's actually very basic .

When they were scared, the monkeys preferred the soft cloth mother over the uncomfortable wire mother with food. Logically, we can conclude that the answer is B. Overthinking is the downfall of many high-achieving students, so don't start to doubt yourself just because the answer seems too simple to you!

Tip 4: Write in Complete Sentences, not Complete Essays

Although this isn't really a study tip, I think it's important to know before the exam; it probably also applies to in-class tests.

Psychology is about your grasp of science—not English—so don't bother with introductions, conclusions, or any other fluff in your answers to the free-response questions. All you need to do is give a direct answer in a complete sentence. You'll save time and make it easier for the graders to give you points.

It's smart to get used to doing this on practice free-response questions so that you'll be a pro by exam time.

AP Psychology Content: Notes, Outlines, and Videos

Here are some helpful resources that cover all the content you'll see on the AP Psychology exam. (Note that these are not the same as the new units described in the 2020 Course and Exam Description , though they cover similar topics and ideas.) Depending on your learning style, you might decide to look at notes or follow along with a video in areas for which your understanding is weaker.

You can also use these resources throughout the year to review for in-class assessments. If you had difficulty understanding a concept as it was taught to you in class, for example, you might use the notes and videos in this article to access alternative explanations.

You could also use these AP Psychology notes to supplement your studying if you found that you were consistently coming up with incorrect answers to questions in a certain topic area on quizzes or practice tests.

History and Approaches

Research methods, biological bases of behavior.

• Neural Processing and the Endocrine System
• Genetics, Evolutionary Psychology, and Behavior

Sensation and Perception

States of consciousness.

• Thinking, Problem Solving, Creativity, and Language

Motivation and Emotion

• Emotions, Stress, and Health

Developmental Psychology

Personality, testing and individual differences, abnormal psychology.

• PowerPoint ( Part 1 and Part 2 )

Treatment of Psychological Disorders

Social psychology, overall review.

• List of Terms and People to Remember
• Full Playlist of Crash Course Psychology Videos

Additional Resources to Test Your AP Psychology Knowledge

If you're unsure of where to start with your AP Psych prep or prefer to learn in a more interactive way, here are some additional online resources for reviewing concepts and taking practice tests.

The College Board

It's best to prioritize official resources over unofficial ones , as these will be the most accurate. Here are some great College Board materials you can use in your AP Psychology prep.

• The College Board website : You get access to tons of free-response questions, along with answer guides and sample responses, from 1999 to 2021. You can also get more practice questions through AP Classroom , a new digital tool that your AP teacher can use to assign homework and give out questions to students.
• 2020 AP Psychology Course and Exam Description : This free guide offers 15 multiple-choice questions, two free-response questions, and answer explanations for both (you can see free-response answers in the scoring guidelines ). All information has been updated for the current exam format and content.
• 2014-15 AP Psychology Course Description : This older but still relevant guide contains 25 multiple-choice questions (with answers) and two free-response questions.
• 2012 AP Psychology Exam
• 1999 AP Psychology Exam
• 1994 AP Psychology Exam

This site includes practice questions that cover all the current topics in AP Psychology . It divides them into easy, medium, and hard difficulty levels and records how many questions within each level you've answered correctly. This makes it simple to gauge which areas need the most work. You'll need to create and pay for an account to access most of the questions.

This popular quiz website offers a bunch of flashcards with AP Psych terms to help you practice, including a strong set of flashcards based on the Myers textbook and a set that goes through all the famous psychologists you should know .

Varsity Tutors

Famed test-prep company Varsity Tutors has several multiple-choice diagnostic tests to help you get a feel for how much you already know about AP Psych. It also has a bunch of mini quizzes organized by topic area and labeled based on difficulty level. Flashcards for AP Psychology terms and concepts are included here as well.

High School Test Prep

This site has lots of free practice AP Psych tests organized by topic area . You'll get immediate feedback with detailed answer explanations as you go along.

Conclusion: Using This AP Psychology Study Guide

Following the advice in this study guide is a promising step toward earning a high score on the AP Psychology test and other psychology tests throughout the school year.

AP Psychology is a completely manageable subject if you prepare for the exam responsibly. Memorizing key terms, applying confusing psychology concepts to your everyday life, using common sense to solve practice questions, and staying focused on the free-response section will help you be successful, both in class and on the AP test.

After reading this article, you should have everything you need to be able to answer even the most challenging questions the College Board throws at you on the AP Psych exam !

What's Next?

For more info on how to prepare for the AP Psychology exam, check out my comprehensive review guide .

Are you looking for some review books to supplement your AP studying? Read about the best review books for AP Psychology . You can also try our articles on specific psychology topics, like this one about Stockholm Syndrome .

Still trying to decide how many AP classes you should take in high school? Then you'll definitely want to read this article for some advice !

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Samantha is a blog content writer for PrepScholar. Her goal is to help students adopt a less stressful view of standardized testing and other academic challenges through her articles. Samantha is also passionate about art and graduated with honors from Dartmouth College as a Studio Art major in 2014. In high school, she earned a 2400 on the SAT, 5's on all seven of her AP tests, and was named a National Merit Scholar.

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AP Psychology

Learn all about the course and exam. Already enrolled? Join your class in My AP.

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Go to AP Central for resources for teachers, administrators, and coordinators.

About the Course

Have you ever wondered why you act a certain way around different people? Or how your family and society influence your behaviors? In AP Psychology, you’ll learn the foundational concepts that detail how and why people think and behave the way they do.

AP Psychology Revisions for 2024-25

We revised AP Psychology for the 2024-25 school year.

Skills You'll Learn

Connecting psychological concepts and theories to real-life scenarios

Understanding and interpreting data

Analyzing research studies in psychology

Equivalency and Prerequisites

College course equivalent.

A one-semester, introductory college course in psychology

Recommended Prerequisites

Fri, May 16, 2025

12 PM Local

AP Psychology Exam

This is the regularly scheduled date for the AP Psychology Exam.

About the Units

The course content outlined below is organized into commonly taught units of study that provide one possible sequence for the course. Your teacher may choose to organize the course content differently based on local priorities and preferences.

Course Content

Unit 1: biological bases of behavior .

You’ll study behaviors and mental processes from a biological perspective and explore the effects of the interaction between human biology and our environment. 

Topics may include:  

• The interaction of inherited traits, environment, and evolution in shaping behavior  
• Structures and functions of nervous systems 
• Neural firing and the influence of psychoactive substances  
• The study of the brain, including its structures and functions  
• Sleep 
• Sensation 

On The Exam

15%–25% of exam score

Unit 2: Cognition

You’ll examine the complex nature of how memory, intelligence, and other mental processes impact human behavior. 

• Perception 
• Biases and errors in thinking, creative thinking, and problem-solving strategies  
• The cognitive and physiological processes that make up memory  
• Forgetting and typical memory errors  
• Defining and measuring intelligence and achievement 

Unit 3: Development and Learning

You’ll study how physical and social changes over humans’ lifespans can influence behavior and mental processes from a variety of perspectives and how learning works. 

Topics may include:   

• Research methods used in developmental psychology 
• Physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development across the lifespan  
• Gender and sexual orientation

Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

You’ll study how the social experience influences behavior of individuals and groups and how personality is studied and develops. 

• Attribution theory and person perception 
• Attitude formation and change 
• The psychology of social situations 
• Psychodynamic, humanistic, social cognitive, and trait theories of personality 
• Motivation 
• Emotion 

Unit 5: Mental and Physical Health

You’ll learn how psychologists promote mental and physical health and evaluate, study, and treat a range of psychological disorders. 

• An introduction to health and positive psychology 
• Standards for diagnosing and approaches to explaining psychological disorders  
• Neurodevelopmental and schizophrenic spectrum disorders  
• Bipolar, depressive, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorders  
• Dissociative and trauma- and stress-related disorders  
• Eating disorders and personality disorders  
• Historical developments in psychological treatment  
• Modern treatment options and methods 

Credit and Placement

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Course Resources

Ap classroom resources.

Once you join your AP class section online, you’ll be able to access AP Daily videos, any assignments from your teacher, and your assignment results in AP Classroom. Sign in to access them.

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AP Psychology Course and Exam Description

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Additional Information

AP® Psychology

Correlational study examples: ap® psychology crash course.

• The Albert Team
• Last Updated On: March 1, 2022

Do you remember what a correlational study is? Knowing the main types of psychology research is a key point for the Advanced Placement (AP) Psychology exam as it makes up for 8-10% of the content in the multiple choice and free response questions. However, understanding the characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of each research method is only half of mastering this subject. The other half is understanding in concrete and practical terms how the research methods have been applied to studies in different fields of psychology. In this AP® Psychology crash course review, we will see three correlational study examples that have contributed to the history of psychology, changing the way we perceive our nature, our personality, and our health.

Review: What is a Correlational Study and why is it Important?

Psychology is a science, and like any other, its knowledge must be scientifically obtained, verified and validated. For this, psychologists conduct three types of research:

• Experimental research – the most empirical type of research, where variables can be manipulated in laboratory conditions and different situations can be studied and compared to establish relations of cause and effect between variables.
• Clinical research – done through case studies under the premise that certain individual characteristics can be generalized to the rest of the population.
• Correlational research – seeks the relationship between two variables. The necessary data is gathered through surveys (questionnaires and interviews), archival research (past studies that present the data) and naturalistic observation (observation of the phenomena as they naturally happen, without intervening). The data is then statistically analyzed to verify the relationship between the variables.

The correlation between the variables is shown through a value that goes from -1.00 to +1.00. This value is called the correlational coefficient . When the correlational coefficient is close to +1.00, there is a positive correlation between the variables. In other words, an increase in X accompanies an increase in Y. When the correlational coefficient is close to -1.00, there is a negative correlation between the variables or an increase in X is followed by a decrease in Y. And when the correlational coefficient is close to 0.00 there is no relationship between the variables. The closer the value is to +1.00 or -1.00, the strongest the relationship is. We will see real examples of this later on this post.

Now, the most important thing to remember about correlational studies is that correlation does not imply causation . For example, let’s say that “marriage” has a negative correlation with “cancer,” meaning that people who are married are less likely to develop cancer throughout their lives than those who remain single. This doesn’t necessarily mean that one causes the other or that marriage directly avoids cancer. Maybe one variable does cause the other, but even if it does, in correlational studies it is not possible to determine the direction of causation or what is causing what. And it could also be that a third unknown variable is what causes the correlation. Keep this in mind as we see the correlational study examples.

You might be wondering: if correlational studies only show this – correlations – why are they important in the first place if you could just conduct an experiment manipulating the relevant variables and getting to more solid conclusions?

Indeed, the disadvantages of correlational studies are that they cannot establish causal relationships nor direction of causal influence, there is no control of the variables, they don’t explain behavior, and they could result in illusory correlations. Illusory correlation is when there is a perceived relationship between variables that does not exist, like “a higher ice cream consumption leads to higher crime rate.”

On the other hand, one of the main advantages of a correlational study is that it is a useful way to describe and analyze data especially in cases where experimental research would lead to ethical issues. Take for instance a research that aims to investigate the relationship between child abuse and coping abilities later in adulthood. You obviously can’t take a random group of healthy children and expose them to abusive or traumatic situations to compare it with a control group. In the earlier stages of psychology, researchers could get away with teaching a phobia to a baby or leading participants to think they had electrocuted someone to death and get away with it in the name of science. Such practices are no longer acceptable, and correlational studies play an important role in developing knowledge in psychology.

Other advantages are that correlational studies are usually less expensive and easier to conduct than experiments and they allow for general predictions. They can also represent the first steps in a new field of research, leading to further studies and advances.

Now that you’ve reviewed the main concepts of correlational studies and why they matter, let’s see three important research examples in different fields of psychology and understand how all of this comes to life!

Study #1: Biological Basis of Behavior – A Debate on Nature Versus Nurture

We can easily think of how our genetics influence physical traits like height, hair and eye color. But have you ever considered that your genetics might also play a big role on psychological traits like personality and interests? In 1990 psychologists Thomas Bouchard, David Lykken, and their associates investigated the influence our genes have in psychological attributes. This was hard research to accept at the time considering that for the past fifty years, psychology was mainly focused on behaviorism and how the environment determines behavior. Bouchard and Lykken’s study brought the debate of nature versus nurture back to the spotlight, determined to clarify the genes’ and the environment’s role in who we are.

For this, Bouchard and Lykken conducted a study with monozygotic twins (identical twins) who had been separated at birth and raised in different environments and compared the results with identical twins who had been raised together. Note that this is a study in which one couldn’t simply replicate the situation in laboratory conditions, so a correlational study was the best way to analyze the data of real individuals in this situation.

Bouchard and Lykken gathered a huge amount of data from each pair of twins. They used a variety of personality trait scales, aptitude and occupational interest inventories, intelligence tests, family environment scales and interviews. At the end of the first part of the research, Bouchard and Lykken had information concerning the twins’ physiological traits, intelligence, personality, psychological interests and social attitudes. Next, Bouchard and Lykken analyzed the correlation between the twins in all these fields.

The results were surprising. If the environment were responsible for individual differences, identical twins reared together should be more similar than identical twins reared apart. However, that was not what the results showed. Both categories of twins had a very similar correlational coefficient that neared +1.00. This means that regardless of having being raised in the same or different environments, each person was very similar to his twin in all traits.

Based on this we can say that genetic factors strongly influence human behavior in a variety of ways, both physiological and psychological. This could be seen as a problematic conclusion since we like to put so much importance on environmental factors like education and parenting as if that alone determined who we grow to be, what interests we develop, what careers we choose and so on. However, it is not the case for giving up on all our efforts in life thinking that eventually the genes will just take over and determine our fate.

Bouchard and Lykken emphasize that although intelligence is mainly determined by genetic factors, it can still be enhanced by experiences. Approximately 70% of intelligence is genetically determined, which means there is still 30% that can be worked on or ignored in the environment, either at home with parents or at school with teachers and mentors.

The same can be applied to the other traits. For example, even if your genes hold a natural strength towards communication skills, none of it will matter if you don’t get an opportunity in your environment to make that skill emerge and develop. Recent research on identical twins shows that the older the twins, the more similar they are. Another way to say this is that the more experiences you have, the more your genes can be expressed.

As human beings, we are determined by a combination of genetic and environmental influences. We are nature and nurture. Genes don’t mean destiny, but that doesn’t mean we can ignore their influences on our physiological and psychological characteristics. Let’s truly understand the components of our behavior and overcome the genes versus environment dichotomy.

Study #2: Personality – Who is in Control of Your Life?

Do you think your actions are what matter the most for the outcome of your life? Or do you think that external forces like fate and luck have a major influence in the paths you take? This kind of personal belief, called  locus of control , is associated with all sorts of behaviors we show in different areas of life. The locus of control and its influence on behavior was first studied by the influential psychologist and behaviorist  Julian Rotter in 1966.

Rotter proposed that the way individuals interpret what happens to them and where they put the responsibility for the events in their lives is an important part of the personality that can be used to predict tendencies in certain behaviors. When a person attributes the consequences of their behavior to factors such as luck, fate, and other greater forces, this person believes in an external locus of control . On the other hand, a person that identifies the consequences of her behavior to her own actions believes in an  internal locus of control .

To measure locus of control, Rotter developed a scale called I-E Scale, where “I” stands for “Internal” and “E” for “External.” The scale contains many pairs of statements, and the participant must choose the one that best fits his beliefs. A few examples of the pair of statements are “Many of the unhappy things in people’s lives are partly due to bad luck” versus “People’s misfortunes result from the mistakes they make,” and “Becoming a success is a matter of hard work; luck has little or nothing to do with it” versus “Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right time.”

After measuring the locus of control of a relevant quantity of participants, Rotter analyzed the correlation between internal or external locus of control and behaviors such as gambling, persuasion, smoking and achievement motivation. His findings demonstrated that:

• External individuals are more likely to gamble on risky bets while internal individuals prefer “sure things” and moderate odds on the long run.

• Internal individuals are more efficient on persuading peers to change their attitudes and more resistant to manipulation than external individuals.

• Because an internal locus of control is related to self-control, smokers tend to be significantly more external oriented. Those who successfully quit smoking are more internally oriented.

• Internal individuals are more motivated to achieve success than those who believe their lives are ruled by forces outside of their control. Examples of achievements included plans to attend college and time spent on homework.

So translating into terms of correlational studies, there was, for example, a strong correlation between “internal locus of control” and “achievement motivation,” as the correlation coefficient between these two variables neared +1.00.

Furthermore, Rotter identified three sources for the development of an external or internal locus of control: cultural differences, socioeconomic differences, and parenting style. In conclusion, Rotter proposed that locus of control is an important component of personality that explains the differences in behavior between two people who are faced with the same situation. This belief determines the way we interpret the consequences of our behavior and influences the actions we take in our lives.

Study #3: Motivation and Emotion – The Effects of Stress on Our Health

Nowadays it’s almost common sense that stress has an impact on our health, but this was not always an easily accepted idea. In 1967, Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe  studied the correlation between stress and illness. This was a psychosomatic  research because it studied the connection between psychological factors and physical problems.

Since it wouldn’t be ethical to put people under stressful situations to study whether or not they developed more health problems than a comfortable control group, this research was made using the correlational method. First, Holmes and Rahe designed a scale to measure stress in a variety of life situations, which included both happy and unhappy events, like Christmas and death of a spouse. This was because, according to Holmes and Rahe, stress happens in any situation where there is a need for psychological readjustment. This scale was called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS). After having a huge amount of participants answer the scale, Holmes and Rahe studied the correlations between high levels of stress and illnesses.

As you may have already predicted, a strong positive correlation between stress and illness was found. The participants who had had a low level of stress in the past six months reported an average of 1.4 illnesses for the same period. A medium level of stress had an average of 1.9 illnesses and a high level of stress, 2.1 illnesses.

However, we also know that stress is only one component that influences health, and the connection between stress and illness is way more complex than a correlational study can show. Aware of that, Holmes and Rahe cited other factors that must be taken into consideration to help predict psychosomatic problems. They are:

• Your experience with stressful events

• Your coping skills

• The strength of your immune system

• Your way of dealing with health problems when they occur

Psychologists and doctors now recognize that the vast majority of illnesses are influenced by psychological factors, either at their development or in the way they are treated. This puts an end to Descartes’ classical view of split mind and body. Humans are complex beings, who must be understood and treated in their wholeness for an efficient prevention of illness and promotion of health.

So what do you think of each of these correlational study examples? They are in different areas of psychology (Biological Bases of Behavior, Personality, and Motivation and Emotion), so you can encounter this type of research in many questions of the AP® Psychology exam. How do you understand the influence of genetics on your behavior? Is your locus of control more internal or external? What examples of psychosomatic problems have you seen in your day to day experience? Share in the comments below!

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AP Psychology Cheat Sheet

This comprehensive AP Psychology Cheat Sheet provides essential theories, key concepts, and critical information across all units of the AP Psychology curriculum. By summarizing complex topics into easy-to-understand points, it helps students efficiently review and reinforce their knowledge. The inclusion of specific theories, definitions, and example scenarios aids in the application of psychological principles, ensuring students are well-prepared for both multiple-choice and free-response questions on the exam. With clear, concise explanations and organized sections, this cheat sheet is an invaluable study aid for achieving a high score on the AP Psychology exam.

Unit 1: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

• Major Historical Figures : Wundt, Freud, Skinner, Watson
• Behavioral : Focuses on observable behavior.
• Cognitive : Studies mental processes.
• Humanistic : Emphasizes human growth potential.
• Psychoanalytic : Explores unconscious motives.
• Biopsychosocial : Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors.
• Branches of Psychology : Clinical, Developmental, Industrial-Organizational, Social
• Experiments : Determine cause and effect.
• Surveys : Collect data from a large group.
• Case Studies : In-depth analysis of individuals.
• Naturalistic Observation : Observing behavior in its natural context.
• Correlation Studies : Identify relationships between variables.
• Ethical Guidelines : Informed Consent, Confidentiality, Debriefing, Protection from Harm

Unit 2: Biological Bases of Behavior

• Nature vs. Nurture : Interaction of genetics and environment.
• Nervous System : Central (brain and spinal cord) and Peripheral (somatic and autonomic systems).
• Endocrine System : Hormones and their impact on behavior.
• Neural Transmission : Action potential, synapses, neurotransmitters.
• Limbic System : Emotions and drives.
• Cortex Areas : Sensory processing and motor functions.
• Brain Imaging Techniques : MRI, fMRI, PET, EEG
• States of Consciousness : Sleep stages, REM, circadian rhythms.
• Substance Use : Addiction, effects of psychoactive drugs.

Unit 3: Sensation and Perception

• Sensation : Process by which sensory receptors receive stimuli.
• Perception : Organizing and interpreting sensory information.
• Thresholds : Absolute and difference thresholds.
• Sensory Adaptation : Decreased sensitivity to constant stimulation.
• Vision : Rods, cones, visual processing in the brain.
• Hearing : Sound waves, cochlea, auditory processing.
• Other Senses : Taste (gustation), Smell (olfaction), Touch (somatosensation), Vestibular sense (balance).

Unit 4: Learning

• Key Terms : UCS, UCR, CS, CR, Generalization, Discrimination, Extinction
• Reinforcement Schedules : Fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval.
• Observational Learning : Learning by watching others; Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment.
• Social and Cognitive Factors : Influence of models and mental states on learning.

Unit 5: Cognitive Psychology

• Types of Memory : Sensory, short-term, long-term.
• Forgetting : Decay, interference, retrieval failure.
• Problem-Solving and Creativity : Algorithms, heuristics, insight.
• Decision Making : Biases, heuristics, rationality.
• Intelligence : Definitions and measurements, multiple intelligences, emotional intelligence.
• Language : Structure, development, and use.

Unit 6: Developmental Psychology

• Prenatal Development : Stages from conception to birth, teratogens.
• Childhood Development : Physical, cognitive, and social milestones.
• Adolescent Development : Identity, independence, peer relationships.
• Adulthood and Aging : Physical, cognitive, and social changes.
• Theories of Development : Piaget (cognitive stages), Erikson (psychosocial stages), Kohlberg (moral development).
• Gender and Sexual Orientation : Development of gender identity and sexual orientation.

Unit 7: Motivation, Emotion, and Personality

• Drive-Reduction Theory : Motivated to reduce internal tension.
• Incentive Theory : Motivated by external rewards.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs : Physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization.
• Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation : Driven by internal satisfaction vs. external rewards.
• James-Lange Theory : Emotion is the result of physiological responses.
• Cannon-Bard Theory : Emotion and physiological responses occur simultaneously.
• Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory : Emotion is based on physiological arousal and cognitive label.
• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) : Alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
• Coping Mechanisms : Problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies.
• Trait Theory : Big Five (OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism).
• Psychoanalytic Theory : Freud’s id, ego, superego.
• Humanistic Theory : Rogers’ self-concept, unconditional positive regard.
• Social-Cognitive Theory : Bandura’s reciprocal determinism, self-efficacy.
• Self-Report Inventories : MMPI, NEO-PI.
• Projective Tests : Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).

Unit 8: Clinical Psychology

• DSM-5 Criteria : Standard for diagnosing mental disorders.
• Neurodevelopmental Disorders : ADHD, Autism Spectrum Disorder.
• Schizophrenia Spectrum : Delusions, hallucinations.
• Mood Disorders : Depression, Bipolar Disorder.
• Anxiety Disorders : Generalized Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Phobias.
• Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders : OCD, Body Dysmorphic Disorder.
• Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders : PTSD, Acute Stress Disorder.
• Somatic Symptom Disorders : Conversion Disorder, Illness Anxiety Disorder.
• Dissociative Disorders : Dissociative Identity Disorder, Dissociative Amnesia.
• Feeding and Eating Disorders : Anorexia Nervosa, Bulimia Nervosa.
• Substance-Related Disorders : Substance Use Disorder.
• Personality Disorders : Borderline, Antisocial Personality Disorder.
• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT) : Changing negative thought patterns.
• Psychoanalysis : Exploring unconscious conflicts.
• Humanistic Therapy : Client-centered, focus on self-growth.
• Medications : Antidepressants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics.
• Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) : For severe depression.

Unit 9: Social Psychology

• Conformity : Adjusting behavior to align with group standards; Asch’s experiments.
• Obedience : Following direct commands, usually from an authority figure; Milgram’s experiments.
• Groupthink : Desire for harmony in a group results in irrational decision-making.
• Social Facilitation : Improved performance in the presence of others.
• Deindividuation : Loss of self-awareness in groups, leading to impulsive actions.
• Formation : Through direct experience, social learning.
• Change : Cognitive dissonance theory; discomfort leads to attitude change.
• Persuasion Techniques : Central route (logical argument), peripheral route (emotional appeal).
• Prejudice : Negative attitudes toward a group.
• Discrimination : Negative behaviors toward a group.
• Reducing Prejudice : Contact hypothesis, cooperative learning.
• Factors Influencing Attraction : Proximity, similarity, physical attractiveness.
• Altruism : Selfless concern for the well-being of others.
• Bystander Effect : Individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present.
• Aggression : Hostile or destructive behavior; influenced by biological, social, and environmental factors.

This cheat sheet is designed to provide a quick reference to essential concepts and key terms for the AP Psychology exam, helping you to study efficiently and effectively.

Case Examples

Examples of recommended interventions in the treatment of depression across the lifespan.

Children/Adolescents

A 15-year-old Puerto Rican female

The adolescent was previously diagnosed with major depressive disorder and treated intermittently with supportive psychotherapy and antidepressants. Her more recent episodes related to her parents’ marital problems and her academic/social difficulties at school. She was treated using cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT).

Chafey, M.I.J., Bernal, G., & Rossello, J. (2009). Clinical Case Study: CBT for Depression in A Puerto Rican Adolescent. Challenges and Variability in Treatment Response. Depression and Anxiety , 26, 98-103.  https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20457

Sam, a 15-year-old adolescent

Sam was team captain of his soccer team, but an unexpected fight with another teammate prompted his parents to meet with a clinical psychologist. Sam was diagnosed with major depressive disorder after showing an increase in symptoms over the previous three months. Several recent challenges in his family and romantic life led the therapist to recommend interpersonal psychotherapy for adolescents (IPT-A).

Hall, E.B., & Mufson, L. (2009). Interpersonal Psychotherapy for Depressed Adolescents (IPT-A): A Case Illustration. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38 (4), 582-593. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410902976338

© Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (Div. 53) APA, https://sccap53.org/, reprinted by permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd, http://www.tandfonline.com on behalf of the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (Div. 53) APA.

General Adults

Mark, a 43-year-old male

Mark had a history of depression and sought treatment after his second marriage ended. His depression was characterized as being “controlled by a pattern of interpersonal avoidance.” The behavior/activation therapist asked Mark to complete an activity record to help steer the treatment sessions.

Dimidjian, S., Martell, C.R., Addis, M.E., & Herman-Dunn, R. (2008). Chapter 8: Behavioral activation for depression. In D.H. Barlow (Ed.) Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual (4th ed., pp. 343-362). New York: Guilford Press.

Reprinted with permission from Guilford Press.

Denise, a 59-year-old widow

Denise is described as having “nonchronic depression” which appeared most recently at the onset of her husband’s diagnosis with brain cancer. Her symptoms were loneliness, difficulty coping with daily life, and sadness. Treatment included filling out a weekly activity log and identifying/reconstructing automatic thoughts.

Young, J.E., Rygh, J.L., Weinberger, A.D., & Beck, A.T. (2008). Chapter 6: Cognitive therapy for depression. In D.H. Barlow (Ed.) Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual (4th ed., pp. 278-287). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Nancy, a 25-year-old single, white female

Nancy described herself as being “trapped by her relationships.” Her intake interview confirmed symptoms of major depressive disorder and the clinician recommended cognitive-behavioral therapy. 

Persons, J.B., Davidson, J. & Tompkins, M.A. (2001). A Case Example: Nancy. In Essential Components of Cognitive-Behavior Therapy For Depression (pp. 205-242). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/10389-007

While APA owns the rights to this text, some exhibits are property of the San Francisco Bay Area Center for Cognitive Therapy, which has granted the APA permission for use.

Luke, a 34-year-old male graduate student

Luke is described as having treatment-resistant depression and while not suicidal, hoped that a fatal illness would take his life or that he would just disappear. His treatment involved mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, which helps participants become aware of and recharacterize their overwhelming negative thoughts. It involves regular practice of mindfulness techniques and exercises as one component of therapy.

Sipe, W.E.B., & Eisendrath, S.J. (2014). Chapter 3 — Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy For Treatment-Resistant Depression. In R.A. Baer (Ed.), Mindfulness-Based Treatment Approaches (2nd ed., pp. 66-70). San Diego: Academic Press.

Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.

Sara, a 35-year-old married female

Sara was referred to treatment after having a stillbirth. Sara showed symptoms of grief, or complicated bereavement, and was diagnosed with major depression, recurrent. The clinician recommended interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) for a duration of 12 weeks.

Bleiberg, K.L., & Markowitz, J.C. (2008). Chapter 7: Interpersonal psychotherapy for depression. In D.H. Barlow (Ed.) Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: a treatment manual (4th ed., pp. 315-323). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

Peggy, a 52-year-old white, Italian-American widow

Peggy had a history of chronic depression, which flared during her husband’s illness and ultimate death. Guilt was a driving factor of her depressive symptoms, which lasted six months after his death. The clinician treated Peggy with psychodynamic therapy over a period of two years.

Bishop, J., & Lane , R.C. (2003). Psychodynamic Treatment of a Case of Grief Superimposed On Melancholia. Clinical Case Studies , 2(1), 3-19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534650102239085

Several case examples of supportive therapy

Winston, A., Rosenthal, R.N., & Pinsker, H. (2004). Introduction to Supportive Psychotherapy . Arlington, VA : American Psychiatric Publishing.

Older Adults

Several case examples of interpersonal psychotherapy & pharmacotherapy

Miller, M. D., Wolfson, L., Frank, E., Cornes, C., Silberman, R., Ehrenpreis, L.…Reynolds, C. F., III. (1998). Using Interpersonal Psychotherapy (IPT) in a Combined Psychotherapy/Medication Research Protocol with Depressed Elders: A Descriptive Report With Case Vignettes. Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research , 7(1), 47-55.