how to cite a presentation in harvard

Harvard Referencing Guide: PowerPoint Presentations

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Audiovisual Media - Powerpoint Presentation

PowerPoint Pr esentation

E xample -  Presentation available online and accessible by anyone

The full reference should generally include

• Year (in round brackets)
• Title of the presentation (in italics)
• [PowerPoint presentation] in square brackets
• Available at: URL
• (Accessed: date)

In-text citation

Full reference for the Reference List

Example: PowerPoint presentation from a learning management system such as the VLE

• Author or tutor
• Year of publication (in round brackets)
• Title of the presentation (in single quotation marks)
• Module code: module title (in italics)
• Available at: URL of the VLE

Example : Full reference for the Reference List

Audiovisual Material

Film / movie

TV programme

PowerPoint presentation

YouTube video

Harvard Referencing Guide: A - Z

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Harvard Style Guide: Lectures/ presentations

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Lectures or presentations

Reference : Author(s) Last name, Initial(s). (Year) 'Title of lecture/presentation' [Medium], Module Code: Module title . Institution. Day Month.

Example : De Burca, M. (2014) ' Geriatric radiography services in Ireland' [Lecture], RDGY30300: Clinical Practice of Radiography . University College Dublin. 11 May.

In-Text-Citation :

• Author(s) Last name (Year)
• (Authors(s) Last name, Year)
• De Burca (2014) described the complicated system of radiographic services...
• There is a complicated system of geriatric radiographic services in Ireland (De Burca, 2014).

Still unsure what in-text citation and referencing mean? Check here .

Still unsure why you need to reference all this information? Check here . 

Lectures or presentations (Online/Recorded)

Reference : Author(s) Last name, Initial(s). (Year) 'Title of lecture/presentation' [Medium], Module Code: Module title . Institution/Venue. Day Month. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).

Example : Dunphy, S. (2021) ‘History of Irish women in law’ [Recorded lecture], HIS2300: Modern Ireland . University College Dublin. 7 January. Available at: https://brightspace.ucd.ie/his2300/ (Accessed: 7 March 2021).

• Dunphy (2021) outlines the impact of the absence of female law makers...
• The absence of Irish female law makers has led to a system with a blindness to key aspects of daily life (Dunphy, 2021).

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How to Reference in a PowerPoint Presentation Harvard

PowerPoint presentations are a popular tool for presenting information and data in a visually engaging way. However, with the vast amount of information that can be included in a presentation, it is important to ensure that all sources are properly cited. This is where the Harvard referencing system comes in. In this article, we will discuss the importance of Harvard referencing in PowerPoint presentations and provide a comprehensive guide on how to use it effectively.

Table of Contents

Why Harvard referencing is important in PowerPoint presentations

Harvard referencing is important in PowerPoint presentations because it helps to establish credibility and authenticity. When sources are properly cited, it shows that the presenter has conducted thorough research and has used credible sources to support their arguments. Additionally, Harvard referencing helps to prevent plagiarism by giving credit to the original authors of the information used in the presentation.

Furthermore, Harvard referencing also allows the audience to easily locate and access the sources used in the presentation. This is particularly important in academic or professional settings where the audience may want to further explore the topic or verify the information presented. By providing clear and accurate citations, the presenter is facilitating the audience’s ability to engage with the material beyond the presentation itself.

Understanding the Harvard referencing system

The Harvard referencing system is a widely used referencing system that uses brackets in the text to cite sources, and a reference list at the end of the presentation to provide more detail about each cited source. The reference list should be organized alphabetically by the author’s last name, or by the title if there is no author. Each reference should include the author’s name, publication date, title of the work, place and publisher of publication for books, and the URL for online sources.

It is important to note that the Harvard referencing system is not the only referencing system available. Other commonly used referencing systems include APA, MLA, and Chicago. It is important to check with your instructor or supervisor to determine which referencing system is preferred for your specific project or assignment. Additionally, there are many online tools and resources available to help with the formatting and organization of references in the Harvard referencing system, such as citation generators and reference management software.

How to format in-text citations in Harvard style

In-text citations in Harvard style should be placed in brackets immediately after the information being cited. The citation should include the author’s last name and the year of publication. If the author’s name is mentioned in the sentence, only the publication year needs to be included in the citation.

For example:

“According to Smith (2020), the use of PowerPoint presentations has increased in recent years.”

“The use of PowerPoint presentations has increased in recent years (Smith, 2020).”

It is important to note that in Harvard style, if you are citing a source with multiple authors, you should include all of their last names in the citation, up to three authors. If there are more than three authors, you can use “et al.” after the first author’s name. For example:

“Several studies have shown the benefits of regular exercise (Jones, Smith, & Lee, 2018)”

“The benefits of regular exercise have been well documented (Jones et al., 2018).”

How to create a bibliography in Harvard style for PowerPoint presentations

The bibliography in Harvard style should be included at the end of the presentation and should list all sources used in alphabetical order by the author’s last name.

The format for a book reference is as follows:

Last name, First initial. (Year published). Title of book. Publisher.

The format for an online source is as follows:

Last name, First initial. (Year published). Title of article. Website name. URL.

It is important to note that when citing sources in Harvard style, you should also include the page numbers for any direct quotes used. Additionally, if you are citing a source that has multiple authors, you should list all of their names in the order they appear on the source. If there are more than three authors, you can list the first author followed by “et al.” Finally, make sure to double-check your bibliography for accuracy and completeness before submitting your presentation.

Tips for citing sources in PowerPoint presentations using Harvard style

When citing sources in PowerPoint presentations, it is important to be consistent and use the same citation style throughout the presentation. Additionally, it is important to include all necessary information in the reference list to make it easier for readers to locate the sources.

One important aspect of citing sources in PowerPoint presentations using Harvard style is to include in-text citations for any information or ideas that are not your own. This helps to give credit to the original author and avoid plagiarism. In-text citations should include the author’s last name and the year of publication, and should be placed within parentheses at the end of the sentence or phrase where the information is used.

Common mistakes to avoid when referencing in a PowerPoint presentation

Common mistakes when referencing in PowerPoint presentations include forgetting to include in-text citations, using incorrect formatting for references, and failing to include all necessary information in the reference list.

Another common mistake is not properly paraphrasing information from sources. It is important to put information into your own words and give credit to the original source. Simply copying and pasting information without proper citation is considered plagiarism and can have serious consequences.

Additionally, it is important to make sure that all sources used in the presentation are reliable and credible. Using sources that are not reputable can damage the credibility of the presentation and the presenter. It is important to do thorough research and use sources that are trustworthy and relevant to the topic being presented.

How to use Microsoft Office tools to create Harvard references in PowerPoint presentations

Microsoft Office tools such as Word and PowerPoint have built-in tools for creating references in Harvard style. To use these tools, select the “References” tab in PowerPoint and select the Harvard referencing style. You can then enter the necessary information for each source and let the software format the reference list for you.

It is important to note that while the software can format the reference list for you, it is still your responsibility to ensure that the references are accurate and complete. Make sure to double-check the information you enter and verify that it matches the source material. Additionally, if you are using sources that are not included in the software’s database, you will need to manually enter the reference information.

Examples of properly formatted Harvard references in PowerPoint presentations

Some examples of properly formatted Harvard references in PowerPoint presentations include:

Smith, J. (2020). The use of PowerPoint presentations. PublishingCo.

Online source:

Williams, S. (2019). The benefits of PowerPoint presentations. BlogName. https://www.blog.com/powerpoint-benefits/

Another example of a properly formatted Harvard reference in a PowerPoint presentation is:

Journal article:

Johnson, R. & Lee, K. (2018). The effectiveness of PowerPoint presentations in the classroom. Journal of Education, 45(2), 67-78. doi: 10.1080/00220671.2018.1434345

This reference includes the author’s names, the year of publication, the title of the article, the name of the journal, the volume and issue number, and the page numbers. It also includes a digital object identifier (DOI) which is a unique identifier for the article.

Best practices for creating a professional and accurate reference list in PowerPoint presentations

Some best practices for creating a professional and accurate reference list in PowerPoint presentations include being consistent with the citation style, including all necessary information for each source, and double-checking all references for accuracy and proper formatting.

Another important aspect to consider when creating a reference list in PowerPoint presentations is to ensure that the sources cited are relevant and credible. It is important to use sources that are reputable and reliable, such as peer-reviewed articles, academic journals, and books from reputable publishers.

Additionally, it is important to properly format the reference list according to the citation style being used. This includes proper indentation, punctuation, and capitalization. It is also important to ensure that the reference list is presented in a clear and organized manner, making it easy for the audience to read and understand.

How to handle referencing different types of sources, such as books, journals, and websites, in a PowerPoint presentation

Referencing different types of sources may require slightly different formatting in Harvard style. For example, book references include the place and publisher of publication, while online sources include the URL. It is important to refer to a comprehensive style guide for Harvard referencing to ensure proper formatting for each type of source.

In addition to proper formatting, it is also important to accurately cite your sources in your PowerPoint presentation. This means including in-text citations on each slide where you use information from a source, as well as a complete reference list at the end of your presentation. Failure to properly cite sources can result in accusations of plagiarism and damage to your academic or professional reputation.

Importance of citing sources correctly to avoid plagiarism

Citing sources correctly is important to avoid plagiarism, which is the act of presenting someone else’s work as your own. Plagiarism is a serious academic offense and can lead to severe consequences. Proper citation gives credit to the original authors and helps to maintain academic integrity.

In addition to avoiding plagiarism and maintaining academic integrity, proper citation also allows readers to locate and verify the sources used in your work. This helps to establish the credibility and reliability of your research. Furthermore, citing sources correctly demonstrates your understanding and appreciation of the contributions made by other scholars in your field.

How to edit and update references in a PowerPoint presentation

To edit or update references in a PowerPoint presentation, open the reference list and make the necessary changes to the information. It is important to ensure that all references are consistent with the established citation style and that all necessary information is included.

Ways to integrate your references seamlessly into your PowerPoint presentation design

To integrate references seamlessly into a PowerPoint presentation, consider using footnotes instead of in-text citations, or displaying the references in a separate slide. It is also important to use a legible font size and format the reference list using clear headings and bullet points.

Creating an annotated bibliography using the Harvard referencing system for your PowerPoint presentation

An annotated bibliography is a list of sources with brief summaries or evaluations of each source. To create an annotated bibliography using Harvard referencing, include the same information as a standard reference, followed by a brief summary of the source. The annotation should be a maximum of 150 words.

Harvard referencing is an important aspect of PowerPoint presentations that helps to establish credibility, prevent plagiarism, and maintain academic integrity. By following the guidelines outlined in this article, you can effectively use Harvard referencing in your own presentations and ensure that all sources are properly cited.

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To be made up of:

• Author or tutor.
• Year of publication (in round brackets).
• Title of presentation (in single quotation marks).
• [PowerPoint presentation]
• Module code: module title (in italics).
• Available at: URL of VLE.
• (Accessed: date).

In-text citation:

(Whittingham, 2014)

Reference list:

Whittingham, D. (2014). 'History of warfare' [PowerPoint presentation].  L252: War studies.  Available at:  http://intranet.bham.ac.uk  (Accessed: 7 June 2014).

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• How it works

How to Cite a PowerPoint in Harvard Style?

Published by Alaxendra Bets at August 30th, 2021 , Revised On August 23, 2023

A PowerPoint is a .ppt extension file that is mostly used to prepare lecture presentations. Both teachers and students use it. Citing a PowerPoint is different from citing an online book or a PDF file in Harvard referencing.

Some institutions require students to cite and reference their (the students’) lecturers’ presentations. But some don’t. It should be checked with one’s institution first whether citing and referencing a PowerPoint presentation is even required or not.

In-Text Citation and Reference Formats with Examples

Citing and referencing unpublished powerpoint files.

If a student’s own lecturer course notes or PowerPoint slides are being sources in a text, they will most probably not be published or accessible online for readers. Format for citing and referencing such PowerPoint material in Harvard style is:

In-text citation: (Author Surname Year) OR (Author Surname Year: powerpoint presentation)

Reference list entry: Author’s Surname, Initial(s). Year. ‘Title.’ [PowerPoint presentation] Date. Institution name, Place of institution.

Note: Since the title of the PowerPoint file is written in single quotes within the reference list entry, it is NOT italicised.

For example:

In-text citation: Dlamini (2006) … OR

…. (Dlamin, 2006) OR

“…..” (Dlamini, 2006: PowerPoint presentation)

Reference list entry: Dlamini, N. 2006. ‘E-commerce trends in retail in South Africa.’ [PowerPoint Presentation] 4 November. Business Solutions Inc., Midrand.

Citing and referencing Published PowerPoint Files

The general Harvard format for citing and referencing PowerPoint slides that are accessible online is:

In-text citation:

Reference list entry: Author’s Surname, Initial(s). Year. ‘Title.’ [PowerPoint presentation] Date. Institution name, Place of the institution.

Author’s Surname, Initial(s). Year. Title in italics, [PowerPoint presentation] Date. Institution Name. Place of Institution. Date Accessed.

Note: Harvard contains the above two, slightly different reference list formats for PowerPoint files. Whichever needs are used depends on one’s host institution referencing guidelines and which format it has specified.

It should also be noted here that while referencing published PowerPoint files in Harvard style, the title of the file since it is not in single quotes, will be italicised.

In-text citation: (Bloggs 2016: powerpoint presentation) OR Bloggs (2016)

Reference list entry: Bloggs, J. (2016) Research Skills [PowerPoint presentation to BBS Year 4] WD096: Communication skills , Waterford Institute of Technology. 3 May.

Lastly, the phrase ‘PowerPoint Presentation’ is only mentioned when the entire in-text citation is within (). Otherwise, in the case of narrative in-text citations (for example, Bloggs (2016 mentions…), the phrase is left out.

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Frequently Asked Questions

To cite a PowerPoint in Harvard Style: Include the presenter’s last name, initials. (Year). Title of presentation [PowerPoint presentation]. Name of course or event, Institution. URL (if accessed online).

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In Harvard referencing style, the basics of in-text citation for personal communications.

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Referencing a PowerPoint Presentation

IN-TEXT CITATION

Dlamini (2006) ...

.... (Dlamin, 2006)

"....." (Dlamini, 2006: PowerPoint presentation)

FORMAT OF A REFERENCE TO A POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

Author’s surname, Initials. Year. ‘Title.’ [PowerPoint presentation] Date.  Institution, place.

Please note that in this case, the title is not italicised.

EXAMPLE OF A REFERENCE TO A POWERPOINT PRESENTATION

Dlamini, N. 2006. ‘E-commerce trends in retail in South Africa.’ [PowerPoint Presentation] 4 November.  Business Solutions Inc., Midrand.

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Powerpoint slides: Reference format

A basic reference list entry for Powerpoint slides:

• Author or authors; the surname is followed by initials
• Year of compilation of Powerpoint slides 
• Title of presentation (in italics)
• [Lecturer notes or Powerpoint slides]
• Available: URL [Date of access]

Kunka, J.L. 2018.  Conquering the comma  [PowerPoint slides]. Available:  http://owl.english.purdue.edu/workshops//pp/index.html#presentations  [15 March 2018].

PowerPoint slides: Examples

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A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples

Published on 14 February 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 15 September 2023.

Referencing is an important part of academic writing. It tells your readers what sources you’ve used and how to find them.

Harvard is the most common referencing style used in UK universities. In Harvard style, the author and year are cited in-text, and full details of the source are given in a reference list .

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Table of contents

Harvard in-text citation, creating a harvard reference list, harvard referencing examples, referencing sources with no author or date, frequently asked questions about harvard referencing.

A Harvard in-text citation appears in brackets beside any quotation or paraphrase of a source. It gives the last name of the author(s) and the year of publication, as well as a page number or range locating the passage referenced, if applicable:

Note that ‘p.’ is used for a single page, ‘pp.’ for multiple pages (e.g. ‘pp. 1–5’).

An in-text citation usually appears immediately after the quotation or paraphrase in question. It may also appear at the end of the relevant sentence, as long as it’s clear what it refers to.

When your sentence already mentions the name of the author, it should not be repeated in the citation:

Sources with multiple authors

When you cite a source with up to three authors, cite all authors’ names. For four or more authors, list only the first name, followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sources with no page numbers

Some sources, such as websites , often don’t have page numbers. If the source is a short text, you can simply leave out the page number. With longer sources, you can use an alternate locator such as a subheading or paragraph number if you need to specify where to find the quote:

Multiple citations at the same point

When you need multiple citations to appear at the same point in your text – for example, when you refer to several sources with one phrase – you can present them in the same set of brackets, separated by semicolons. List them in order of publication date:

Multiple sources with the same author and date

If you cite multiple sources by the same author which were published in the same year, it’s important to distinguish between them in your citations. To do this, insert an ‘a’ after the year in the first one you reference, a ‘b’ in the second, and so on:

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A bibliography or reference list appears at the end of your text. It lists all your sources in alphabetical order by the author’s last name, giving complete information so that the reader can look them up if necessary.

The reference entry starts with the author’s last name followed by initial(s). Only the first word of the title is capitalised (as well as any proper nouns).

Sources with multiple authors in the reference list

As with in-text citations, up to three authors should be listed; when there are four or more, list only the first author followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Reference list entries vary according to source type, since different information is relevant for different sources. Formats and examples for the most commonly used source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal with no DOI

• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Sometimes you won’t have all the information you need for a reference. This section covers what to do when a source lacks a publication date or named author.

No publication date

When a source doesn’t have a clear publication date – for example, a constantly updated reference source like Wikipedia or an obscure historical document which can’t be accurately dated – you can replace it with the words ‘no date’:

Note that when you do this with an online source, you should still include an access date, as in the example.

When a source lacks a clearly identified author, there’s often an appropriate corporate source – the organisation responsible for the source – whom you can credit as author instead, as in the Google and Wikipedia examples above.

When that’s not the case, you can just replace it with the title of the source in both the in-text citation and the reference list:

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Harvard referencing uses an author–date system. Sources are cited by the author’s last name and the publication year in brackets. Each Harvard in-text citation corresponds to an entry in the alphabetised reference list at the end of the paper.

Vancouver referencing uses a numerical system. Sources are cited by a number in parentheses or superscript. Each number corresponds to a full reference at the end of the paper.

A Harvard in-text citation should appear in brackets every time you quote, paraphrase, or refer to information from a source.

The citation can appear immediately after the quotation or paraphrase, or at the end of the sentence. If you’re quoting, place the citation outside of the quotation marks but before any other punctuation like a comma or full stop.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

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Caulfield, J. (2023, September 15). A Quick Guide to Harvard Referencing | Citation Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 29 August 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-style/

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There are different versions of the Harvard referencing style. This guide is a quick introduction to the commonly-used Cite Them Right version. You will find further guidance available through the OU Library on the Cite Them Right Database .

For help and support with referencing and the full Cite Them Right guide, have a look at the Library’s page on referencing and plagiarism . If you need guidance referencing OU module material you can check out which sections of Cite Them Right are recommended when referencing physical and online module material .

This guide does not apply to OU Law undergraduate students . If you are studying a module beginning with W1xx, W2xx or W3xx, you should refer to the Quick guide to Cite Them Right referencing for Law modules .

Table of contents

In-text citations and full references.

• Secondary referencing
• Page numbers
• Citing multiple sources published in the same year by the same author

Full reference examples

Referencing consists of two elements:

• in-text citations, which are inserted in the body of your text and are included in the word count. An in-text citation gives the author(s) and publication date of a source you are referring to. If the publication date is not given, the phrase 'no date' is used instead of a date. If using direct quotations or you refer to a specific section in the source you also need the page number/s if available, or paragraph number for web pages.
• full references, which are given in alphabetical order in a  reference list at the end of your work and are not included in the word count. Full references give full bibliographical information for all the sources you have referred to in the body of your text.

To see a reference list and intext citations check out this example assignment on Cite Them Right .

Difference between reference list and bibliography

a reference list only includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text.

a bibliography includes sources you have referred to in the body of your text AND sources that were part of your background reading that you did not use in your assignment.

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Examples of in-text citations

You need to include an in-text citation wherever you quote or paraphrase from a source. An in-text citation consists of the last name of the author(s), the year of publication, and a page number if relevant. There are a number of ways of incorporating in-text citations into your work - some examples are provided below. Alternatively you can see examples of setting out in-text citations in Cite Them Right .

Example with one author:

Almeroth-Williams, T. (2019) City of Beasts: How Animals Shaped Georgian London . Manchester: Manchester University Press.

RSPCA (2024) Caring for cats and kittens . Available at: https://www.rspca.org.uk/adviceandwelfare/pets/cats (Accessed: 1 August 2024).

Example with two or three authors:

Grayling, A. and Ball, B. (2024) ' Philosophy is crucial in the age of AI', The Conversation , 1 August. Available at: https://theconversation.com/philosophy-is-crucial-in-the-age-of-ai-235907 (Accessed: 1 August 2024).

Chu, M., Leonard, P. and Stevenson, F. (2012) ' Growing the Base for Citizen Science: Recruiting and Engaging Participants', in J.L. Dickinson and R. Bonney (eds.) Citizen Science: Public Participation in Environmental Research . Ithaca: Cornell University Press, pp. 69-81.

Example with four or more authors:

Young, H.D. et al. (2015) Sears and Zemansky's university physics . San Francisco, CA: Addison-Wesley.

Note: You can choose one or other method to reference four or more authors (unless your School requires you to name all authors in your reference list) and your approach should be consistent.

Online module materials

(Includes written online module activities, audio-visual material such as online tutorials, recordings or videos).

When referencing material from module websites, the date of publication is the year you started studying the module.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

OR, if there is no named author:

The Open University (Year of publication/presentation) 'Title of item'. Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Rietdorf, K. and Bootman, M. (2022) 'Topic 3: Rare diseases'. S290: Investigating human health and disease . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1967195 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

The Open University (2022) ‘3.1 The purposes of childhood and youth research’. EK313: Issues in research with children and young people . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1949633&section=1.3 (Accessed: 24 January 2023).

You can also use this template to reference videos and audio that are hosted on your module website:

The Open University (2022) ‘Video 2.7 An example of a Frith-Happé animation’. SK298: Brain, mind and mental health . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=2013014&section=4.9.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

The Open University (2022) ‘Audio 2 Interview with Richard Sorabji (Part 2)’. A113: Revolutions . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1960941&section=5.6 (Accessed: 22 November 2022).

Note: if a complete journal article has been uploaded to a module website, or if you have seen an article referred to on the website and then accessed the original version, reference the original journal article, and do not mention the module materials. If only an extract from an article is included in your module materials that you want to reference, you should use secondary referencing, with the module materials as the 'cited in' source, as described above.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of message', Title of discussion board , in Module code: Module title . Available at: URL of VLE (Accessed: date).

Fitzpatrick, M. (2022) ‘A215 - presentation of TMAs', Tutor group discussion & Workbook activities , in A215: Creative writing . Available at: https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/forumng/discuss.php?d=4209566 (Accessed: 24 January 2022).

Note: When an ebook looks like a printed book, with publication details and pagination, reference as a printed book.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title . Edition if later than first. Place of publication: publisher. Series and volume number if relevant.

For ebooks that do not contain print publication details

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) Title of book . Available at: DOI or URL (Accessed: date).

Bell, J. (2014) Doing your research project . Maidenhead: Open University Press.

Adams, D. (1979) The hitchhiker's guide to the galaxy . Available at: http://www.amazon.co.uk/kindle-ebooks (Accessed: 23 June 2021).

Note: Books that have an editor, or editors, where each chapter is written by a different author or authors.

Surname of chapter author, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of chapter or section', in Initial. Surname of book editor (ed.) Title of book . Place of publication: publisher, Page reference.

Franklin, A.W. (2012) 'Management of the problem', in S.M. Smith (ed.) The maltreatment of children . Lancaster: MTP, pp. 83–95.

Note: When referencing a chapter of an edited book, your in-text citation should give the author(s) of the chapter.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference.

If accessed online:

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Journal , volume number (issue number), page reference. Available at: DOI or URL (if required) (Accessed: date).

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326.

Shirazi, T. (2010) 'Successful teaching placements in secondary schools: achieving QTS practical handbooks', European Journal of Teacher Education , 33(3), pp. 323–326. Available at: https://libezproxy.open.ac.uk/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/log... (Accessed: 27 January 2023).

Barke, M. and Mowl, G. (2016) 'Málaga – a failed resort of the early twentieth century?', Journal of Tourism History , 2(3), pp. 187–212. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/1755182X.2010.523145

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference.

Surname, Initial. (Year of publication) 'Title of article', Title of Newspaper , Day and month, Page reference if available. Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Mansell, W. and Bloom, A. (2012) ‘£10,000 carrot to tempt physics experts’, The Guardian , 20 June, p. 5.

Roberts, D. and Ackerman, S. (2013) 'US draft resolution allows Obama 90 days for military action against Syria', The Guardian , 4 September. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/04/syria-strikes-draft-resolut... (Accessed: 9 September 2015).

Surname, Initial. (Year that the site was published/last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Organisation (Year that the page was last updated) Title of web page . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Robinson, J. (2007) Social variation across the UK . Available at: https://www.bl.uk/british-accents-and-dialects/articles/social-variation... (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

The British Psychological Society (2018) Code of Ethics and Conduct . Available at: https://www.bps.org.uk/news-and-policy/bps-code-ethics-and-conduct (Accessed: 22 March 2019).

Note: Cite Them Right Online offers guidance for referencing webpages that do not include authors' names and dates. However, be extra vigilant about the suitability of such webpages.

Surname, Initial. (Year) Title of photograph . Available at: URL (Accessed: date).

Kitton, J. (2013) Golden sunset . Available at: https://www.jameskittophotography.co.uk/photo_8692150.html (Accessed: 21 November 2021).

stanitsa_dance (2021) Cossack dance ensemble . Available at: https://www.instagram.com/p/COI_slphWJ_/ (Accessed: 13 June 2023).

Note: If no title can be found then replace it with a short description.

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Home / Guides / Citation Guides / Harvard Referencing / Harvard Referencing Style Examples

Harvard Referencing Style Examples

What is harvard referencing style.

Citing the work of others helps to make your work more impactful. It could be direct quotes , paraphrases of someone else’s ideas, statistical figures, or summaries of main points. There are different methods for crediting resources; Harvard referencing style (or Harvard style for short) is one such method.  

Harvard style follows the author-date system and includes two types of citations:

• in-text citations  
• references  

In-text citations

In-text citations  are included within the text of the main document. They are placed next to the information you are referencing, so the reader is clear on what information came from another source.

In-text citation example:

(Bloom, 2005) or Bloom (2005) wrote…

Every in-text citation has a corresponding reference in a reference list. A reference includes additional details about each source referenced. This enables the reader to refer to the original source, should they need to.  

The reference list is a detailed list of all the works consulted while writing. It is placed at the end of the document.  

Reference example for the above in-text citation:

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Bloom, H. (2005) Novelists and novels . Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers.

Below are Harvard referencing examples of in-text citations and reference list entries for the different kinds of sources that you might use.  

In-text citation structure and example:  

(Author Surname, Publication Year)

(Ozeki, 2013)  

Reference structure and example:  

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title. Place of Publication: Publisher.  

Ozeki, R. (2013) A tale for the time being . New York: Penguin Books.  

Book with two or three authors

For books with two or three authors, the names of all the authors are given in both the in-text citation and the reference entry.  

(1 st Author Surname and 2 nd Author Surname, Publication Year)  

(Lodge and Wood, 2000)

1 st Author Surname, Initials. and 2 nd Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Place of Publication: Publisher.  

Lodge, D. and Wood, N. (2000) Modern criticism and theory: a reader. 2nd edn. Harlow: Longman.  

Book with four or more authors

If the number of authors is four or more, only the first author’s name is used followed by ‘et al.’ , italicised, which is Latin for ‘and others’.

(1 st Author Surname et al., Publication Year)

(Akmajian et al. , 2014)

Reference structure and example:

1 st Author Surname, Initials. e t al. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Place of Publication: Publisher.

Akmajian, A. et al. (2014) Linguistics: an introduction to language and communication . 6th edn. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Book with translator  

For books with a translator, only the author’s name is included in the in-text reference.   The translator is given in the reference list entry, along with the language from which it was translated. This comes right after the title.

(Dostoevsky, 1993)

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) Title of the text in italics. Translated from the Language by Translator Initials. Surname. Place of Publication: Publisher.  

Dostoevsky, F. (1993) Crime and punishment . Translated from the Russian by R. Pevear and L. Volokhonsky. London: Vintage.  

Journal articles

Journal articles are highly credible sources of information. The example below was authored by more than three individuals, so the term ‘ et al. ’ is used in lieu of listing all authors.

In-text citation structure and example:

(Lomolino et al., 2020)

Journal reference list entries often have extra information, such as article title, volume, issue number, page numbers, or a specific date.

With journals, the volume number follows the title. If there are any specific parts of the issue, numbered or organized according to months, these details are mentioned alongside in brackets.  

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) ‘Article title’, Journal Name , Volume(Issue), Page(s). Available at: URL or DOI (Accessed: date).  

Lomolino, M. et al. (2013) ‘Of mice and mammoths: generality and antiquity of the island rule’, Journal of Biogeography , 40(8), pp. 1427-1439. Available at: https://www.jstor/org/stable/23463664 (Accessed: 10 September 2020).

Newspaper or magazine

(Ingle, 2020)

Author Surname, Initials. (Publication Year) ‘Article title’, Newspaper/Magazine Name , Day Month Published, Page(s). Available at: URL or DOI (Accessed: date).  

Ingle, S. (2020) ‘Geraint Thomas insists he has nothing to prove at road world championships’, The Guardian, 24 September. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/sprot/2020/sep/24/geraint-thomas-insists-he-has-nothing-to-prove-at-road-world-championships-cycling (Accessed: 11 October 2020).

  For online articles, you should always include the URL and date of access.

Social media and other online sources

(Author/Poster Name, Publication Year)

(Cramer, 2020)

References for social media posts have a similar format to online articles. However, sometimes they don’t have a true ‘title’. For example, for Twitter posts, the full text of the tweet is used as the title, unless the tweet is overly long.

Author/Poster Surname, Initial(s). [@Handle] (Publication year) Content of Post [Social Media Site] Day Month Published. Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).

Cramer, K. [@SenKevinCramer] (2020) Supreme Court vacancies are an important issue to the people I serve [Twitter] 24 September. Available at: https://twitter.com/SenKevinCramer/status/1308915548244398081 (Accessed: 25 September 2020).

The format for citing social media is different than the format for citing regular websites and web pages. This guide on how to cite a website in Harvard style provides details on how to cite web content that is not posted on social media.

(Image Creator or Photographer Surname, Publication Year)

(Pinneo, 2020)

Print reference structure:  

Author, Initial(s). (Year) Title of the Image [Photograph]. Place of Publication: Publisher (if available).

Online reference structure and example:

If the image is on the Internet, then the place of publication and the publisher name are replaced by the image URL and access date.

Author, Initial(s). (Year) Title of the Image .   Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).  

Pinneo, B.J. (2020) Dusty dreams . Available at: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/photo-of-the-day/2020/09/dusty-dreams/ (Accessed: 23 September 2020).

In-text reference structure and example:  

(Film Title , Year Released )

( Pride & Prejudice , 2005)

For films, the title of the film is used in place of the author name.  

Title of the Film (Year Released) Directed by Director Initial. Surname. Available at: Name of Streaming Service (Accessed: Day Month Year).  

Pride & Prejudice (2005) Directed by J. Wright. UK: Universal Pictures. Available at: Netflix (Accessed: 29 September 2020).

Published October 29, 2020.

Harvard Formatting Guide

Harvard Formatting

• et al Usage
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• Page Numbers
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How to cite a PowerPoint presentation

PowerPoint is a popular presentation program owned by Microsoft Inc. It is part of the company’s Office Suite products range, along with other products such as the very popular Microsoft Word and Excel, among others. The program was initially developed by Forethought Inc which first launched it in April 1987.

It was originally compatible with only Macintosh computers before Microsoft acquired both the company and product in July 1987. With PowerPoint, users can design anything from simple slide shows to complex presentations. The program is widely used to create business presentations but is also useful for educational and other purposes.

As noted above, PowerPoint presentations can be used for several purposes which can be cited accordingly.

Citing a PowerPoint presentation in APA [7 th edition]

The following format is for citations involving a classroom website and learning management systems [LMS] like Blackboard, Canvas, Brightspace, etc. Because an LMS requires users to log in, the home page URL of the LMS should be included instead of the full URL of the work.

Citing a PowerPoint presentation in MLA [8 th edition]

Classroom lectures presented with PowerPoint slides can be cited in MLA format. Note however that this will be a bit different from MLA PowerPoint citations that are not classroom-based. The format for lecture presentations is captured in the following diagram.

Citing a PowerPoint presentation in Harvard [Cite Them Right 10 th edition]

Like in all the other styles mentioned above, PowerPoint presentations can be cited in a variety of ways. Below is a citation format for a virtual learning environment [VLE]. A VLE is a system that provides digital solutions to the education industry in terms of facilitating conducive and active communication and learning environments between instructors and learners. In tertiary institutions, VLEs are usually a component of the broader learning management system (LMS) albeit both terms are often used interchangeably.

Citing a PowerPoint presentation in the Chicago/Turabian style [17 th edition]

The Chicago style format uses two methods of citation – the author-date style which uses a reference list rather than a bibliography and the notes-bibliography style which makes use of footnotes and/or endnotes.

Turabian is the student version of  The Chicago Manual of Style . It is meant for high school and college students who are involved in papers such as theses, dissertations, etc that are not for publication. In contrast, The Chicago Manual of Style  is meant for professional scholars and publishers. However, both the Turabian and the Chicago Manual of Style are compatible.

Author-date format

Notes and bibliography format

Note that some instructors may require only notes for lectures and presentations and hence bibliographic entries may not be necessary. The student should therefore check his or her assignment rubric for any information on this or inquire from the course lecturer. URLs and DOIs are meant for only courses accessed over the internet.

Since they emerged in 1987, PowerPoint presentations have been used in many spheres of professional life. They have become very popular in the education industry especially in the tertiary institutions where they are used in seminar presentations, lectures, theses/dissertations, assignments, etc. Their popular use in education has brought about the need to cite the more formally, according to the various citation styles such as the ones mentioned above.

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Citing a lecture in Harvard referencing style

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Published February 8, 2021. Updated August 15, 2021.

To cite a lecture in Harvard style, it’s helpful to know basic information including the speaker name, presentation title, presentation type, module name, institution or venue name, and date.

The templates and examples below are based on the 11th edition of the book  Cite Them Right  by Richard Pears and Graham Shields. This page is not affiliated with  Cite Them Right  but uses the text for standardization purposes, as Harvard style can vary widely between institutions.

If you’re trying to cite a lecture, the  Chegg Writing Harvard referencing generator  could help. Help protect your paper against accidental plagiarism with the Chegg Writing  plagiarism checker  and  citation generator .

When citing a lecture in Harvard style, the speaker’s surname and the year are used in the narrative and parenthetical.

In-text citation template and example:

Speaker Surname (Year)

Blash (2015)

Parenthetical:

(Speaker Surname, Year)

(Blash, 2015)

Reference list entry template and example:

Speaker Surname, F.M. (Year) ‘Title of lecture’ [Medium].  Module code: Module title (if known) . Institution or venue. Day Month.

Blash, G. (2015) ‘The basics of good project management’ [Lecture]. California Southern University. 18 March.

Note that if the lecture is recorded and being viewed online, “Recorded lecture” will be used as the medium in square brackets, and the URL and access date will be included at the end of the citation following the presentation date, formatted as: Available at: URL (Accessed: Day Month Year).

For more style basics, read this  Harvard referencing in-text citations  guide and this article on formatting  Harvard referencing style papers .

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Citations provide information to help your audience locate the sources you consulted when writing a paper or preparing a presentation. Some of your instructors will specify which citation format you should use; others will tell you to choose your own citation format as long as you use it consistently. The most common citation formats are MLA (Modern Language Association) style, which is primarily used for papers in the humanities; APA (American Psychological Association) style, which is primarily used for papers in the social sciences; and Chicago style (The Chicago Manual of Style), which is used for both humanities and social science papers.

Some of your courses at Harvard will require you to use other citation formats. Some science courses may require you to use the citation style of the American Medical Association (AMA). AMA style is considered a standard citation format for academic writing in the sciences and is used in many textbooks and medical journals. The AMA Manual of Style is available online . The American Chemical Society publishes its own style guide , which you may be asked to use in chemistry courses. The Harvard Department of Economics provides students with a departmental style guide, which you can find  here . If you are not sure which format to use for a specific course, consult your instructor.

Both APA and MLA styles require you to credit your sources in two ways. First, you must include a parenthetical citation in the text of your paper that indicates the source of a particular quotation, paraphrased statement or idea, or fact; second, you must include a list of references at the end of your paper that enables readers to locate the sources you have used. You can read more about MLA style here and APA style here .

Chicago style also requires you to credit your sources both in the text and at the end of your paper. Chicago offers guidance on two types of in-text citations–notes or parenthetical citations. You can read more about Chicago style here .

If you have questions about which citation style to use, you should always check with your instructor.

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How to Cite a PowerPoint Presentation With Examples

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PowerPoint presentations contain credible information that one may use for preparing scholarly papers. Basically, the required details for making bibliographic entries include the speaker’s name, presentation’s title and date, publication year, database’s name, and URL. Also, the arrangement of these details changes with the citation method. For example, the speaker’s names in APA and Harvard should have initials. On the other hand, one should not include initials in MLA and Chicago/Turabian formatting styles. Then, other differences that one should note include the presentation title. In MLA and Chicago/Turabian, the designation must appear inside rounded quotation marks and in title case. However, writers should use sentence case for the title. In turn, APA, MLA, and Harvard utilize parenthetical in-text citations, while Chicago format requires footnotes. Besides, one should not include the presentation year in MLA in-text citations. As for punctuation marks, it used in all four referencing styles, differing significantly. Hence, a prudent writer must observe rules on how to cite a PowerPoint presentation to enhance the overall quality of bibliographic entries.    

General Aspects of Citing a PowerPoint Presentation in APA, MLA, Harvard, and Chicago/Turabian

PowerPoint presentations contain credible information that one can use for citation purposes. Basically, regular exhibitions include perspectives that differ from existing subject matters. In this case, they provide information and detail that advance knowledge in specific areas of study. Experts, in particular subject areas, like researchers and tutors, prepare PowerPoint presentations to communicate a topic’s significant concepts. In turn, they include evidence-based arguments that support their perceptions towards a specific field of study. Then, various citation methods, like APA, MLA, Harvard, and Chicago/Turabian, allow writers to acknowledge details contained in presentations when preparing their work. Also, these styles include specific guidelines that help to avoid plagiarism. Hence, one must follow the necessary formatting guidelines for each referencing style.

Citing PowerPoint Presentations

Various referencing styles provide the necessary guidelines to prepare bibliographic entries. For example, APA, MLA, Harvard, and Chicago/Turabian formats require writers to provide accurate and adequate bibliographic details when citing PowerPoint presentations. However, four referencing methods contain different rules when citing the necessary information. Hence, the following are the guidelines on how to cite a PowerPoint presentation in APA, MLA, Harvard, and Chicago/Turabian referencing styles:

1. Citing a PowerPoint Presentation in APA 7

Scholarly papers formatted in APA 7 require one to include adequate bibliographic details of a PowerPoint presentation. For instance, one should consist of both a bibliographic entry and an in-text citation. Besides, students should follow the necessary punctuation marks when preparing a bibliographic entry.

General Aspects

The bibliographic entry of a PowerPoint presentation in APA 7 should contain the speaker’s name, year of publication, the title, and URL. Basically, one may find published PowerPoint presentations from websites. In such cases, PowerPoint citation entries for APA should contain a valid Internet link that can lead readers to the specific file used. Basically, the first item in the bibliographic entry is the speaker’s name. In this case, students should use the inverted form by writing the presenter’s surname, followed by the relevant initials. Besides, one should use a comma to separate the surname and the first initial. Then, a period must follow each initial of the speaker’s names. Also, the year of publication must appear inside rounded brackets. In turn, the title of the PowerPoint presentation should appear in sentence case and be italicized in APA 7. Only the first word and proper nouns should begin with a capital letter. As a result, the URL should be the last item in the entry of the APA PowerPoint citation. However, a period should separate these details. 

Scheme of an APA Format PowerPoint Presentation

The following is a scheme that shows the bibliographic entry of a PowerPoint presentation in APA. Basically, the system contains all the necessary details and the correct punctuation marks. In turn, the term “Retrieved from” should precede the URL link of the presentation.

• Author, A. A. (year of publication).  Title of presentation [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from URL

Format of an APA In-Text Citation

APA uses parenthetical in-text citations. As a rule, each in-text citation should contain the speaker’s name and year of publication. In practice, one should use the speaker’s surname when preparing in-text citations. Basically, credible in-text citations should include the slide number that contains the quoted or paraphrased information. In turn, a comma should separate the details provided in the quotation. Hence, the following is the scheme that one should use to write an in-text citation for a PowerPoint presentation in APA:

• (Surname, Year of Publication, Slide Number)

2. Citing a PowerPoint Presentation in MLA 9

Scholarly papers prepared in MLA should contain a bibliographic entry for the PowerPoint presentation. Basically, the entry should include the speaker’s name, title, year of publication, and URL link. Also, one should use the inverted form of the presenter’s name. In this case, one should include the surname followed by the first name. However, one should not use initials when using the speaker’s two names compared to APA. Then, the presentation’s title should appear inside double quotation marks. Besides, one should ensure that it appears in the title case, where all main words begin with a capital letter. Further on, the date of publication may include month and year. As a result, the URL should be the last item in the entry. In turn, commas should separate the speaker’s name, publication year, and URL. Moreover, periods should appear between the speaker’s first name, presentation title, and publication date. 

Structure of the MLA Citation for a PowerPoint Presentation

Some presentations may contain the database’s name, course, and location. In this case, one should include such details to make bibliographic entries credible. Besides, one should consist of the date he or she accessed the presentation as the last item. Hence, the following is a scheme that one should use to prepare bibliographic entry of the PowerPoint presentation in MLA:

• Author Last Name, First Name. “Presentation Title . ” Database, Month Year, URL. Date Accessed
• Instructor’s Last Name, First Name. “Presentation Title.” Title of Course/Class, Date of presentation, Location of presentation.

Scheme for an MLA In-Text Citation:

MLA presentation uses parenthetical in-text citations. Basically, one should include the speaker’s name and the slide number containing the cited information. In this case, one should separate these details with space. Hence, the following is the possible scheme that one should use to develop the MLA in-text citation.

• (Surname Slide Number)

3. Citing a PowerPoint Presentation in Harvard

When citing a PowerPoint presentation, the bibliographic entry in Harvard should begin with the author’s name. Basically, one should begin with the surname followed by the initials. In this case, the year of publication for a PowerPoint presentation should appear in rounded brackets. Besides, the presentation’s title should appear in the italicized form. Then, one should include the term “online” in square brackets followed by the database’s name. Also, the phrase “Available at:” should precede the URL of the presentation. Finally, the date when students have accessed the website should appear inside square brackets. In turn, the Harvard in-text citation should include the speaker’s name and presentation date. Hence, the following are schemes that one may use in Harvard style:

Structure of a PowerPoint Presentation in Harvard:

• Surname, Initial. (Year). Presentation Title . [online] database’s name. Available at: URL [Accessed Date].

Format of a Harvard In-Text Citation for a PowerPoint Presentation:

• (Surname, Presentation’s Year)

4. Citing a PowerPoint Presentation in Chicago/Turabian

The bibliographic entry should begin with the speaker’s names in the inverted form. In this case, one should not use initials. Moreover, the presentation’s title should appear inside double quotation marks. Then, other essential details include the database’s name and year of publication. In turn, the last item should be the URL of the website that contains the PowerPoint Presentation. Hence, the following is the scheme that one should use.

Scheme for a PowerPoint Presentation Citation in Chicago/Turabian:

• Surname, First Name. “Presentation’s Title.” Database’s name, presentation year. URL.

Format of a Chicago/Turabian In-Text/Footnote Citation:

The in-text citation in Chicago/Turabian should appear as a footnote. Hence, the following scheme shows the format that one should follow when preparing the required note:

• First Name Surname, “Presentation’s Title,” database’s name, presentation year, URL.

Examples of Actual Citations in APA, MLA, Harvard, and Chicago/Turabian

Lewis, J. (2014). Sustainable marketing . Prezi.Com. https://prezi.com/nj3bcp_if2gc/sustainable-marketing/

Lewis, James. “Sustainable Marketing.” Prezi.Com , 2014, prezi.com/nj3bcp_if2gc/sustainable-marketing/. Accessed 3 Aug. 2020.

Lewis, J. (2014). Sustainable marketing . [online] prezi.com. Available at: https://prezi.com/nj3bcp_if2gc/sustainable-marketing/ [Accessed 3 Aug. 2020].

4. Chicago/Turabian

Lewis, James. “Sustainable Marketing.” prezi.com, 2014. https://prezi.com/nj3bcp_if2gc/sustainable-marketing/.

The footnote in Chicago for the source presented above should appear as:

• James Lewis, “Sustainable Marketing,” prezi.com, 2014, https://prezi.com/nj3bcp_if2gc/sustainable-marketing/.

Summing Up on How to Cite a PowerPoint Presentation in APA, MLA, Harvard, and Chicago/Turabian Styles

PowerPoint presentations contain credible information that one may use for preparing scholarly papers. Basically, the required details for preparing bibliographic entry include the speaker’s name, presentation’s title and date, publication year, database’s name, and URL. Moreover, the arrangement of these details changes with the citation method. In turn, one should follow the specific guidelines for the APA, MLA, Harvard, and Chicago/Turabian formats. Hence, one should use the following tips:

For APA 7, one should use the scheme:

• Author, A. A. (year of publication). Title of presentation [PowerPoint slides].Retrieved from URL

For MLA 9, one should use the scheme:

For Harvard, one should follow the format:

For Chicago/Turabian, one should use the format:

Note that APA, MLA, and Harvard formats use parenthetical in-text citations, while the Chicago/Turabian style utilizes footnotes.

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How to Cite and Reference a Conference Paper in the Harvard Style

• 2-minute read
• 8th March 2023

Conference papers are a common resource for academics . But how do you cite and reference one as a source using Harvard? Here’s our quick guide. We’ll focus on the Open University style , but Harvard conventions can vary between institutions, so make sure you check your own style guide too.

Citing a Conference Paper

An in-text citation includes the name and year in parentheses, like this:

If you use a direct quote, you’ll need to add page numbers as well:

If you’re citing two authors, include both surnames separated by and . If you’re citing three or more authors, list the first surname followed by “et al.” If you’re missing an author’s name, you can use the name of the organization that published the paper. And if you’re missing a date, you can use “n.d.”

Referencing a Conference Paper

When adding a conference paper to a Harvard reference list, follow this format:

Author, A. (year of publication) “Title of Paper”, Title of Conference. Location, date of conference. Place of publication, Publisher, page numbers.

If you found the conference paper online, format the entry this way:

Author, A. (year of publication) “Title of Paper,” Title of Conference. Location, date of conference. Publisher [Online]. Available at URL (Accessed date).

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If you’re referencing an unpublished conference paper, you can omit the publisher information:

Author, A. (year of publication) “Title of Paper,” paper presented at Title of Conference . Location, date of conference.

Variations of Harvard Referencing

As we’ve said, the Harvard style has many variations. We’ve looked at the Open University version in this post, but make sure you check your institution’s style guide. And when in doubt, be sure to keep everything consistent.

Of course, you can always send your work our way! Our editors are Harvard referencing experts and will make sure you’ve formatted your references and citations correctly. They’ll also check your work for grammar, spelling, punctuation, and more! Try it out for free today.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the format for a harvard citation.

Harvard uses author–date citations, with the author’s name and the year of publication in parentheses: (Smith, 2012).

How do you add an online conference paper to a Harvard reference list?

Follow a typical Harvard reference format but omit the location, add [Online] after the publisher name, and include the URL as well as the date you accessed the site.

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How to put References or cite Sources in PowerPoint

Put references or cite sources in powerpoint, 1] in-text citation, 2] image citation, 3] create reference list, 4] use online citation generator, komalsrivastava@twc.

Free Harvard Citation Generator

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• Archive material
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• Online image or video
• Presentation
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What is the Harvard Referencing System?

The Harvard citation style is a system that students, writers and researchers can use to incorporate other people’s quotes, findings and ideas into their work in order to support and validate their conclusions without breaching any intellectual property laws. The popular format is typically used in assignments and publications for humanities as well as natural, social and behavioural sciences.

It is a parenthetical referencing system that is made up of two main components:

• In-text citations including the author’s surname and the year of publication should be shown in brackets wherever another source has contributed to your work
• A reference list outlining all of the sources directly cited in your work

While in-text citations are used to briefly indicate where you have directly quoted or paraphrased a source, your reference list is an alphabetized list of complete Harvard citations that enables your reader to locate each source with ease. Each entry should be keyed to a corresponding parenthetical citation in the main body of your work, so that a reader can take an in-text citation and quickly retrieve the source from your reference list.

Note that some universities, and certain disciplines, may also require you to provide a bibliography. This is a detailed list of all of the material you have consulted throughout your research and preparation, and it will demonstrate the lengths you have gone to in researching your chosen topic.

‘Harvard referencing’ is an umbrella term for any referencing style that uses the author name and year of publication within the text to indicate where you have inserted a source. This author-date system appeals to both authors and readers of academic work. Scholars find the format an economical way of writing, and it is generally more accessible to the reader as there are no footnotes crowding the page. Only the name of the author, the publication date of the source and, if necessary, the page numbers are included in the parenthetical citations, for example: (Joyce, 2008).

Use the Cite This For Me Harvard style referencing generator to create your fully-formatted in-text references and reference list in the blink of an eye. Stop giving yourself extra pain and work for no reason and sign up to Cite This For Me today – your only regret will be that you didn’t use our citation generator sooner!

Popular Harvard Referencing Examples

• Chapter of a book
• Conference proceedings 
• Court case 
• Dissertation 
• Encyclopedia article 
• Image online or video
• Presentation or lecture
• Video, film, or DVD

Cite This For Me Harvard Referencing Guide

The following guide provides you with everything you need to know to do justice to all your hard work and get a mark that reflects those sleepless nights. If you’re not sure how to format your Harvard style citations, what citations are, or are simply curious about the Cite This For Me citation generator, our guide will answer all of your questions while offering you a comprehensive introduction to the style. Keep reading to find out why you need to use a referencing system, how to add citations in the body of your assignment, and how to compile a reference list.

Sometimes, students do not encounter citing until they embark on to degree-level studies, yet it is a crucial academic skill that will propel you towards establishing yourself in the academic community. It’s a common mistake to leave citing and creating a complete and accurate bibliography until the very last minute, but with the Cite This For Me Harvard referencing generator you can cite-as-you-go.

So, if you need a helping hand with your referencing then why not try Cite This For Me’s automated citation generator ? The generator accesses knowledge from across the web, assembling all of the relevant information into a fully-formatted reference list that clearly presents all of the sources that have contributed to your work. Using this Harvard reference generator to cite your sources enables you to cross the finishing line in style.

It is important to bear in mind that there is a plethora of different citation styles out there – the use of any particular one depends on the preference of your college, subject, professor or the publication you are submitting the work to. If you’re unsure which style you should be using, consult your tutor and follow their guidelines. If your lecturer or department does not ask you to use a particular style, we recommend using the Harvard referencing system because it is simple to use and easy to learn.

The powerful citation generator above can auto-generate citations in 7,000+ styles. So, whether your professor prefers that you use the MLA format , or your discipline requires you to adopt the APA citation or Chicago citation style , we have the style you need. Cite This For Me also provides citation generators and handy style guides for styles such as ASA , AMA or IEEE . To accurately create citations in a specific format, simply sign up to Cite This For Me for free and select your chosen style.

Are you struggling with citing an unfamiliar source type? Or feeling confused about whether to cite a piece of common knowledge? This guide will tell you everything you need to know to get both your parenthetical Harvard citations and reference list completed quickly and accurately.

Why Do I Need to Cite?

Harvard referencing can be a confusing task, especially if you are new to the concept, but it’s absolutely essential. In fact, accurate and complete referencing can mean the difference between reaching your academic goals and damaging your reputation amongst scholars. Simply put – referencing is the citing of sources you have utilised to support your essay, research, conference or article, etc.

Even if you are using our Harvard style citation generator, understanding why you need to cite will go a long way in helping you to naturally integrate the process into your research and writing routine.

Firstly, whenever another source contributes to your work you must give the original author the appropriate credit in order to avoid plagiarism, even when you have completely reworded the information. The only exception to this rule is common knowledge – e.g., Brazil is a country in South America. While plagiarism is not always intentional, it is easy to accidentally plagiarize your work when you are under pressure from imminent deadlines, you have managed your time ineffectively, or if you lack confidence when putting ideas into your own words. The consequences can be severe; deduction of marks at best, expulsion from college or legal action from the original author at worst. Find out more here.

This may sound overwhelming, but using our Harvard citation generator can help you avoid plagiarism and carry out your research and written work thoughtfully and responsibly. We have compiled a handy checklist to follow while you are working on an assignment.

How to avoid plagiarism:

• Formulate a detailed plan – carefully outline both the relevant content you need to include, as well as how you plan on structuring your work
• Keep track of your sources – record all of the relevant publication information as you go (e.g., If you are citing a book you should note the author or editor’s name(s), year of publication, title, edition number, city of publication and name of publisher). Carefully save each quote, word-for-word, and place it in inverted commas to differentiate it from your own words. Tired of interrupting your workflow to cite? Use our Harvard referencing generator to automate the process.
• Manage your time effectively – make use of time plans and targets, and give yourself enough time to read, write and proofread
• When you are paraphrasing information, make sure that you use only your own words and a sentence structure that differs from the original text
• Every quote or paraphrase should have a corresponding reference in the text. In addition, a full reference is needed on the final page of the project.
• Save all of your research and citations in a safe place – organise and manage your Harvard style citations

If you carefully check your college or publisher’s advice and guidelines on citing and stick to this checklist, you should be confident that you will not be accused of plagiarism.

Secondly, proving that your writing is informed by appropriate academic reading will enhance your work’s authenticity. Academic writing values original thought that analyzes and builds upon the ideas of other scholars. It is therefore important to use Harvard style referencing to accurately signpost where you have used someone else’s ideas in order to show that your writing is based on knowledge and informed by appropriate academic reading. Citing your sources will demonstrate to your reader that you have delved deeply into your chosen topic and supported your thesis with expert opinions.

Here at Cite This For Me we understand how precious your time is, which is why we created our Harvard citation generator and guide to help relieve the unnecessary stress of citing. Escape assignment-hell and give yourself more time to focus on the content of your work by using the Cite This For Me citation management tool.

Harvard Referencing Guidelines by School

• Anglia University Harvard Referencing
• Anglia Ruskin University
• Bath University
• Bournemouth University Harvard Referencing
• Cape Peninsula University of Technology
• Cardiff University Harvard Referencing
• City University London
• Coventry University Harvard Referencing
• Cranfield Harvard
• DMU Harvard Referencing
• Durham University Business School
• Edge Hill University Harvard Referencing
• European Archaeology
• Imperial College University Harvard Referencing
• Institute of Physics
• Leeds University Harvard Referencing
• King’s College London
• LSBU Harvard Referencing
• Manchester Business School
• MMU Harvard Referencing
• Newcastle University
• Northwest University
• Oxford Brookes University
• Oxford Centre for Mission Studies
• SHU Harvard Referencing
• Staffordshire University Harvard Referencing
• Swinburne University of Technology
• The Open University
• UCA Harvard Referencing
• University of Abertay Dundee
• University of Birmingham
• University of Cape Town
• University of Gloucestershire
• University of Greenwich Harvard
• University of Hull
• University of Kent – Harvard
• University of Limerick
• University of Melbourne
• University of Northampton
• University of Sunderland
• University of Technology, Sydney
• University of West London
• UWE Harvard Referencing
• UWS Harvard Referencing
• Wolverhampton University Harvard Referencing
• York University

How Do I Create and Format In-text Harvard Style Citations?

In-text citations are the perfect way to seamlessly integrate sources into your work, allowing you to strengthen the connection between your own ideas, and the source material that you have found, with ease. It is worth noting that in-text citations must be included in your assignment’s final word count.

When adopting Harvard style referencing in your work, if you are inserting a quote, statement, statistic or any other kind of source information into the main body of your essay you should:

• Provide the author’s surname and date of publication in parentheses right after the taken information or at the end of the sentence

There are many assumptions when it comes to the information processing approach to cognition… (Lutz and Huitt, 2004).

• If you have already mentioned the author in the sentence, Harvard referencing guidelines require you to only enter the year of publication in parentheses, directly after where the author’s surname is mentioned.

In the overview of these developmental theories, Lutz and Huitt (2004) suggest that…

• If you are quoting a particular section of the source (rather than the entire work), you should also include a page number, or page range, after the date, within the parenthetical Harvard citation

“…the development of meaning is more important than the acquisition of a large set of knowledge or skills …” (Lutz and Huitt, 2004, p.8), which means that …

• Note that if the source has four or more authors, you do not need to write out all of their surnames; simply use the first author’s surname followed by the abbreviation ‘et al.’ (meaning ‘and others’).

The results showed that respondents needed to reach out to multiple health agencies in order to cover the costs of their services (Wolbeck Minke et al., 2007).

• If you are reading a source by one author and they cite work by another author, you may cite that original work as a secondary reference. You are encouraged to track down the original source – usually this is possible to do by consulting the author’s reference list – but if you are unable to access it, the Harvard referencing guidelines state that you must only cite the source you did consult as you did not actually read the original document. Include the words ‘cited in’ in the in-text citation to indicate this.

Fong’s 1987 study (cited in Bertram 1997) found that older students’ memory can be as good as that of young people…

(Fong, cited in Bertram 1997)

Why use a Harvard referencing tool? As well as saving you valuable time, the Cite This For Me generator can help you easily avoid common errors when formatting your in-text citations. So, if you’re looking for an easy way to credit your source material, simply login to your Cite This For Me account to copy, save and export each in-text Harvard citation.

How Do I Format My Reference List?

Utilizing and building on a wide range of relevant sources is one way of impressing your reader, and a comprehensive list of the source material you have used is the perfect platform to exhibit your research efforts. A reference list is always required when you cite other people’s work within your assignment, and the brief in-text Harvard style citations in your work should directly link to your reference list.

As a general rule a reference list includes every source that you have cited in your work, while a bibliography also contains any relevant background reading which you have consulted to familiarise yourself with the topic (even those sources that are never mentioned in the narrative). Your Harvard referencing bibliography should start on its own page, with the same formatting as the rest of the paper and aligned to the left with the sources listed alphabetically. Certain fields ask you to provide an annotated bibliography that includes your full citations with the addition of notes. These notes are added to further analyze the source, and can be of any length.

Many people use the terms ‘reference list’ and ‘bibliography’ interchangeably, and if you are using the Harvard reference style you may be required to provide a bibliography as well as a reference list, so be sure to check this with your tutor.

Follow these guidelines when compiling your reference list:

• Start your reference list on a new page at the end of your document
• General formatting should be in keeping with the rest of your work
• Use ‘Reference List’ as the heading
• Copy each of your full-length Harvard citations into a list
• Arrange the list in alphabetical order by the author’s last name (titles with no author are alphabetized by the work’s title, and if you are citing two or more sources by the same author they should be listed in chronological order of the year of publication)
• When there are several works from one author or source, they should be listed together but in date order – with the earliest work listed first
• Italicize titles of books, reports, conference proceedings etc. For journal articles, the title of the journal should be printed in italics, rather than the title of the journal article
• Capitalize the first letter of the publication title, the first letters of all main words in the title of a journal, and all first letters of a place name and publisher

Creating and managing your reference list with the Cite This For Me Harvard referencing generator will help improve the way you reference and conduct research.

Reference list / bibliography examples:

• Book, one author:

Bell, J. (2010) Doing your research project . 5th edn. Maidenhead: Open University Press.

• One author, book, multiple editions:

Hawking, S.W. (1998) A brief history of time: From the big bang to black holes . 10th edn. New York: Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group.

• Chapter in an edited book:

Jewsiewicki, B. (2010). ‘Historical Memory and Representation of New Nations in Africa’, in Diawara, M., Lategan, B., and Rusen, J. (eds.) Historical memory in Africa: Dealing with the past, reaching for the future in an intercultural context . New York: Berghahn Books, pp. 53-66.

If all information resembles a book, use the template for a book reference

If a page number is unavailable, use chapter number. URL links are not necessary, but can be useful. When including a URL, include the date the book was downloaded at the end of the Harvard citation:

Available at: URL (Downloaded: DD Month YYYY)

• More than three authors, journal article*:

Shakoor, J., et al. (2011) ‘A prospective longitudinal study of children’s theory of mind and adolescent involvement in bullying’, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 53(3), pp. 254–261. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02488.x.

• Conference papers:

Drogen, E. (2014) ‘Changing how we think about war: The role of psychology’, The British Psychological Society 2014 Annual Conference . The ICC, Birmingham British Psychological Society, 07-09 May 2014.

• Web page, by an individual:

Moon, M. (2019) Ubisoft put an official video game design course inside a video game . Available at https://www.engadget.com/2019/09/25/ubisoft-video-game-design-course/ (Accessed 19 November 2019).

• Web page, by a company or organization:

RotoBaller (2019) NFL player news . Available at https://www.rotoballer.com/player-news?sport=nfl (Accessed 17 September 2019).

For both types of web page references, the date the page was published or updated is placed in parentheses immediately following the author information. If a date is missing from the source, place (no date) next to the author’s name and make sure to include an accessed date at the end of the reference.

Are you struggling to find all of the publication information to complete a reference? Did you know that our Harvard citation generator can help you?

Time is of the essence when you’re finishing a paper, but there’s no need to panic because you can compile your reference list in a matter of seconds using the Cite This For Me Harvard style citation generator. Sign in to your Cite This For Me account to save and export your reference list.

Harvard Referencing Formatting Guidelines

Accurate referencing doesn’t only protect your work from plagiarism – presenting your source material in a consistent and clear way also enhances the readability of your work. Closely follow the style’s formatting rules on font type, font size, text-alignment and line spacing to ensure that your work is easily legible. Before submitting your work check that you have formatted your whole paper – including your reference list – according to the style’s formatting guidelines.

How to format in Harvard referencing:

• Margins: 2.5cm on all sides
• Shortened title followed by the page number in the header, aligned to the right
• Double-space the entirety of the paper
• ½ inch indentation for every new paragraph (press tab bar)
• Suggested fonts: Times New Roman, Arial and Courier New for Windows; Times New Roman, Helvetica and Courier for Mac, 12pt size. Ensure that all Harvard citations are in the same font as the rest of the work
• Reference list on a separate page at the end of the body of your work

Even when using a Harvard citation generator, always check with your professor for specified guidelines – there is no unified style for the formatting of a paper. Make sure that you apply the recommended formatting rules consistently throughout your work.

A Brief History of the Harvard Reference Style

The author-date system is attributed to eminent zoologist Edward Laurens Mark (1847-1946), Hersey professor of anatomy and director of Harvard’s zoological laboratory. It is widely agreed that the first evidence of Harvard referencing can be traced back to Mark’s landmark cytological paper (Chernin, 1988). The paper breaks away from previous uses of inconsistent and makeshift footnotes through its use of a parenthetical author-date citation accompanied by an explanatory footnote.

• Parenthetic author-year citation, page 194 of Mark’s 1881 paper:

[…] The appearance may be due solely to reflection from the body itself. (Comp. Flemming, ‘78b, p. 310.*)

• Mark’s rationale for his Harvard citational scheme:

*The numbers immediately following an author’s name serve the double purpose of referring the reader to the list (p. 591) where the titles of papers are given, and of informing him at once of the approximate date of the paper in question.

A tribute dedicated to Mark in 1903 by 140 students credits Mark’s paper with having ‘introduced into zoology a proper fullness and accuracy of citation and a convenient and uniform method of referring from text to bibliography’ (Parker, 1903). Today Harvard referencing is widely considered one of the most accessible styles and, although it originated in biology, these days it is used across most subjects – particularly in the humanities, history and social science.

The Evolution of the Harvard Referencing Style

Due to its simplicity and ease of use, the format has become one of the most widely used citation styles in the world. Unlike many citing styles there is no official manual, but institutions such as colleges offer their own unique Harvard reference style guide, and each has its own nuances when it comes to punctuation, order of information and formatting rules. Simply go to the Cite This For Me website to login to your Cite This For Me account and search for the version you need. Make sure you apply consistency throughout your work.

It is increasingly easy for writers to access information and knowledge via the internet, and in turn both the style’s guidelines and our citation generator are continually updated to include developments in electronic publishing. The Cite This For Me Harvard style citation generator currently uses the Cite Them Right 10th Edition, which has evolved in recent years to match the rapidly advancing digital age. In order to avoid plagiarism, you must be cautious about pulling information from the internet, and ensure that you accurately cite all source material used in your written work – including all online sources that have contributed to your research.

Key differences from previous Harvard referencing Cite Them Right editions:

• Previous editions required printed books and eBooks to be referenced differently – in the 10th edition, both are now referenced using the same template (if all the necessary information is available). An Ebook is considered to be the digital format of a published book (or a book that is only published in digital format) that is meant for reading on an electronic device.
• URLs are no longer a requirement for digital media if the information provided in the Harvard citation is sufficient to find the source without it. They should be included if the source is difficult to find, or pieces of source information – such as an author name – are missing.
• When a source has more than 3 authors, use the abbreviation “et al.” instead of listing each out.

These days students draw on a diverse range of digital sources to support their written work. Whether you are citing a hashtag on Instagram , a podcast or a mobile app, the Cite This For Me generator will take care of your Harvard citations, regardless of the type of source you want to cite. So don’t be held back by sources that are difficult to cite – locating unusual source material will help your work to stand out from the crowd.

How Do I Create Accurate Harvard Citations?

Creating complete and correctly formatted citations can be a challenge for many writers, especially when documenting multiple source types. Our primary goal at Cite This For Me is to offer support to students and researchers across the globe by transforming the way in which they perceive citing. We hope that after using our citation generator and reading this Harvard referencing guide, what was once considered an arduous process, will be viewed as a highly-valued skill that enhances the quality of your work.

Disheartened by the stressful process of citing? Got a fast-approaching deadline? Using the Cite This For Me fast, accessible and free generator makes creating accurate citations easier than ever, leaving more time for you to focus on achieving your academic goals.

Create a free account to add and edit each Harvard citation on the spot, import and export full projects or individual entries. Things get even easier with Cite This For Me for Chrome – an intuitive, handy browser extension that allows you to create and edit a citation while you browse the web. Use the extension on any webpage that you want to cite, and add it to your chosen project without interrupting your workflow.

The Cite This For Me citation management tool is here to help you, so what are you waiting for? Accurate Harvard citations are just a click away!

Reference List

Chernin, E. (1988) The ‘Harvard System’: A mystery dispelled. Available at: http://www.uefap.com/writing/referenc/harvard.pdf (Accessed: 4 July 2016).

Parker, G. (ed.) (1903) Mark anniversary volume. New York: Henry Holt.

Manage all your citations in one place

Create projects, add notes, and cite directly from your browser. Sign up for Cite This For Me today!

Referencing your work: Harvard 2024

• Getting started
• Using sources in writing
• Harvard Hull
• Footnotes Hull
• Referencing videos
• Harvard 2024
• Footnotes 2024

Harvard Referencing

*new for 2024-25* this guidance has been updated to reflect how students access many materials. returning students may continue to using previous guidance which can be found here - legacy guidance, please note your tutors may also still be transitioning from earlier guidance so some learning materials may include examples that do not exactly match this style..

If you Google 'Harvard Referencing' you will find that every university has its own guide and that they all differ slightly in terms of punctuation, formatting and the order of information. 'Harvard Referencing' refers to any referencing style that uses the author name and year of publication within the text to indicate that information or ideas have been sourced from elsewhere. For this reason, it is sometimes referred to as 'Author Date' referencing. This guide gives University of Hull students definitive examples of how to reference different materials using Harvard referencing for all their submitted work.

Jump to content:

• Formatting citations
• Citing figures and tables
• Referencing anything not in the list

Books (print and electronic)

• Articles (journal, newspaper or magazine)
• Official Governmetal and NGO documents

Health documents

Other documents.

• Web pages, social media and other online sources
• Computer code or programs

Images, artwork and maps

Audiovisual sources, live performances, personal communications etc, self-translated works.

If you prefer, a pdf version of this information can be downloaded here:

  Harvard Referencing.pdf

A one page guide with the most common sources for your reference list can be downloaded here:

  Quick Reference Guide (Common Reference Types)

Put this guide where you can easily find it:

  Add to your Canvas Dashboard

This is the standardised referencing system to be used by all departments, faculties and schools at the University of Hull who ask their students to use the Harvard referencing system. Use these guidelines when referencing manually. We do, however, recommend that all students learn how to use bibliographic software (EndNote or RefWorks) once they are familiar with the system. Please see our Bibliographic Software pages for more information.

Citing references within your text

Guidance on formatting citations within the body of your work.

When using a Harvard referencing style, the in-text citations need to indicate who was the author or producer of the work you are citing and what year it was published or created. If you have provided a direct quotation, you will also need to include the page number (see direct quotations below). This information is given in parentheses (round brackets) as follows:

Author(s) mentioned directly in sentence (narrative citation):

When an author name is included within your narrative text, the name is followed by date of publication in brackets:

Adichie (2008) explained that when she first arrived at university, she felt her roommates did not think she was African enough.

Author(s) not mentioned in sentence (parenthetical citation):

When the author name is not included in the text, their surname and date of publication are added in brackets (known as parentheses) at the end of the associated point. The author and date need to be separated by a comma. If this is at the end of a sentence, make sure the citation is placed before the full stop:

Storytelling activates the brain’s insular cortex and allows us to experience sensations such as excitement or disgust (Widrich, 2012).

Please click on the appropriate section below for more rules you need to follow for in-text citations:

Two co-authors

For a narrative citation (when two co-authors are mentioned within the text), separate them with the word 'and' rather than using an ampersand (&):

Sharma and Li (2005) suggest that...

When two co-authors are given in the brackets at the end of the sentence their names are separated with an ampersand (&) unlike when the authors are referred to within the text.

All slides should use a full sentence to make an assertion in their title and give the evidence to back up that assertion in the main body of the slide. Where possible this evidence should be visual (Alley & Neeley, 2005).

Several authors in one sentence

When authors of different works are both referred to in a sentence, cite them separately:

Martin (2005) and Rothfuss (2011) both infer that...

If names are not included in the sentence, list citations in chronological order within brackets at the end, separated by semicolons:

(Garcia, 2019; Kheang, 2020).

Group authors

Where no specific author is given, use the name of the organisation or company. If the organisation is known by abbreviations always give the name in full the first time their work is cited.

If the name of the organisation appears in a narrative citation, include the abbreviation before the year:

The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC, 2011) have published guidance on professional conduct for nursing and midwifery students.

If the name first appears in a parenthetical citation, include the abbreviation in square brackets, followed by a comma and the year:

(Nursing and Midwifery Council [NMC], 2011)

You can then just use the abbreviation for future in-text references.

Note , the entry in the reference list should use the abbreviation too - so that it matches the in-text citation.

Multiple authors

For two authors, please see the Author name(s) included in text and Author name(s) not in text sections above as the rules are slightly different in each instance.

For more than two authors, in text citations only show the first author followed by et al. (which stands for 'and others' in Latin). This does not need to be italicised.

Brown et al. (2011) indicate that...

This has been confirmed by many different researchers (Chan et al., 2018; Popoola, 2019; White et al., 2021).

Note Unless there are more than eight authors, list them all in the reference list at the end of the document rather than using et al. For more than eight, list the first eight and then use et al.

No date available

Where no date is known, use the abbreviation n.d.:

The amount of Brazilian Atlantic forest remaining is decreasing every year (SOS Mata Atlântica, n.d.).

Direct quotations

For direct quotations, include the page number(s) after the date, following a colon. The abbreviation p or pg is not required:

According to Duarte (2010:53), “Incorporating story into presentations has an exponential effect on outcomes”.

Page numbers are not required when quoting from webpages.

If you have accessed an electronic book with no obvious page numbers (such as earlier Kindle books), location data can be given instead:

Stevensen (2011:loc 211) states that "a story is the best way to help employees 'grasp' an abstract concept”.

Note that if direct quotations are 30 words or more , they should be in a separate paragraph formatted like this (single line spacing, indented 1cm from both sides and no quotation marks (citation afterwards).

Citing different works by the same author

For more than one citation by the same author on the same information with different dates, list all the dates after the name separated by commas:

(Park, 2011, 2014).

Note that you only use semicolons between lists of different authors.

For more than one citation by the same author in the same year put a, b, c etc after the date:

(Park, 2011a)....(Park, 2011b).

Note, in the reference list, works by the same author, published in the same year, should be in alphabetical order by title. It is this position in the reference list rather than the position in the document that determines which letter a citation is given. It is therefore possible that you could cite (Park, 2011b) before (Park, 2011a) in the document itself.

Unknown authors

Where the author name is not known (for instance for some reference books) and a corporate author is not clear, use the title of the work (or web page) as your citation (if this is long you can use a shortened form):

(Concise Oxford Dictionary, 2004).

(Gourmet coffee boom, 2013).

Do not use the abbreviation Anon.

Citing from web pages

Be critical when using web pages as sources. Take extra care to assess the reliability and authority of the author or organisation and use accordingly. Never just give the URL as your in-text citation. Always follow the standard Harvard citation style of (Author, Year).

• Authors are often companies and organisations: (NHS, 2004).
• If no author or organisation is clear, give the web page title: (Gourmet coffee boom, 2013).
• Dates are often found in the copyright information at the bottom of the web page.
• If a date range is given, use the latest date.
• If no date is given, use n.d.

Religious texts

Include the name of the religious text, Book, Sura or Chapter:Verse e.g.

"I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me" ( The Bible , Philippians. 4:13).

"And shake toward you the trunk of the palm tree; it will drop upon you ripe, fresh dates" ( The Qur'an , Miriam. 19:25).

For other religious texts, adapt to whatever is the conventional numbering system.

Plays and long poems

Plays and poems need more specific citations:

When quoting directly from plays, you should give a concise reference number indicating Act, Scene and line number. For Shakespeare plays, give the play title rather than the author in the citation:

"The fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man knows himself to be a fool" ( As You Like It , 5.1.30).

If the play is not divided in such a way, just give page numbers as normal.

When quoting from poems, give the line number(s) after the quotation, separate consecutive lines with a virgule (/):

"According to Ode to a Nightingale , “tender is the night, / And haply the Queen-Moon is on her throne, / Cluster’d around by all her starry Fays” (35-37).

Edited novels

The way you cite an edited novel differs depending on whether you are referring to information given by the editor or text from the novel itself. In this example both citations come from an edition of Jane Austen's 1818 novel Pride and prejudice which was published in 1998 and edited by Gillian Beer:

Editor's text (often the introduction or additional notes)

You cite the editor themselves:

Austen's novel was, for her "and her readers, fraught with moral dangers" (Beer, 1998 in Austen, 1818:xi).

Author's text (the novel itself)

Use the information from the original publication:

Anne's sister Elizabeth "Did not quite equal her father in personal contentment" (Austen, 1818:8).

The entry in the reference list would be listed under Austen, J. (1818) and would include the editor information after the title - see the example given within 'An edited book' in the Books section below.

Computer code

As well as to avoid plagiarism, citing re-used code in your source code is important to give credit to the original creators and, in some cases, ensure legal compliance. It also helps maintain the codebase over time by providing context and acknowledging contributions.

Consider your code like any document and cite as for an in-text citation in the body of the code (before the code) and then, either have a reference list at the end that gives the full details, or if you have written an accompanying report, put the reference list at the bottom of that instead.

Referencing information should always be given as a comment, using whatever syntax your programming language uses:

In the in-code citations, it is important to show whether the code is a straight copy or modified in some way. You should also cite algorithms the same way (these examples given for C++ - adapt as indicated in table above):

/*this copied extract is from (Author surname or corporate name, year) */

/*this modified extract is from (Author surname or corporate name, year) */

/*this algorithm is from (Author surname or corporate name, year) */

/* this modified extract is from (Smith, 2011) */

/* this algorithm is from (Source Forge, 2023) */

Secondary references

Sometimes you want to reference something that has been quoted, reproduced or cited in a source you have read (a secondary reference). Here are a few simple rules when dealing with them:

• If at all possible, find the original source and use that instead.
• Never pretend you have read the original source.
• Only include the book/article you have read in the reference list.
• Always make it clear in your in text citation that it is a secondary reference. Here are some examples:

Sani (2008) cited in Singh (2010) implied that...

Rebecca Bishop, a native American public relations officer (quoted in Sorensen, 2012) believes that...

In a letter to his brother, Rembrandt admitted his reluctance to accept money (Rembrandt, 1880 in Stone, 1995).

Figure 4: Aerial shot of the scene (Patel, 2003 in Justin, 2009).

For the above examples, the entries in the reference list would be for Singh, Sorenson, Stone and Justin (NOT Sani, Bishop, Rembrandt or Patel).

When to include page numbers

Always* use page numbers within your reference when you are quoting directly from your source:

According to Ryan (2004:267) music is the art that "touches, in one form or another, the widest segment of the world's population".

If there is a quite a gap between giving the reference and the quote, you can put the page number by itself in brackets directly after the quotation:

Work by Oliver (2011) found that mechanisms for assuring their development varied from non-existent through vague statements of “opportunities provided” (page 12) to a few well documented quality review processes.

Paraphrased text

Sometimes, especially when using books as sources, it can be helpful to give a page number even when you have paraphrased the text. This is not essential but it is a courtesy to the reader to help them find the part of the book that you are referring to more easily.

According to Gottshcall (2012:111) conspiracy theories are the result of a dark human need to make up stories where they do not exist.

Some disciplines, especially in the Arts, always want page numbers for paraphrased text, so please check with your lecturers or supervisors to see if this is required in your work.

* Unless there are no page numbers, i.e. web pages

Citing figures, tables and data within your work

If you are using an image, diagram, chart, photograph or other figures in your work, you should ensure these are properly referenced. If you made the figure yourself but used data from elsewhere to create it, you should ensure you cite the source of the data used to create your figure.

Citing figures in your work

Citing figures in written work.

In written work, you should always caption your figures with a label, a number and a meaningful title. Standard practice is to put captions underneath figures . You should ensure your figure (or data) citations are included in your bibliography as with any other reference. The punctuation used can vary, but always ensure you are consistent:

FigureNumber – Title (In-text citation)

FigureNumber: Title (In-text citation)

Figure Number. Title (In-text citation)

Figure 1 - The Radcliffe Camera, Bodleian Library, University of Oxford (Whitby, 2005)

Note : For small assignments (essays) the numbers should be sequential (i.e. Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3). For larger assignments (dissertations, projects, thesis) it is standard practice to restart numbering at each chapter and prefix figure numbers with the chapter number. For example, Figure 2.1 would be the first figure in chapter 2 and Figure 4.5 would be the fifth figure in chapter 4.

Citing figures in presentations

For presentations, you don't necessarily need a caption and at a minimum only need to include an in-text citation on or near the figure. You should, however, ensure figures are explained, and this can be done via your narration, by using a caption or by using the slide's title. You should ensure your image citations are included in your bibliography as with any other reference. For presentations, this can be achieved using the slide notes area or a slide towards the end of the presentation.

Citing tables in your work

Citing tables in written work.

If you are using a table in your work, you should ensure the table (or the data within it) is properly referenced. If you made the table yourself but used data from elsewhere to create it, you should ensure you cite the source of the data used to create your table.

In written work, you should always caption your tables with a label, a number and a meaningful title. Standard practice is to put captions above tables . You should ensure your table (or data) citations are included in your bibliography as with any other reference. The punctuation used can vary, but always ensure you are consistent:

Table Number – Title (In-text citation)

Table Number: Title (In-text citation)

Table Number. Title (In-text citation)

Table 1 - United Kingdom population mid-year estimate (data from: Office for national statistics, 2019)

Note: For small assignments (essays) the numbers should be sequential (i.e. Table 1, Table 2, Table 3). For larger assignments (dissertations, projects, thesis) it is standard practice to restart numbering at each chapter and prefix table numbers with the chapter number. For example, Table 2.1 would be the first tble in chapter 2 and Figure 4.5 would be the fifth table in chapter 4.

Citing tables in presentations

For presentations, you don't necessarily need a caption and at a minimum only need to include an in-text citation on or near the table. You should, however, ensure tables are explained, and this can be done via your narration, by using a caption or by using the slide's title. . You should ensure your table citations are included in your bibliography as with any other reference. For presentations, this can be achieved using the slide notes area or a slide towards the end of the presentation.

Remember: Presentations are a visual mode of communication. You should consider presenting any tables you want to include in the form of a chart, graph or other visual.

Compiling the reference list

Guidance on formatting the list and its entries.

The reference list appears at the end of your document and is a full list of the works you have referred to within your written text. It should be in alphabetical order by surname (or citation entry if a corporate author). References should be typed using single line spacing with a clear space between each reference . Indentation in not necessary. Because it will probably contain website addresses, it should also be left-aligned to ensure you don't get large gaps between some words.

Some departments may ask for a full bibliography, which would also include any works that you have consulted in the process of writing the piece but have not referred to directly. However this is not usually the case so please check with them if you are unsure. Sometimes you can just add an "Additional material consulted" section after your reference list to avoid confusion.

You will find below information about how to reference nearly all commonly used information sources. If there is anything missing, please use the advice under 'Referencing anything not listed below' to develop your own reference. If you are struggling, then contact us on  [email protected]  and we will advise you personally. 

Referencing anything not listed below

It is not possible for us to give precise referencing information for everything you could ever need to reference. The sections below give advice on referencing more common source types but if the thing you need to reference is not there, then you will have to make up a sensible reference yourself using the guidelines here:

Anything not listed

If you need to reference anything that is not already included in this guide then follow the basic template below.

Author/Creator (Year) Title or description [Medium if not obvious]. Anything that identifies it specifically. Any other information about where or when you saw it or that can help someone else find it.

Book with single author

Include the following information:

Surname, Initials. (Year) Title of book in sentence case* and italics: subtitle if present . Publisher.

Robinson, K. (2001) Out of our minds: learning to be creative . Capstone Publishing Ltd.

Gartner, M. (1993) Macroeconomics under flexible exchange rates . Harvester Wheatsheaf.

*Sentence case means you only capitalise the first word and any proper nouns.

Book with multiple authors

Give the following information:

Surnames and initials of all authors (Year) Title of book in sentence case: subtitle if present. Publisher.

For two authors use an ampersand (&) between them:

Nunn, C. L. & Altizer, S. M. (2006) Infectious diseases in primates: behavior, ecology and evolution . Oxford University Press.

For more than two authors, list all the names, separated by commas with an ampersand (&) before the last (do not use et al. in reference lists):

Daiches, D., Thorlby, A., Mottram, E., Bradbury, M., Franco, J., Dudley, D. R. & Lang, D. M. (1971) The Penguin companion to literature . Allen Lane.

Not the first edition

Put the edition number after the book title (after a comma). Use the full word 'edition' not an abbreviation (to distinguish it from the abbreviation for editor):

Author(s) (Year) Title of book in sentence case: subtitle if present , N o edition. Publisher.

Lynch, P. J. & Horton, S. (2008) Web style guide , 3 rd edition. Yale University Press.

An edited book

As for an authored book with the addition of (ed) or (eds) after editor name(s) i.e.

Editor (ed) (Year) Title of book in sentence case: subtitle if present . Publisher.

West, D. M. (ed) (2011) The next wave: Using digital technology to further social and political innovation . Washington DC: The Brookings Institution.

Bradley, A. & DuBois, A. (eds) (2010) The anthology of rap . Yale University Press.

An edited novel

These are slightly different as the editor is often only responsible for the introduction and any notes whereas the novel itself is clearly written by the original author. How you cite these within your text will also differ depending on whether you are referring to the work of the editor or the original author (see the entry on this in the 'Citing references within your text' section above).

Original Author (Original Year) Title of book in sentence case . Edited by Editor, year of publication. Publisher.

Austen, J. (1818) Pride and Prejudice . Edited by G. Beer, 1998. Penguin.

A chapter in an edited book

You need to give the title of the chapter and the title of the book. The title of the book, not the chapter needs to be in italics. If the chapter date is different to the book publication date (e.g. for collected articles) put the book date after (ed), before the book title.

Author(s) (Year) Title of chapter. In Editor(s) (ed(s)) Title of book . Publisher, page range of chapter.

Clark, R. E. & Feldon, D. F. (2005) The multimedia principle. In Mayer, R. E. (ed) The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning . Cambridge University Press, 117-134.

An electronic book (eBook)

There is no need to give information about which provider you accessed the eBook through. It is sufficient to indicate that it is an eBook that you have read by putting [eBook] in square brackets after the book title or edition information. If no place of publication information is available, don't worry, just put the publisher. URLs are not required as these are usually session specific and would not link the reader to the eBook:

Author(s) (Year) Title of book [eBook]. Publisher.

Stein, J. L. & Allen, P. R. (1998) Fundamental determinants of exchange rates [eBook]. Oxford University Press.

Parnell, H. (1805) The principles of currency and exchange , 4 th edition [eBook]. J. Budd.

An eReader book (Kindle, Kobo, Nook etc).

As with other eBooks, it is sufficient to make it clear which version of the book you have read. This information is placed after the book title or edition information. You should include download dates if possible (versions are updated and this should be reflected). Download dates are usually the same as your purchase dates and can be found by looking back at your order history online. If you no longer have access to this information, don't worry, just give what information you have. City or publisher information is often unavailable and can be omitted if this is the case (although can often be found at the end of your eReader book).

Author(s) (Year) Title of book , eReader version. Publisher.[Downloaded date].

Stevenson, D. (2003) Story theater method: strategic storytelling in business , Kindle version. Cornelia Press. [Downloaded 2011].

Sheldrake, R., McKenna, T. & Abraham, R. (2001) Chaos, creativity and cosmic consciousness , Kobo version. Inner Traditions/Bear & Company. [Downloaded 4/8/2014].

Reminder: When quoting directly from eReader books where no page number information is present, location information can be used for in-text citations instead: (Stevensen, 2011:loc 211).

Translated book

You should include details for the translator and an indication of the original language. If the original was a historically significant book, include the date of the original as well as the translation (the original date would then be the one in your in-text citation).

Note if you are self-translating books or articles, please see 'Self-translated works' under 'Further guidance' towards the bottom of these guidelines.

Author(s) (Year) Title of book . Translated from (language) by (name of translator, date if needed). Publisher.

Wolf, C. (2007) One day a year, 1960-2000 . Translated from German by L. A. Bangerter. Europa Editions.

Sartre, J. P. (1946) Existentialism and humanism . Translated from French by P. Mairet, 2007. Metheun.

Audio book (CD or download)

Audio book on cd:.

Author(s) (Year) Title of book [Audio CD]. Version (abridged or unabridged). Publisher.

Tracy, B. C. (2012) Time management made simple [Audio CD]. Unabridged. Gildan Media Corporation.

Audio book via download:

Author(s) (Year) Title of book [Audio download]. Version (abridged or unabridged). Publisher. [Downloaded date].

Tracy, B. C. (2012) Time management made simple [Audio download]. Unabridged. Gildan Media Corporation. [Downloaded 6 Aug 2024].

Articles (journal, newspaper and magazine)

Journal article.

**New for 2024** To enable easy retrieval, you should provide a DOI (Digital Object Identifier) at the end of your reference (if there is one available). This is a string of numbers, letters and symbols used to permanently identify and link to the article online. The DOI can usually be found in the citation information near the top of the landing page for the article, or on the first few pages of an article. If you can't find the DOI, you can look it up on the website  CrossRef.org (use the "Search Metadata" option and search by title).

It's important to note that not all electronic materials will have a DOI. Articles published prior to 2000 are less likely to have one.

Examples with and without DOIs are given below.

DOI available

Author(s) (Year) Title of article in sentence case 1 .  Journal Title (in italics, main words capitalised) , Issue information 2 , page range 3 . https://doi.org/DOI 4

Ceylan B., Gunes U., Baran L., Ozturk H. & Sahbudak G. (2020) Examining the hand hygiene beliefs and practices of nursing students and the effectiveness of their handwashing behaviour. Journal of Clinical Nursing , 29(21-22), 4057-4065. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.15430

de Moraes, K.F., Santos, M.P.D., Gonçalves, G.S.R., de Oliveira, G.L., Gomes, L.B. & Lima, M.G.M. (2020) Climate change and bird extinctions in the Amazon. PLoS ONE , 15(7). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236103

No DOI available

Author(s) (Year) Title of article in sentence case 1 .  Journal Title (in italics, main words capitalised) , Issue information 2 , page range.

Keech, J.M. (1974) The survival of the gothic response. Studies in the Novel , 6(2), 130-144.

1. Sentence case means you only capitalise the first word and any proper nouns.

2. Issue information is usually volume and issue but can sometimes be volume only or include supplement information. Occasionally it is a season (Spring, Summer etc), month or date (do not repeat the year if this is the case).

3. If a journal is an online only journal then all articles usually start with page 1. There is no need to give a page range if this is the case. Alternatively, provide the article number (starting with an 'e') if one is present.

4. The DOI should be a clickable link and therefore in the format https://doi.org/xxxxxxxxx . Note that there is no full stop following the DOI - this is to ensure it does not interfere with the URL.

Book review in a journal

The name of the reviewer is given first (and should be used in your in-text citation) rather than the author of the reviewed book. Please see the section for a journal article above for an explanation of DOIs if needed.

Surname of reviewer, Initials (Year) Review of Book title in Italics , by Author of book. Journal Title in italics , Issue information, page range, https://doi.org/DOI

Braash, M. (2015) Review of Principles of GNSS, inertial, and multisensor integrated navigation systems , 2nd edition, by Groves, P. D. IEEE A&E Systems Magazine, 30(2), 26-27, https://doi.org/10.1109/maes.2014.14110

Some book reviews will have a title of their own, that is different to the book. If this is the case, add it as you would for a journal article title:

Goldthorpe, J. H. (1973) A revolution in sociology? Review of Understanding everyday life: Towards the reconstruction of everyday knowledge , by Douglas, J. D. (ed) Sociology , 7(3), 449-462.

Newspaper article (print or archived online)

As with journals, it is not necessary to give the online information if you are referring to a printed article, or one that only came out in print originally:

Author if known or newspaper title if not (Year) Title of the article or column heading. Title of the newspaper , Day and Month, Page number.

Gunn, J. (1984) Why London will have to go international. The Times (London), 28 November, 17.

Cardiff Times (1910) Clydach Vale Disaster. Cardiff Times , 14 May, 10.

Newspaper article (online only or internet edition)

Internet editions of newspaper articles are often slightly different to the printed articles (information may be added or excluded). It is therefore important to make it clear that you have accessed the article online:

Author if known or newspaper title if not (Year) Title of the article. Title of the newspaper , Internet edition. Day and Month. URL [Accessed date].

Karim, N. (2014) Giant penguin fossil shows bird was taller than most humans. The Guardian, Internet edition. 4 August. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/aug/04/giant-penguin-fossil-antarctica [Accessed 5 Sep 2022].

Magazine/comic article

These are similar to printed newspaper or journal articles:

Author if known or magazine/comic title if not (Year) Title of the article or comic strip. Title of the Magazine/Comic , Issue or date, page number if relevant. URL if available online. [Accessed date if online].

Evans, L. & Winkler, D. (2011) Equador: into the fungal jungle. Fungi , 4(4) Fall, 10-12.

Parr, F. (2021) Stephen Sondheim memories: leading musicians and composers share their reflections on the Broadway legend. BBC Music Magazine , 2 December. https://www.classical-music.com/articles/stephen-sondheim-memories-leading-musicians-and-composers-share-their-reflections-on-the-broadway-legend [Accessed 15 Aug 2024].

Beano (2000) Minnie the Minx. The Beano , No 3000, 15 January, 2.

Cooper, C. (1998) T'Priell Revealed Pt 2. Star Trek, Starfleet Academy , February 1998.

Official Governmental and NGO documents

Act of parliament.

The way we reference Acts changed in 1963. Before that, the year of reign of the monarch (regnal year) needs to be included.

Prior to 1963

Name of Act (short title in italics with key words capitalised) (Year) Regnal year, Chapter Number. URL [Accessed date].

Friendly Societies Act (1955) 4 Elizabeth II, Chapter 19. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Eliz2/4-5/19 [Accessed 20 Aug 2024].

Name of Act (short title, in italics with key words capitalised) (Year) Chapter Number. URL

Criminal Justice Act (2003) Chapter 44. https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2003/44 [Accessed 10 Jul 2024].

If you wish to refer to a particular section (known as a schedule) or paragraph (these are numbered) you can add that extra information to your in-text citation:

( Criminal Justice Act , 2003:s35(122))

Parliamentary debate (Hansard)

Note that column numbers are displayed in the right-hand pane of the Hansard website when viewing a debate. You may find older debates do not contain column numbers. You may need to look at debates in full screen on your device; otherwise, columns may not be visible.

If the abbreviations HC for House of Commons and HL for House of Lords are common in your discipline, you may use these abbreviations in your reference (see the first example).

These guidelines assume you are accessing the debate online. If you accessed a printed copy, just omit the URL.

House of debate or committee (Year) Title of session or debate. Hansard Parliamentary Debates . Date in full, volume, col/cols column range if available. URL [Accessed date].

HC (1965) Royal Air Force (Valiant Aircraft). Hansard Parliamentary Debates . 1 February 1965, cols 724-727. https://hansard.parliament.uk/commons/1965-02-01/debates/501c2576-94bc-44a2-a94f-76eaebe40d3e/RoyalAirForce(ValiantAircraft) [Accessed 3 Mar 2024].

Delegated Legislation Committee (2011) Draft Legal Services Act 2007 (Approved Regulator) Order 2011. Hansard Parliamentary Debates . 31 March 2011, 672, cols 1-4. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201011/cmgeneral/deleg7/110331/110331s01.htm [Accessed 23 Jan 2024].

House of Lords (2020) Smart motorways. Hansard Parliamentary Debates . 17 March 2020, 802, cols 1372-1374. https://hansard.parliament.uk/lords/2020-03-17/debates/119AD084-E4CF-4BE3-BA98-AD0032873AC7/SmartMotorways [Accessed 3 Apr 2024].

Statutory Instrument

The title of Statutory Instruments includes a date which is why this looks a little different to other references.

Title with key words capitalised (including bracketed information if present) (SI Year and Number). URL

The Criminal Justice (Sentencing)(Licence Conditions) Order 2003 (SI 2003/3337). https://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2003/3337/made [Accessed 4 Oct 2023].

The Openness of Local Government Bodies Regulations 2014 (SI 2014/2095). https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukdsi/2014/9780111113554 [Accessed 28 Nov 2023].

Note The in-text citation for Statutory Instruments is the short title including year, maintaining italics. ( The Criminal Justice Order, 2003 )

Law report/case

Legal citation takes a particular format, not part of the Harvard system. We suggest you do add a URL if you accessed the source online.

Names of the parties involved (these could be letters if anonymised) . Year of reporting - in square brackets or round brackets* Volume number Abbreviation of the law report series, First page of reference. URL [Accessed date].

Callery v Gray (No 2) [2001] 4 All ER, 1. https://vlex.co.uk/vid/callery-v-gray-no-793304177 [Accessed 7 Jul 2024].

F v Leeds City Council [1994] 2 FCR, 428. https://vlex.co.uk/vid/f-v-leeds-city-792936693 [Accessed 4 Aug 2024].

Brown v Board of Education of Topeka (1954) 347 U.S., 483. https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/347/483/ [Accessed 23 Dec 2023].

In the example above All ER = All England Law Reports, FCR = Family Court Reports and U.S. = United States Reports

Note In-text citations just use the names and date i.e. (Callery v Gray, 2001).

*Square brackets are used when the date is the primary method for finding the case (in the examples above there are more than one volume 4 and 2 in those report series). Round brackets are used when the date is not necessary to find the case (there is only one volume 347 in the United States Reports).

Command papers (including White Papers and Green Papers)

You need to include the official number of the paper (usually found at the bottom left of the front cover):

Authorship (Year) Title of document (Official number). URL [Accessed date].

The British Museum (2014) Report and accounts for the year ended 31st March 2014 (HC 436). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a75857040f0b6360e474c12/41272_HC_436_British_Museum_print_ready.pdf [Accessed 2 Feb 2024].

HM Government (2012) Open Data White Paper: Unleashing the potential (Cm 8353). https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/open-data-white-paper-unleashing-the-potential [Accessed 7 Sep 2024].

British and International Standards

You need to include the identifying letters and numbers, they come before the title:

Standards Institution (Year) Letters and numbers of standard: Full title of standard in italics . Edition if given (i.e. not the first). URL [Accessed date].

International Standards Office (2018) ISO 50001:2018: Energy management systems: requirements with guidance for use. Edition 2. https://www.iso.org/standard/69426.html [Accessed 16 Mar 2024].

British Standards Institution (2021) BS ISO 690:2021 - TC: Information and documentation. Guidelines for bibliographic references and citations to information resources . https://knowledge.bsigroup.com/products/information-and-documentation-guidelines-for-bibliographic-references-and-citations-to-information-resources-1 [Accessed 23 Nov 2023].

Patents are generally accessed online, either on official governmental websites (like the UK's Intellectual Property Office) or worldwide on espacenet.

Inventer name (Year) Title of patent . Country granting patent, Patent number. URL.

Borgen, E. (2013) Wind turbine rotor with improved hub system . UK Patent GB2495084B. https://www.ipo.gov.uk/p-ipsum/Case/PublicationNumber/GB2495084 [Accessed 24 Mar 2024].

Karsten, S. (2014) Wind turbine tower and method of production thereof . US Patent US2014237919 (A1). https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/biblio?DB=EPODOC&II=47&ND=3&adjacent=true&locale=en_EP&FT=D&date=20140828&CC=US&NR=2014237919A1&KC=A1 [Accessed 11 Jul 2024].

European Union documentation

Many European Union bodies are commonly known by their initials. You can use these as long as you have given the name IN FULL in the main body of the document. For example, Commission of the European Communities (CEC). Include the following information in your reference:

Name of institution - common abbreviations acceptable (Year) Title of document (Official number). URL [Accessed date].

CEC (2005) Communication. Further guidance on allocation plans (COM(2005)703 https://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2005:0703:FIN:en:PDF [Accessed 27 [Jun 2024].

European Council (2014) Special meeting of the European Council (16 July 2014) (EUCO 147/14). https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/meetings/european-council/2014/07/16/ [Accessed 8 Aug 2024].

United Nations documents and publications

The United Nations produce both internal documents and external publications. These include resolutions, statements, reports etc. Titles could be long, sometimes (as for statements) the actual document does not say what they are about in their title but the initial link to them does. It is hard to produce a template that covers them all, but use the basic one below as guidance, adapting it as needed for the document in question.

Name of institution/committee - common abbreviations acceptable (Year) Title of document (Full date of document, Official number). URL [Accessed date].

UN Secretary General (2017) Progress on the prevention and control of non-communicable diseases: report of the Secretary-General (21 December 2017, A/72/662). https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1474584 [Accessed 5 Apr 2024].

UN Security Council (2010) Statement by the President of the Security Council on the Middle East (22 December 2010, S/PRST/2010/30). https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/PRST/2010/30 [Accessed 22 Aug 2024].

UN Security Council (2014) Security Council Press Statement on Terrorist Attack in Mali (18 August 2014, SC/11523, AFR/2951, PKO/426). https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2014/sc11523.doc.htm [Accessed 22 Aug 2024].

Other Governmental documents and webpages

First, make sure your source is not actually one of the document types shown above (Acts, Command papers etc). If not, follow the guidance below.

If you are accessing information from a GOV.UK website it will either be a downloadable document (usually pdf) or information on the page itself. They are generally referenced like any other pdf or website:

Downloadable documents

Documents are often written by sub-sections of the Government and it is best to use these as the author rather than simply HM Government if applicable. If there is a common abbreviation for the department etc, you can use this as long as you have written it IN FULL followed by the abbreviation in brackets in the main body of the document i.e. Department for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs (DEFRA). The basic template below can be used:

Name of department/agency/commission - common abbreviations acceptable (Year) Title of document in sentence case (More specific date of document if relevant). URL [Accessed date].

Environment Agency (2019) Weekly rainfall and river flow summary (1-7 May 2019). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/800875/Rainfall_and_river_flow_summary_1_to_7_May_2019.pdf [Accessed 15 May 2024].

DEFRA (2018) Notifiable avian disease control strategy for Great Britain . https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/737992/notifiable-avian-disease-control-strategy-2018.pdf [Accessed 15/5/2019].

HM Government (2011) 2050 pathways analysis: Response to the call for evidence, Part 1 (March 2011). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/68821/2050-pathways-analysis-response-pt1.pdf [Accessed 15 Apr 2024].

Many GOV.UK pages show which department or agency has written the guidance and this should be used as the author if present. If not, use HM Government. Follow the same principles as for the downloadable documents above regarding common abbreviations of departments etc. There is usually a published date or last updated date at the bottom of the webpage. Use whichever year is the later. If no date is given, use the abbreviation n.d.

Name of department/agency/commission - common abbreviations acceptable (Year) Title of web page in sentence case . URL [Accessed date].

BEIS (2014) Policy impacts of prices and bills: How costs to the consumer are affected by changes in energy and climate policy. https://www.gov.uk/guidance/policy-impacts-on-prices-and-bills [Accessed 15 Jun 2024].

HM Government (n.d.) Foster carers: Types of foster care. https://www.gov.uk/foster-carers/types-of-foster-care [Accessed 15 Jul 2024].

Other NGO documents

There are so many different non-governmental organisations that a fixed template is difficult to create. Adapt the one below as necessary, trying to keep the styling consistent:

Name of organisation - common abbreviations acceptable (Year) Title of document (Full date of document, Official number if given). URL [Accessed date].

UNESCO (2014) Teaching and learning: achieving quality for all; EFA global monitoring report, 2013-2014 . https://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002256/225660e.pdf [Accessed 22 Aug 2024].

The World Bank (2014) Brazil: Implementation Status and Results, Development Policies for the State of Sergipe (P129652, Report No ISR15802). https://www‑wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/LCR/2014/08/18/090224b082652070/1_0/Rendered/PDF/Brazil000Devel0Report000Sequence003.pdf [Accessed 22 Sep 2023].

Danish Refugee Council (2014) Strategic Programme Document - DRC/DDG in Libya and Tunisia . https://drc.dk/fileadmin/uploads/pdf/IA_PDF/North_Africa/2014.04.09_SPD_-_Libya_Tunisia_-_2014.pdf [Accessed 22 Nov 2023].

Note that common abbreviations for health organisations such as NHS or NMC should only be used as author names if they have been written in full within the text of the document and the abbreviation given. For example Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC, 2015) or (Nursing and Midwifery Council [NMC], 2015). Generally, if you are only referring to an organisation once, use the full title in your in-text citation and your reference list; if you are repeating it, use the abbreviation after the first occurrence and in your reference list.

Code of practice

Most codes of practice are available online and you will give a URL. If you do happen to access a paper copy, just omit that and give the name of the publisher instead (this is often the author organisation in full - if you have already given it in full, you don't need to give it again).

Name of institution - common abbreviations acceptable (Year) Title of code . URL [Accessed date].

Name of institution - common abbreviations acceptable (Year) Title of code . Publisher.

NMC (2023) The code: Professional standards of practice and behaviour for nurses, midwives and nursing associates. https://www.nmc.org.uk/globalassets/sitedocuments/nmc-publications/nmc-code.pdf [Accessed 10 Dec 2023].

HSCIC (2014) Code of practice on confidential information. Health and Social Care Information Centre.

Policy document

Name of institution - common abbreviations acceptable (Year) Title of policy document. URL [Accessed date].

NHS England (2015) Safeguarding policy. https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/safeguard-policy.pdf [Accessed 21 Mar 2024].

RCN Scotland (2015) Going the extra mile. https://www.rcn.org.uk/-/media/royal-college-of-nursing/documents/news/going-the-extra-mile.pdf [Accessed 6 Oct 2023].

Name of institution - common abbreviations acceptable (Year) Title of document (Official number if present). URL [Accessed date].

NICE (2016) Tuberculosis (NG33). https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng33/resources/tuberculosis-1837390683589 [Accessed 21 Apr 2024].

World Health Organisation (2017) Integrated care for older people: Guidelines on community-level interventions to manage declines in intrinsic capacity. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241550109 [Accessed 12 Jun 2024].

Reports are often written by named individuals, in which case you give the author just like you would with a book or journal article. If no named author is available, use the institutional name as for other documents above.

Authorship (Year) Title of report (Official number if provided). URL [Accessed date].

Francis, R. (2013) Report of the Mid Staffordshire NHS Foundation Trust public inquiry (HC 898-1). https://www.midstaffspublicinquiry.com/report [Accessed 27 Mar 2024].

Niche Health and Social Care Consulting (2012) An independent investigation into the care and treatment of a mental health service user (L) in Greater Manchester. https://www.england.nhs.uk/north/wp-content/uploads/sites/5/2018/11/independent-investigation-into-the-care-and-treatment-of-a-mental-health-service-user-l-gm.pdf [Accessed 27 Mar 2024].

Other official health-related document

There are several other types of official publication from the NHS and associated bodies. Just follow the basic guidelines below.

Note that Department of Health documents will come under Official Governmental documents above.

Authorship (Year) Title of document (Official number if present) [Type of document if not standard]. URL [Accessed date].

RCN (2016) The needs of people with learning disabilities: What pre-registration students should know. https://www.rcn.org.uk/-/media/royal-college-of-nursing/documents/publications/2017/february/pub-005769.pdf [Accessed 8 Apr 2024].

Monitor (2013) About Monitor: an introduction to our role . https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/326396/About_Monitor___July_2014.pdf [Accessed 20 Mar 2024].

Hull University Teaching Hospitals NHS Trust (2016) Abdominal pain (Ref No HEY-825/2016) [Patient leaflet]. https://www.hey.nhs.uk/patient-leaflet/abdominal-pain/ [Accessed 20 Mar 2024].

MHRA (n.d.) Mefanamic Acid 500g Tablets (Ref No 5/L/x/3) [Patient Information Leaflet]. https://mhraproducts4853.blob.core.windows.net/docs/6a8c1ffb5a169a1d809881d0c9393962e6ec9f4a [Accessed 28 Aug 2024].

Conference paper/session/poster

You may have attended a conference in person or be accessing resources shared online. Always give links to online materials if possible, even if you attended personally and are using your own notes or photographs, as this aids access.

Conference paper:

Author(s) (Year) Title of paper in sentence case*. Title of conference: subtitle if present [Conference paper] , Location and date of conference, page range if given. DOI or URL (if there is one) [Accessed date - if URL, not needed if DOI].

Saidin, K. (2017) Insider researchers: Challenges & opportunities. International Seminar on Generating Knowledge Through Research , Universiti Utara Malaysia, 25-27 October 2017. https://doi.org/10.21070/picecrs.v1i1.563 [Accessed 21 Jul 2024].

Conference session:

These could be any session at a conference not described as a paper, for example workshops, panel discussions, keynote speeches etc. Just put an appropriate description in square brackets after the session name. If a keynote speech has no separate title, use Keynote speech as the title and omit the descriptor.

Author (Year) Title of session [Descriptor]. Title of conference: subtitle if present , Location and date of conference. DOI or URL (if there is one) [Accessed date - if URL, not needed if DOI]

Gould, O.(2023) Improving international EFL/EAL students' reading comprehension via teaching and implementing multimodalities [Keynote speech] . Global Conference on Education , Dubai, 7-8 December 2023. https://www.gcedu.org/dubai-2023/ [Accessed 22 Jul 2024].

Conference poster

Author/Creator (Year) Title of poster [Conference poster]. Title of conference: subtitle if present , Location and date of conference. URL if available online [Accessed date].

Cardoso, V. & Plesca, L. (2023) Natalizumab - Real World Data - Switching from IV infusions to Subcutaneous injection. Patient experience [Conference poster]. Multiple Scleroses Trust Annual Conference , Hinckley Island, 26-28 March. https://mstrust.org.uk/sites/default/files/2023-06/conference-2023-poster-natalizumab-switching-iv-sub-injection.pdf [Accessed 20 Sep 2024].

Company/organisational report

Printed report.

Author/Organisation (Year) Full title of report . Publisher if not same as author.

BT Group plc (2014) Annual report and Form 20-F 2014 . BT Group plc.

Online report

Author/Organisation (Year) Full title of report . URL [Accessed date].

NHS England (2013) Everyone counts: planning for patients planning for patients 2014/15 to 2018/19 . NHS Commissioning Board. https://www.england.nhs.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/5yr-strat-plann-guid.pdf [Accessed 12 Sep 2024].

Government/NGO Reports

These are slightly different - see section above.

Dissertation or thesis

Give the following information.

Author (Year) Title of dissertation/thesis . Document type. Name of University. URL (if it can be accessed online) [Accessed date].

Stern, B. H. (2013) The impact of leadership on school improvement . EdD thesis. The University of Hull. https://hydra.hull.ac.uk/resources/hull:8431 [Accessed 20 Aug 2024].

Walsh, R. J. (1977) Charles the Bold, last Valois Duke of Burgundy 1467-1477 and Italy . PhD thesis. The University of Hull.

Religious text

When referencing texts such as the bible, Qur'an or Torah, include the following information:

Title of the version you have used (Year) Translated by name of translater (if given). Publisher.

The Holy Bible: Authorised King James Version (2011) Harper Collins.

The Qur'an (Oxford World's Classics) (2004) Translated by M. A. S. Abdel Haleem. Oxford University Press.

The Torah: the five books of Moses (2000) Translated by J.P.S. and Moshe Greenberg. The Jewish Publication Society.

PDF document

PDF documents are nearly always accessed online, and so you can point readers to the URL along with other information. If the URL is unavailable (for instance if you have been emailed it) just give as much information as you have or can find.

Author(s) (Year) Title of document . Publisher if known. URL [Accessed date].

Godin, S. (2012) Stop stealing dreams: what is school for? Do You Zoom, Inc. https://www.sethgodin.com/sg/docs/stopstealingdreamsscreen.pdf [Accessed 6 Aug 2024].

H. M. Government (2010) The coalition: our programme for government . Cabinet Office. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/78977/coalition_programme_for_government.pdf [Accessed 6 Aug 2024].

Informal document (leaflet, in-house publication)

For leaflets, handouts, flyers etc just provide what information you can:

Author/organisation (Year) Title of document . Other useful details.

University of Hull (2012) Learning, Teaching and Student Experience Strategy 2012-15 [Booklet]. University of Hull.

The Deep (2014) The Deep: for conservation not profit [Leaflet].

Archive material

Archive material is often unique: books could be annoted etc which means that the collection that they came from is equally as important as the document details.

Author/organisation (Year) Title of document , Edition and publisher information if relevant [Medium]. Whatever collection details are available (i.e. name of collection, reference numbers, location, name of library/archive).

Larkin, P. A. (1950) Workbook No 1 [Manuscript]. Papers of Philip Arthur Larkin, U DPL/1/1, Hull University Archives, Hull History Centre.

Smyth, R. & Thuilier, H. E. L. (1855) A manual of surveying for India: detailing the mode of operations on trigonametrical, topographical and revenue surveys of India , 2nd Edition. W. Thacker and Co. [Book]. Monograph, mg NO2/24Z3, Royal Geographical Society/Institute of British Geographers Archive. London.

Wilberforce, W. (1816) Letter to James Thomson Esq [Letter]. William Wilberforce letters, L DFWW/1/10, Hull Local Studies Library, Hull History Centre.

Working paper/Briefing paper

Working papers may also be known as briefing papers, discussion papers or research papers. They are created to generate discussion within a particular community (research area, business area etc). They are often the pre-publication versions of papers that are waiting to be accepted in journals but some are written purely for circulation as they are. Note that they are not peer-reviewed.

Some working papers do not give a lot of information - just give as much as you can following this basic format.

Author (Year) Title of the working paper (Series title and number if there is one). Publisher (if given). URL [Accessed date].

Kaplan, R. S. (2018) Reverse the curse of the top-5 (Harvard Business School General Management Unit Working Paper No. 19-052). https://ssrn.com/abstract=3274782 [Accessed 24 Feb 2024].

Harrison, R. & Thomas, R. (2019) Monetary financing with interest-bearing money (Staff Working Paper No. 785). Bank of England. https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/working-paper/2019/monetary-financing-with-interest-bearing-money [Accessed 22 Mar 2024].

Web pages, social media and other online resources (see also Datasets, Audiovisual etc below)

First, please note that a website URL is NEVER a suitable reference on its own . Dates can often be found in copyright information at the bottom of the page. If a range is given, use the later year. Use n.d. if no date is given at all.

Author(s) or company name (Year) Title of web page in sentence case* . URL [Accessed date].

Individual Author(s)

Reynolds, G. (2021) Design tips . https://www.garrreynolds.com/design-tips/ [Accessed 27 Mar 2024].

Group or company author

University of Hull (2024) Model publication scheme . https://www.hull.ac.uk/legal/model-publication-scheme [Accessed 26 Mar 2024].

Blogs are often unsubstantiated opinions and should be used with appropriate criticality as academic references. However, some reputable, published authors have their own blogs which can provide useful, up to date comments and insights. Include the following information:

Author (Year) Title of blog post [Blog post]. Title of website or blog . Day and month of post. URL [Accessed date].

Thompson, P. (2020) Reading against the literatures [Blog post]. Patter . 13 June. https://patthomson.net/2020/01/27/im-writing-a-journal-article-what-literatures-do-i-choose/ [Accessed 8 Aug 2024].

Reynolds, G. (2021) Presentation advice from Master Yoda [Blog post]. Garr Reynolds Blog . 10 November. https://www.garrreynolds.com/blog/presentation-advice-from-master-yoda [Accessed 6 Aug 2024].

Note - Some bloggers give permalinks to individual posts and these should be used for URLs if possible.

Forum entry

Quite often you are referring to an answer rather than a question in a forum, however, it is the question that you reference in this case. Always check the expertise of the answerer and use with caution and criticality. Author names are usually aliases, type them as they appear.

Author (Date) Title of post (often a question). Title of Forum . Day and Month of post. URL [Accessed date].

jlawler (2014) Can the term "homorganic" be applied to vowels and glides? Linguistics Stack Exchange . 8 August. https://linguistics.stackexchange.com/questions/8764/can-the-term-homorganic-be-applied-to-vowels-and-glides [Accessed 8 Aug 2024].

YouTube video

When referencing a YouTube video, it is the name of the person who posted the video, not who made it that you reference (these can be the same or different). Use the URL that you get when you click the 'Share' link as it is often shorter than the one in the address bar (you can even delete everything after the '?' in the link):

Name of person posting video (Year uploaded) Title of video , Series title if relevant [Video]. URL [Accessed Date].

Tunalioglu, M. E. (2011) Richard Phillips Feynman - The Last Journey of a Genius [Video]. https://youtu.be/Mn4_40hAAr0 [Accessed 8 Aug 2024].

Harvard University (2009) Episode 02: Putting a price tag on life , Justice: What's the right thing to do? [Video]. https://youtu.be/0O2Rq4HJBxw [Accessed 9 Aug 2024].

Social media

For other social media, adapt whichever of the following is most appropriate.

If your reader needs to register (and be accepted) to see the entries you are referring to, and you are not quoting them in full within your text, it is wise to include a copy of the actual text as an appendix to your work.

Author (Year) Title of Page (could just be author's timeline) [Facebook]. Day and month posted. URL [Accessed date].

Reynolds, G. (2024) Garr Reynolds Timeline [Facebook]. 17 July. https://www.facebook.com/garr.reynolds [Accessed 13 Aug 2024].

RSPB (2024) How to put up a swift nest box [Facebook]. 31 July. https://www.facebook.com/TheRSPB [Accessed 9 Aug 2024].

Author (Year) Full text of post (as written) [X]. Day and month posted. URL [Accessed date].

Glass, N. (2009) wondering just how far this moment is from dreams I've had. it all feels vaguely familiar yet completely foreign. resisting tears. so tired [X]. 30 March. https://twitter.com/noah/status/1422661056 [Accessed 13 Aug 2024].

Mailing list

If your reader needs to subscribe to see the entries you are referring to, and you are not quoting them in full within your text, it is wise to include a copy of the actual text as an appendix to your work. In this case, add 'see appendix n' after your in-text citation.

Author (Year) Subject line. Title of mailing list . Day and Month of message. URL [Accessed date].

Keenan, C. (2014) Peer led academic learning and disability. Learning Development in Higher Education Network . 8 August. [email protected] [Accessed 13 Jul 2024].

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Always check first that referring to AI generated text or images is permitted in your work. If it is, include the following information:

Communicator (Year) Description of communication [Communication type]. Prompted by name/handle (if not self). Date and time of communication.

Hotpot (2023) Monkey fighting a crab [AI generated image]. Prompted by Li Chen. 18 April 2023, 15:10.

Data citation allows you to reference data in the same way as you would reference bibliographic research outputs such as journal articles and books.

When you use any form of secondary data in your assignment, you need to reference the data source. In your reference list, give as much of the following information as is relevant (you can find a lot of the information when you view your basket):

Creator/Producer (Year) Data or dataset title [data format], Product or database or repository or website name , version or date or identifier. Publisher. DOI if present.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2022) Japan: Gross domestic product, expenditure approach [Table], National Accounts of OECD Countries , 2022(2). OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/3e073951-en

Gallup, G. H. (ed) (1976) 1943, January, Bread rationing [Book]. The Gallup international public opinion polls, Great Britain 1937-1975 , 71, Random House.

Citing data as part of a self-made graph, chart or other visual

If you have used secondary data to produce a graph, chart or other visual, you should cite both the data and the tool(s) you used. Caption your figure with 'Created with (Software), data from (Producer, Year: page number(s))'.

Data [online source]

Creator/Producer (Year) Data or dataset title [data format] Product or database or repository or website name, , version or date or identifier. URL or DOI [Downloaded date].

University of Hull (2018) Raw dune PIV data [MATLAB], University of Hull Hydra Digital Repository, hull:16477. https://hydra.hull.ac.uk/resources/hull:16477 [Downloaded 18 Jul 2024].

Pearson, L. F. (1981) Hull Low Energy Housing Project: Social survey [Data collection], UK Data Service , SN: 1589. https://doi.org/10.5255/UKDA-SN-1589-1 [Downloaded 18 Jul 2024].

Office for National Statistics (2024) Gross domestic product: quarter on quarter growth: CVM SA % [Excel spreadsheet]. Census 2021 , Release 28 June 2024. https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/timeseries/ihyq/qna/previous [Downloaded 18 Jul 2024].

Geospatial data (GIS software)

When you create a map that you include in your assignment, you only need to reference the data source and the tool you used (it is your own work after all). Caption your figure with 'Created with (Software), data from (Producer, Year)'. In your reference list, give as much as the following information as is relevant (you can find a lot of the information when you view your basket):

Producer (Version Year) Scale, Tile(s) [data format]. Product name, date. https://edina.ac.uk/digimap [Downloaded date].

Ordnance Survey (2013) 1:50 000, Tiles SE7954, SE7955, SE8054, SE8055 [DWG geospacial data]. OS MasterMap, December 2013. https://edina.ac.uk/digimap [Downloaded 21 Aug 2024].

British Geological Survey (2013) 1:50 000, Tile TA41 [Shapefile geospacial data]. Onshore Geology, 2013. https://edina.ac.uk/digimap [Downloaded 21 Aug 2024].

Computer Code or Programs

If you use or modify code from elsewhere as part of a project, you should credit the original code creator. You should always do this within the source code and you may also need to do so in any report you write related to the code.

There is some excellent general advice on citing sources in your code from MIT here: Academic Integrity at MIT .

In source code

When referencing as part of your code, the information should be put as a comment using whatever syntax your programming language needs:

/*References Author (Year) Title of source code (code version) [Type i.e. Source code or Program]. URL [Accessed date].*/

/*References

Smith, J (2011) GraphicsDrawer source code (Version 2.0) [Source code]. http://www.graphicsdrawer.com [Accessed 5 Jun 2024].

SourceForge (2023) LZ4 [Fast compression algorithm]. https://sourceforge.net/projects/lz4.mirror/ [Accessed 3 May 2024].*/

Using Python

#References #Author (Year) Title of source code (code version) [Type i.e. Source code or Program]. URL [Accessed date].

#References

#Smith, J (2011) GraphicsDrawer source code (Version 2.0) [Source code]. http://www.graphicsdrawer.com [Accessed 5 Jun 2024].

#SourceForge (2023) LZ4 [Fast compression algorithm]. https://sourceforge.net/projects/lz4.mirror/ [Accessed 3 May 2024].

<!--References Author (Year) Title of source code (code version) [Type i.e. Source code or Program]. URL [Accessed date].-->

<!--References

SourceForge (2023) LZ4 [Fast compression algorithm]. https://sourceforge.net/projects/lz4.mirror/ [Accessed 3 May 2024].-->

In a report or paper

The only difference is that you should put the title of the code in italics to maintain consistency with other sources:

Author (year) Title of source code (code version if relevant) [Type i.e. Source code or Program], URL [Accessed date].

SourceForge (2023) LZ4 [Algorithm]. https://sourceforge.net/projects/lz4.mirror/ [Accessed 3 May 2024].

You should reference every photograph you use unless you took it yourself. Give the following information:

Online photographs

Photographer (Surname, Initials if available, username if not) (Year) Title of photograph (or description if none available) [Photograph]. URL [Accessed date].

keithhull (2009) Hull is the new UK City of Culture for 2017 [Photograph]. https://www.flickr.com/photos/21506908@N07/3478651395 [Accessed 14 Sep 2024].

Harrop, P. (2012) Plinth and Maritime Museum, Hull [Photograph]. https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/2843877 [Accessed 14 Sep 2024].

Prints, slides or negatives (in known collections)

Photographer (Year) Title of photograph in italics [Photograph]. Whatever collection details are available (i.e. name of collection, reference numbers, location, name of library/archive).

Larkin, P. A. (1970s) Negative of [Monica Jones] on a ferry [Photograph]. Photographs of Philip Arthur Larkin, U DLV/2/1/30, Hull University Archives, Hull History Centre.

Watson, R. T. (1906) Hull City Football Team 1906-7 taken at Anlaby Road Hull the City football ground [Photograph]. Records of the Copyright Office, Stationers' Company, Copy 1/506/148, The National Archives, Kew.

Prints, slides or negatives (not in collections)

Photographer (Year) Title of photograph (or description if none available) [Photograph]. Publisher (if available/relevant).

Bartram, J. A. (2012) Bluebells in North Cliffe Woods [Photograph].

Book illustration, figure or table

If the illustration/figure/table is created by the author (basically not attributed to anyone else) then just cite the book as normal, giving the appropriate page number. If the image is attributed to someone else, the in-text citation would include both the person responsible for the image and the author(s) of the book:

Michel Eienne Turgot and Louis Bretez's Plan de Paris (in Tufte, 1990:36) is a classic example of ...

The reference list entry would then just be for the book itself:

Tufte, E. R. (1990) Envisioning information . Graphics Press.

Give as much as the following information as you can find (online information optional):

Artist (Year) Title of cartoon [Cartoon]. Title of publication , Day and Month. URL [Accessed date].

Rawson, M. (2014) Wealth inequality [Cartoon]. The Guardian , 29 July. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cartoon/2014/jul/29/martin-rowson-rich-wealth-good-inequality-cuts [Accessed 14 Aug 2024].

Painting, drawing or poster

Give as much of the following information as you can find. If available online, add URL [Accessed date]:

Artist (Year) Title of work [Medium]. Institution/collection, City (or Location, Exhibition, dates of exhibition).

Denison, T. (n.d.) Clippers on the Humber [Original Watercolour]. Myton Gallery, Hull.

Cook, B. (2008) Tommy Dancing [Oil]. Hull Maritime Museum, Working Hard, Playing Hard, 5 April - 8 June 2014.

Gold, B. (1979) Alien [Poster]. https://www.complex.com/pop-culture/2013/05/most-iconic-movie-posters-of-all-time/alien [Accessed 15 Aug 2024].

Sculpture or installation

Include as much of the following information as you can find:

Artist (Year) Title of the work (exclude year if given) [Medium]. Name of collection/exhibition information or Location (include date seen for temporary installations).

Moore, H. S. (1968) Large Totem Head [Bronze Sculpture]. Yorkshire Sculpture Park.

Producoes, S. (2013) Colourful Canopies of Umbrellas [Installation]. Agueda, Portugal, July 2013.

Printed map

Ordnance survey map.

Ordnance Survey (Year) Title of map , Edition if not first [Map]. Map/sheet number, Scale. Map series if appropriate. Publisher if different from author.

Ordnance Survey (2006) Kingston Upon Hull , C2 edition [Map]. 107, 1:50 000. Landranger series.

Map producer (Year) Title of map , Edition if not first [Map]. Map/sheet number, Scale. Publisher (if different from author).

International Travel Maps (2008) South America, , 5 th edition [Map]. ITM.875, 1:4 000 000. Richmond, BC: ITMB Publishing.

Max, M. D., Long, C. B. & MacDermot, C. V. (1992) Bedrock Geology of North Mayo [Map], Sheet 6, 1:100,000. Geological Survey of Ireland.

Reference as a standard book, giving scales if relevant. For a specific page, include the page number at the end of the in-text citation only.

Butler, R. (1959) Atlas of Kenya . Survey of Kenya.

Bossard, L. (2009) Regional atlas on West Africa [eBook]. OECD Publishing.

Digimap (viewed, annoted or printed)

Digimap does have a citation generator, but this provides a citation that is not consistent with the rest of our scheme so we do not recommend you use it (although it can sometimes be useful to confirm information).

Digimaps are generated by you, so you will have to give a description of the the map that makes it clear what it is showing as its title. Other information can be found by clicking on Map Information on the left of your screen or for some services, clicking the Sheet Information button (i) and then clicking on the map. The publisher is usually the copyright holder (check the bottom of the map). The citation year should be from the map date, if no map date is available, use the copyright date.

Map publisher (Year) Title/description of map [Map]. Scale. Source (Map Product). URL [Created on date].

Ordnance Survey (2014) Kingston upon Hull [Map]. 1:100 000. EDINA Digimap (OS Strategi). https://edina.ac.uk/digimap [Created 18 Sep 2024].

Landmark Information Group (1971) Barmby Moor, East Yorkshire [Map]. 1:2 500. National Grid Tile SE7748. EDINA Historic Digimap Service. https://edina.ac.uk/digimap [Created 18 Sep 2024].

Natural Environment Research Council (2014) Vale of Pickering [Map]. 1:50 000. EDINA Geology Digimap Service (British Geological Survey). https://edina.ac.uk/digimap [Created 18 Sep 2024].

Map created using GIS software

Producer (Version Year) Scale, Tile(s) [Data format]. Product name, version/date. https://edina.ac.uk/digimap [Downloaded date].

British Geological Survey (2013) [Shapefile geospacial data] 1:50 000, Tile TA41. Onshore Geology, version: 2013. https://edina.ac.uk/digimap [Downloaded 21 Aug 2024].

Google maps/Bing maps

URLs can be found for specific map views by clicking the Share button in each case. In Bing maps the URL is shown, in Google maps you will need to right-click on the Google Maps link (if you have searched, the link may be your search term) and and choose to copy the link address.

Map provider (Copyright date) Description of map [Map], View information. URL [Accessed date].

Google Maps (2014) Humber Dock Marina [Map], Satellite view. https://www.google.co.uk/maps/@53.73926,-0.3387019,622m/data=!3m1!1e3 [Accessed 22 Aug 2024].

Bing Maps (2014) The University of Hull campus [Map], Bird's eye view. https://binged.it/1tkVlri [Accessed 22 Aug 2024].

DVD/Video/Blu-ray

Many referencing systems suggest that you need to include a place of distribution. However, this is rarely available on DVDs etc so we suggest you just put the distributor/studio which can usually be found on the reverse. If a place is available, include it before a colon as with publisher information.

Title in italics (Year of release) Directed by Director name [Medium]. Studio/Distributer.

Good Morning, Vietnam (1988) Directed by Barry Levinson [DVD]. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment.

Good Will Hunting (2011) Directed by Gus Van Sant [Blu-ray]. Lions Gate Home Entertainment.

TV programme

Title (Year of distribution). Directed by Director name. Written by Writer name (if known) [Medium]. Distributer.

In the Wild: Dolphins with Robin Williams (1998) Directed by Nigel Cole [VHS]. NTV.

Episode of a TV programme

Episode title (Year of distribution) Programme title , series and episode numbers. Directed by Director name. Written by Writer name (if known) [Medium]. Place of distribution: Distributer.

Old Fears (1979) Mork & Mindy , season 2, episode 12. Directed by Howard Storm. Written by April Kelly [DVD]. Los Angeles: Paramount.

Extra commentaries

If extra commentaries by directors/producers/actors etc are given on a DVD/Blu-ray you would reference using the person's name rather than the title:

Commentator (Year) Director's (or other) commentary. Title of Film . Version if needed. Directed by Director name [Medium]. Studio/Distributer.

Snyder, Z. (2009) Director's commentary. Watchmen , Director's Cut, Special Edition. Directed by Zach Snyder [Blu-ray]. Warner Bros.

McCarthy T., Powers, J. & Thompson, D. (2004) Critics' commentary. The Ultimate Matrix Collection . Directed by the Wachowski Brothers [DVD collection]. Warner Bros.

Broadcasts and streaming (TV, Radio, Netflix, BoB etc)

Dates given in brackets should be the original broadcast year (the copyright year given at the end of the programme). You may be able to find this and information such as writers etc on something like IMDb if you do not have the credits recorded. The broadcast date is the broadcast that you actually watched (except for online subscription-only programmes, in which case it is the release date).

Title (Year of first broadcast). Directed by Director name (if known). Written by Writer name (if known) [TV Programme]. TV channel (or service if online only), broadcast day and month, time.

Scotland decides: Salmond versus Darling (2014) [TV Programme]. BBC TWO, 25 August, 20:30.

If you are quoting a specific person on a programme, you can include their name first and cite them directly in the text instead of the programme name i.e. (Salmond, 2014):

Salmond, A. (2014) Scotland decides: Salmond versus Darling (2014) [TV Programme]. BBC TWO, 25 August, 20:30.

Episode title (Year of first broadcast) Programme title , series and episode numbers. Directed by Director name. Written by Writer name (if known) [TV Programme]. TV channel (or service if online only). Broadcast day and month, time.

The Empty Chair (2014) The Honourable Woman , season 1, episode 1. Directed by Hugo Blick. Written by Hugo Blick [TV Programme]. BBC TWO. 3 July, 21:00.

Chapter 2 (2014) House of Cards , season 1, episode 2. Directed by David Fincher. Written by Beau Willimon [TV Programme]. Netflix, 1 February.

Programmes/episodes watched via Box of Broadcasts

Please DO NOT cite these using the information given in the How to cite this tab underneath the broadcast window. Instead, just add the URL and access information as with other online resources:

Scotland decides: Salmond versus Darling (2014) [TV Programme]. BBC TWO, 25 August, 20:30. https://bobnational.net/record/236557 [Accessed 30 Aug 2024].

Radio programme

This is the same as for TV programmes but use [Radio Programme] instead:

In Tune (2014) [Radio Programme]. BBC Radio 3, 18 August, 16:30.

Skomer (2006) Afternoon Play . Written by Mike Akers [Radio Programme]. BBC Radio 4, 30 October, 14:15. https://bobnational.net/record/215 [Accessed 18 Aug 2024].

If you are quoting a specific person on the programme, you can include their name first and cite them directly in the text instead of the programme name i.e. (Rafferty, 2014):

Rafferty, S. In Tune (2014) [Radio Programme]. BBC Radio 3, 18 August, 16:30.

Film (cinema release, TV or BoB)

Film, cinema release or tv.

Title in italics (Year of release) Directed by Director name [Film]. Studio/Distributer.

Dawn of the Planet of the Apes (2014) Directed by Matt Reeves. 20th Century Fox.

Film, seen on Box of Broadcasts

Please DO NOT cite these using the information given in the How to cite this tab underneath the broadcast window. Instead, just add the URL and access information as with other online resources. If distributer information is cut off the end by the TV channel, try looking on IMDb (Company Credits link):

Title in italics (Year of release) Directed by Director name [Film]. Studio/Distributer. URL [Accessed date].

The Birds (1963) Directed by Alfred Hitchcock [Film]. Universal Pictures. https://bobnational.net/record/234816 [Accessed 15 Sep 2024].

If the author or presenter of the podcast is not known, use the organisation or website name instead. Sometimes you need to work out the year as it may give the last updated information as '4 years ago' or something similar.

Author/Presenter (Year last updated) Title of podcast. Name of Web page [Podcast]. Day and month of post if shown. URL [Accessed date].

Harford, T. (2014) Student loans. More or Less: Behind the Stats [Podcast]. 15 August. https://downloads.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/radio4/moreorless/moreorless_20140815-1655c.mp3 [Accessed 19 Aug 2024].

Heaversedge, J. (2010) What is mindfulness? Mental Health Foundation [Podcast]. https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/content/assets/audio/what-is-mindfulness-mp3.mp3 [Accessed 19 Aug 2024].

Fearless Social (2014) How to use magazines to write better Facebook ads. Fearless Social: Social Marketing Evolved [Podcast]. 7 August. https://itunes.apple.com/gb/podcast/fearless-social-social-marketing/id904864342?mt=2 [Accessed 19 Aug 2024].

When referencing a YouTube video, it is the name of the person who posted the video, not who made it that you reference (these can be the same or different). Use the URL that you get when you click the 'Share' link as it is shorter than the one in the URL box :

Harvard University (2009) Episode 02: Putting a price tag on life , Justice: What's the right thing to do? [Video]. https://youtu.be/0O2Rq4HJBxw [Accessed 8 Aug 2024].

PowerPoint (or other) presentation

Most presentations you will reference will be accessed online, so reference as follows:

Author(s) (Year uploaded). Title of presentation [Presentation]. URL [Accessed date].

Brenman, J. (2008) Thirst [Presentation]. https://www.slideshare.net/jbrenman/thirst [Accessed 8 Aug 2024].

Duarte, N. (2014) Slidedocs: spread ideas with effective visual documents [Presentation]. https://www.duarte.com/slidedocs [Accessed 8 Aug 2024].

If you accessed the presentations via other means, omit the URL and accessed date.

Video games

If accessed online, include the URL – otherwise just give publisher information.

Author/Creator (Year). Title [Video game]. Publisher (if there is one). URL [Accessed date] (if appropriate).

Galactic Café (2013) The Stanley Parable [Video game]. https://store.steampowered.com/app/221910/The_Stanley_Parable [Accessed 8 Aug 2024].

Musical score

Year should be the copyright year on the score itself, not the date the composition was written. If no year is given on scanned online scores (for instance on IMSLP), use (n.d). If no date is given on modern works, use the uploaded or last updated date. Editor or arranger information is not always relevant.

Individual score (print)

Composer (Year of publication) Title of score including work number if known [Musical score]. Editor or arranger information. Publisher.

Stravinsky, I. (1967) Rite of spring: pictures from pagan Russia in two parts [Musical score]. Boosey & Hawkes.

Rimsky-Korsakoff, N. (1955) Trombone Concerto [Musical score]. Reduction for tenor trombone and piano by Harold Perry. Boosey & Hawkes.

Individual score (online)

Composer (Year) Title of score including work number if known [Musical score]. Editor or arranger information. Publisher (if given). URL [Accessed date].

Bach, J. S. (2008) Canon for Walther, BWV 1073 [Musical score]. Edited by Alfred Dorffel. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hartel. https://imslp.org/wiki/Special:ImagefromIndex/188975 [Accessed 20 Aug 2024].

Raboud-Theurillat, M. (2005) Saisons, op 40 [Musical score]. https://www.free-scores.com/PDFSUP_EN/raboud-theurillat-marie-christine-saisons-saisons-flute-67951.pdf [Accessed 20 Aug 8 2024].

Scores that are part of collected works

Composer (Year of publication) Title of score, Title of collection [Musical score]. Publisher. URL [Accessed date] (if relevant).

Britten, B (1960) How sweet the answer (The Wren), Folksong Arrangements, Vol 4 , Moore's Irish Melodies [Musical score]. Boosey & Hawkes.

Scores that are part of anthologies

Composer (Year of publication) Title of score. In Editor name (ed) Title of anthology [Musical score]. City published: Publisher. Available online: URL [Accessed date] (if relevant).

Handel, G. F. (1902) Deborah. In Spicker, M. (ed) Anthology of sacred song, Vol 1 (Soprano) [Musical score]. G. Shirmer. https://conquest.imslp.info/files/imglnks/usimg/e/e9/IMSLP38723-PMLP85325-VA_-_Anthology_of_Sacred_Songs._Vol1-soprano.pdf [Accessed 20 Aug 2024].

Classical music recording

Cd, audio cassette or vinyl.

If dates are not available on older vinyl recordings, use (n.d.)

Composer (Year of release) Title of work . Title of Album if different to work. Performer/orchestra conducted by Conductor name (if relevant) [Medium]. Distributor/Label.

Elgar, E. (1995) Cello Concerto, Op 85, Enigma Variations. Philadelphia Orchestra, London Philharmonic Orchestra and Jacqueline Du Pré conducted by Daniel Barenboim [CD]. Sony Music Classical.

Bach, J. S. (2012) Variato 8. A 2 Clav. Glenn Gould plays Bach, Goldberg Variationen [Vinyl]. Membran Media.

Streamed or downloaded

It is necessary to give specific information about where you streamed music from if it is ONLY available through that method. Otherwise, just give as much of the above information as your streaming service gives or you can find elsewhere (the same recording may be available on Amazon for instance). Downloaded music should always give a URL.

Debussy, C. (2005) La Mer . Berliner Philharmoniker conducted by Simon Rattle [Streamed]. EMI Records Ltd.

Sibelius, J. (n.d.) Valse Triste . Erik Helling [Download]. https://d19bhbirxx14bg.cloudfront.net/sibelius-valsetriste-helling.mp3 [Accessed 28/ Aug 2024].

Other recorded music

Single artists have names that are reversed (Surname, Initials). Band names are unchanged. Single artists with non-standard names (Lady Gaga, Jessie J, P Diddy etc) should be treated as band names:

Artist (Year) Title of album [Media]. (Version if needed.) Label.

Gaye, M. (1971) What's Going On [Vinyl]. Tamla Records.

Iron Maiden (1998) Powerslave [Audio CD]. Enhanced, original recording remastered. EMI.

Album track

Artist (Year) Title of track. Title of album [Media].(Version if needed.) Label.

Blondie (1978) Hanging on the telephone. Parallel Lines [Vinyl]. Chrysalis Records.

Smith, S. (2014) Like I can. In the Lonely Hour [Audio CD]. Deluxe Edition. Capitol Records.

Artist (Year) Title of track. Title of album or equivalent [Media]. Label. URL [Accessed date] (if relevant).

Davis, M. (2005) Rouge, Boblicity: Original recordings 1949-1953 [Streamed]. Naxos Rights International Ltd.

Macklemore & Lewis, R. (2013) Starting Over, Spotify Sessions [Streamed]. https://play.spotify.com/album/3LwV3QIDQopbgERx5XJnBz [Accessed 28 Aug 2024].

Lyrics or libretto

Songwriter(s) (Year) Title of Song [Lyrics]. Track and album information if relevant. Distribution company or label if known. URL [Accessed date].

Taupin, B. (1973) Candle in the wind [Lyrics]. Track 11, Diamonds (Deluxe). MCA Records. https://genius.com/Elton-john-candle-in-the-wind-lyrics [Accessed 13 Aug 2024].

Geldof, B. & Ure, M. (1984) Do they know it's Christmas? [Lyrics]. https://www.azlyrics.com/lyrics/bandaid20/dotheyknowitschristmas.html [Accessed 28 Aug 2024].

These are usually published separately so have publisher details:

Author name(s) (Year) Title of publication [Libretto]. Edition or version if necessary. Publisher.

Sondheim, S. & Wheeler, H. (1991) Sweeney Todd [Libretto]. NHB Libretti, new edition. Nick Hern Books.

Liner notes/album cover notes etc

Liner notes are text found on the covers or inner sleeves of vinyl albums or on the little booklets that come inside CDs etc. These can be physical or electronic (for instance if you download an album). Sometimes they do not have individual titles, in which case just leave this out and move the [Liner notes] label to after the recording title.

Author (Year) Title of notes [Liner notes], Title of recording [Media]. Label. URL [Accessed date] (if relevant).

The Damned (1977) Thanks to no-one [Liner notes], Damned Damned Damned [Audio CD]. Stiff Records.

Cott, J. (2013) Stravinsky: Le Sacre du Printemps. Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic [Audio CD]. Sony Masterworks.

Bowie, D. (1972) [Liner notes]. Aladdin Sane . RCA Records. http://albumlinernotes.com/Aladdin_Sane.html [Accessed 24 Aug 2024].

Composer (Year of performance) Title . Name of orchestra/musician. Conducted by Conductor (if relevant). Place of performance, Date of performance.

Strauss, R. (2014) Elektra . BBC Singers and the BBC Symphony Orchestra. Conducted by Semyon Bychkov. Royal Albert Hall, 31 August 2014.

Composer or choreographer (Year of performance) Title . Dance company. Location, Date seen.

Bourne, M. (2014) Lord of the Flies . New Adventures Dance Company. Sadler's Wells, London, 8 October 2014.

In contrast to other live performances, the title of the play is given first, not the playwright.

Title by Author (Year of performance) Directed by Director (or Theatre Company). Location, Date seen.

That's All You Need to Know by Idle Motion (2014) Hull Truck Theatre, 19 September 2014.

The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde (2014) Directed by Lucy Bailey. Harold Pinter Theatre, 18 July 2014.

Speeches often have their transcripts published online or are available on YouTube, in which case you can also give the appropriate URL. Omit this if you do not have it.

Speaker (Year) Title of speech [Speech or Speech Transcript]. Date of speech, Location of speech (if not given in title). URL [Accessed date].

Johnson, B. (2020) PM speech in Greenwich [Speech transcript]. 3 February. https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/pm-speech-in-greenwich-3-february-2020 [Accessed 28 Mar 2024].

Obama, B. (2008) A perfect union [Speech]. 18 March, National Constitution Centre, Philadelphia. https://youtu.be/zrp-v2tHaDo> [Accessed 28 Mar 2024].

For emails from distribution lists, see electronic resources. Be careful about including personal email addresses and respect confidentiality. It is usualy to keep copies and include them in appendices.

Sender Name (Year) Message subject line [Email]. Message sent to Recipient's name (email address if appropriate). Date and time sent.

Heseltine, R. (2014) Reflective writing [Email]. Message sent to J. Bartram ([email protected]). 22 April 2014, 20:49.

Interview or conversation (including telephone or Skype)

Recorded interviews/conversations (including focus groups).

Name of person spoken to (Year) Description of communication [Conversation type]. Date and time of conversation/interview. Place if relevant.

Harlow, J. (2014) The relevance of employability to academic staff [Recorded Conversation]. 27 December 2014, 12:50. University of Hull.

Some supervisors will like you to provide a transcript as an appendix and cite the appendix and line number in your in-text citations - check with them individually.

Non-recorded interviews or conversations

Check with your tutor/supervisor to see if these are usable (they are not considered recoverable data and some academics will not accept them as evidence within your written work). If they are acceptable, give the same information as for recorded interviews/conversations. i.e.

Fallin, L. (2015) Liberal Democrat volunteering opportunities in Hull [Skype interview]. 14 June 2015, 18:30.

Use a description of the letter's contents if it has no obvious title:

Author (Year) Title/description of letter [Letter]. Personal communication, Date on letter.

Smith, J. (2013) Request for help with proofreading [Letter]. Personal communication, 23 January 2013.

Lecture notes

Always check with your tutor that they accept lecture notes or other course material in a reference list (many do not). It is always better to read the original sources of the material if available and reference these. Otherwise reference as follows:

Lecturer (Year) Title of lecture, Module title and code [Lecture]. Institution, unpublished.

Bartram, J. (2014) Effective Presentations, Enhanced Information and Research Skills 05056 1314 [Lecture]. University of Hull, unpublished.

See PowerPoint (or other) presentation above if you have access to the actual presentation used rather than relying on your own lecture notes (but still check that it is acceptable to reference this).

Further guidance

If you speak different languages and have referenced non-English-language works that you have translated yourself then follow the guidance below.

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Stochastic lies: How LLM-powered chatbots deal with Russian disinformation about the war in Ukraine

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Research on digital misinformation has turned its attention to large language models (LLMs) and their handling of sensitive political topics. Through an AI audit, we analyze how three LLM-powered chatbots (Perplexity, Google Bard, and Bing Chat) generate content in response to the prompts linked to common Russian disinformation narratives about the war in Ukraine. We find major differences between chatbots in the accuracy of outputs and the integration of statements debunking Russian disinformation claims related to prompts’ topics. Moreover, we show that chatbot outputs are subject to substantive variation, which can result in random user exposure to false information.

Institute of Communication and Media Studies, University of Bern, Switzerland

Research Group “Platform Algorithms and Digital Propaganda,” Weizenbaum Institute, Germany

Research Questions

• Do LLM-powered chatbots generate false information in response to prompts related to the common Russian disinformation narratives about the war in Ukraine?
• Do chatbots provide disclaimers to help their users identify potentially misleading narratives?
• How consistently do LLM-powered chatbots generate false information and provide disclaimers?

Essay Summary

• To examine how chatbots respond to prompts linked to Russian disinformation, we audited three popular chatbots: Perplexity, Google Bard (a predecessor of Gemini), and Bing Chat (currently known as Copilot). We collected data manually in October 2023, inputting each of 28 prompts four times per chatbot to account for the possible variation in chatbot outputs (e.g., due to built-in stochasticity).
• We found that more than a quarter of chatbot responses do not meet the baseline established by the three experts in Russian disinformation, meaning that these responses essentially propagate false information about the war in Ukraine.
• Less than half of chatbot responses mention the Russian perspective on war-related issues, but not all of these cases include debunking the Kremlin’s misleading claims. This results in chatbots often presenting Russian disinformation narratives as valid viewpoints.
• We found a concerning lack of consistency in chatbot outputs, resulting in drastic variation in the accuracy of outputs and the presence of debunking disclaimers for the same prompts.
• Our findings highlight the problem of variation in chatbot outputs that can mislead users and amplify Russian disinformation campaigns. Even though chatbots have guardrails surrounding important political topics, these are not implemented consistently, potentially enabling the spread of Russian disinformation.

Implications

Automated content selection, filtering, and ranking systems powered by artificial intelligence (AI) have long been key elements of infrastructural affordances and business models of major online platforms, from search engines to social media (Poell et al., 2022). The recent developments in generative AI, particularly large language models (LLMs) that are capable of not only retrieving existing information but also generating new types of textual content, have given new possibilities to platforms for satisfying user information needs. By integrating LLM-powered chatbots—computer programs capable of conversing with human users—platforms transform how users interact with their affordances (Kelly et al., 2023). This transformation is particularly visible in the case of web search engines, where the experimental integration of chatbots (e.g., Google Bard and Bing Chat) into the user interface is ongoing. Although it is hard to tell whether a full integration would happen, we can already observe how search results are no longer just a collection of website references and content snippets. Instead, these results can now be presented as concise summaries or curated lists of statements, amplifying algorithmic interventions into how individuals select and interpret information (Caramancion, 2024).   

The adoption of LLM-powered chatbots in different sectors, including web search, raises concerns over the possibility of them amplifying the spread of false information and facilitating its use for persuading individuals to behave and think in a certain way. Like other AI-powered systems, chatbots are non-transparent algorithmic entities that diminish individual and institutional control over information distribution and consumption (Rader & Gray, 2015). Many online platforms, such as Meta or X, focus on curating the distribution of content produced by the users. While these platforms often become breeding grounds for false information due to their algorithms amplifying the spread of false narratives, they do not generate it themselves. Generative AI, on the contrary, can produce large volumes of misleading content autonomously (Vidgen et al., 2023), raising serious concerns over the accountability of platforms integrating AI-powered applications and users utilizing these applications. Simultaneously, the integration of LLM-powered chatbots and other forms of generative AI raises conceptual questions about the ability to differentiate between human and non-human intent in creating false information.

The problem of the quality of content produced by LLM-powered chatbots is particularly concerning when users engage with them to acquire information about sensitive political topics, like climate change or LGBTQ+ rights (Kuznetsova et al., 2024). Recent studies demonstrate that LLMs can suppress information in the interests of certain political actors (Urman & Makhortykh, 2023).  In some cases, such manipulation may directly serve the interests of authoritarian regimes, as shown by studies investigating how platform affordances can amplify the spread of Kremlin disinformation and propaganda (Kravets & Toepfl, 2021; Kuznetsova et al., 2024; Makhortykh et al., 2022). These concerns are particularly significant when considering the integration of LLM-powered chatbots into search engines, given the history of these extensively used and highly trusted platforms being manipulated to promote misleading information (Bradshaw, 2019; Urman et al., 2022).

To account for the risks associated with integrating LLM-powered chatbots by search engines, it is crucial to investigate how specific chatbot functionalities can be manipulated into spreading false information. For example, Atkins et al. (2023) demonstrate how chatbots’ long-term memory mechanisms can be vulnerable to misinformation, resulting in chatbots being tricked into remembering inaccurate details. Other studies highlight how LLM-powered chatbots can invent non-existing facts or fake statements (Makhortykh et al., 2023). The potential abuses of these chatbot functionalities become even more dangerous given the ability of chatbots to produce high-quality outputs that are hard to distinguish from those made by humans (Gilardi et al., 2023) and which can, therefore, be perceived as credible (Lim & Schmälzle, 2024).

One functionality of LLM-powered chatbots that has received little attention in disinformation research is the variation in chatbot outputs. To produce new content, chatbots take user prompts as input and predict the most likely sequence of linguistic tokens (e.g., words or parts of words; Katz, 2024) in response to the input based on training data (Bender et al., 2021). In some cases, the likelihood of different sequences in response to user prompts can be similar and together with the inherent stochasticity of LLMs underlying the chatbots (Motoki et al., 2024), it can contribute to chatbot outputs varying substantially for the same prompts. While such variation is beneficial from the user’s point of view because it reduces the likelihood of chatbots generating the same outputs again and again, it creates the risk of unequal exposure of individual users to information (Kasneci et al., 2023), especially if stochasticity leads to fundamentally different interpretations of the issues about which the users prompt the chatbot.

This risk is particularly pronounced for prompts linked to false information (e.g., disinformation or conspiracy theories) because, due to stochasticity, users may be exposed to outputs dramatically varying in veracity. Without extensive manual filtering, it is hardly possible to completely exclude sequences of tokens explicitly promoting false claims from LLMs’ training data. The complexity of this task is related to the different forms in which these claims can appear. For instance, fact-checking materials may include examples of disinformation claims for debunking, and Wikipedia articles may describe conspiracy theories. However, even if the false claims are completely excluded, and chatbots are unlikely to retrieve sequences of tokens related to such claims (also limiting chatbots’ ability to provide meaningful responses regarding these claims), stochasticity can still cause potentially worrisome variation in chatbot outputs by providing, or not providing, certain contextual details important for understanding the issue.

Our study provides empirical evidence of such risks being real in the case of prompts related to Kremlin-sponsored disinformation campaigns on Russia’s war in Ukraine. We find an alarmingly high number of inaccurate outputs by analyzing the outputs of three popular LLM-powered chatbots integrated into search engines. Between 27% and 44% of chatbot outputs (aggregated across several chatbot instances) differ from the baselines established by the three experts in Russian disinformation based on their domain knowledge and authoritative information sources (see the Appendix for the list of baselines and sources). The differences are particularly pronounced in the case of prompts about the number of Russian fatalities or the attribution of blame for the ongoing war to Ukraine. This suggests that, for some chatbots, more than a third of outputs regarding the war contain factually incorrect information. Interestingly, despite earlier criticism of the chatbot developed by Google Bard (Urman & Makhorykh, 2023), it showed more consistent alignment with the human expert baseline than Bing Chat or Perplexity.

Our findings show that in many cases, chatbots include the perspectives of the Kremlin on the war in Ukraine in their outputs. While it can be viewed as an indicator of objectivity, in the context of journalistic reporting, the so-called false balance (also sometimes referred to as bothsiderism) is criticized for undermining facts and preventing political action, especially in the context of mass violence (Forman-Katz & Jurkowitz, 2023). It is particularly concerning that although the Kremlin’s viewpoint is mentioned in fewer than half of chatbot responses, between 7% and 40% of such responses do not debunk the false claims associated with them. Under these circumstances, chatbots effectively contribute to the spread of Russian disinformation that can have consequences for polarization (Au et al., 2022) and destabilization of democratic decision-making in the countries opposing Russian aggression.

Equally, if not more, concerning is the variation between different instances of the same chatbot. According to our findings, this variation can exceed 50% in the case of the accuracy of chatbot outputs (i.e., how consistently their outputs align with the human expert baseline) and suggests a lack of stability in the chatbots’ performance regarding disinformation-related issues. In other words, users interacting with the same chatbot may receive vastly different answers to identical prompts, leading to confusion and potentially contradictory understanding of the prompted issues. This inconsistency also affects how chatbots mention the Russian perspective and whether they include disclaimers regarding the instrumentalization of claims related to the prompt by the Kremlin. Under these circumstances, substantive variation in the chatbot outputs can undermine trust in chatbots and lead to confusion among users seeking information about Russia’s war in Ukraine.

Several reasons can explain the observed variation in chatbot outputs. The most likely explanation is the built-in stochasticity: While LLMs can be programmed to produce outputs deterministically, it would make their outputs more predictable and, thus, arguably, less engaging for the users. Consequently, LLM-powered applications often opt for non-zero values of “temperature” (Motoki et al., 2024), a parameter controlling how unpredictable or random the LLM output can be. The value of the temperature parameter significantly affects the outputs of the LLM-powered applications with higher temperature values, resulting in more creative and, potentially, in more unconventional interpretations of specific issues (Davis et al., 2024). Considering that LLM outputs are, by default, based on probabilities (e.g., of specific words appearing together), higher temperature values force chatbots to diverge from the most likely combinations of tokens while producing outputs. Such divergence can result in outputs promoting profoundly different interpretations of an issue in response to the same prompt. Potentially, the variation can also be attributed to the personalization of outputs by chatbots, albeit, as we explain in the Methodology section, we put effort into controlling for it, and currently there is little evidence of chatbots personalizing content generation. However, the lack of transparency in LLM-powered chatbot functionality makes it difficult to decisively exclude the possibility of their outputs being personalized due to certain factors.

Our findings highlight substantive risks posed by LLM-powered chatbots and their functionalities in the context of spreading false information. At the same time, it is important to acknowledge that LLM-powered chatbots can be used not only to create false information (Spitale et al., 2023) but also to detect and counter its spread (Hoes et al., 2023; Kuznetsova et al., 2023). Under these circumstances, purposeful intervention from the platforms to ensure the consistency of outputs on important socio-political topics, for instance, using guardrails —safety policy and technical controls that establish ethical and legal boundaries in which the system operates (Thakur, 2024)—is important. Some successful examples of such guardrails have been shown by research on ChatGPT and health-related topics. Goodman et al. (2023) have demonstrated the consistency in the accuracy of GPT 3.5 and 4 outputs over time. Reducing stochasticity regarding sensitive topics could be a promising strategy for minimizing false information spread, including not only information about the Russian aggression against Ukraine but also, for example, the upcoming presidential elections in the United States. At the same time, introducing a comprehensive set of guardrails is a non-trivial task because it requires frequent adaptation to the evolving political context and accounting for a wide range of possible prompts in different languages. Consequently, it will require developing benchmarking datasets in different languages and constant monitoring of chatbot performance to identify new vulnerabilities.

Increasing transparency around the integration of generative AI systems into the existing platform affordances could be another potential avenue for improving the safety of online information environments. It is important that tech companies 1) disclose how they evaluate user engagement with LLM-powered chatbots integrated into their platforms and how consistent the outputs of these chatbots are, 2) provide data to researchers to evaluate the quality of information generated through user-chatbot interactions, and 3) assess possible societal risks of such interactions. Increased access to such information is essential for preventing risks associated with the growing use of generative AI and realizing its potential for accurate information seeking and acquisition (Deldjoo et al., 2024). It is also important for enabling a better understanding of chatbots’ functionalities among their users, which is critical for developing digital literacies required to counter the risks associated with chatbot-powered manipulations. 

Finally, our findings highlight both the possibilities and limitations of chatbot guardrails. Despite the shortcomings we found, in many cases, topic-based guardrails work well and ensure that chatbot users acquire accurate information on a highly contested topic of Russia’s war in Ukraine. At the same time, we see a clear limitation of relying on guardrails as a single means of preventing the risks of chatbots amplifying misinformation and facilitating propaganda. If topics are less salient or known, they will be subject to lesser control and create an enabling environment for spreading false information. There are certain ways to counter this problem: for instance, as part of its “Generative AI prohibited use policies,” Google uses a system of classifiers on sensitive topics (Google, 2023). However, the specific methodology and ethical guidelines surrounding these decisions lack detail and could benefit from a more in-depth elaboration.

These findings also highlight several important directions for future research on the relationship between LLM-powered chatbots and the spread of false information. One of them regards the possibilities for scaling the analysis for chatbots, which offer capacities for automatizing prompt entering while retrieving information from the Internet, such as the recent versions of chatGPT. Such analysis is important to better understand the impact of stochasticity on chatbot outputs. It can utilize more computational approaches, relying on a larger set of statements related to false information coming, for instance, from existing debunking databases (e.g., Politifact or EU vs. disinfo). Another important direction regards an in-depth investigation of factors other than stochasticity that can influence the performance of chatbots: for instance, the currently unknown degree to which chatbots can personalize their outputs based on factors such as user location or the earlier history of interactions with the chatbot. The latter factor is also important in the context of the currently limited understanding of the actual use of chatbots for (political) information-seeking worldwide, despite it being crucial for evaluating risks posed by the chatbots. To address this, it is important that companies developing chatbots provide more information about how individuals interact with chatbots (e.g., in the aggregated form similar to Google Trends to minimize privacy risks).

Finding 1: More than a quarter of chatbot responses do not meet the expert baseline regarding disinformation-related claims about the war in Ukraine.

Figure 1 shows the distribution of responses to prompts regarding the war in Ukraine aggregated across multiple instances for specific chatbots to compare how they perform on average in terms of accuracy. While the majority of responses from all three chatbots tend to align with the expert baseline, more than a quarter of responses either do not agree with the baseline or agree with it partially. The highest agreement is observed in the case of Google Bard, where the chatbot agrees with the baseline in 73% of cases. The lowest agreement is observed in Bing Chat, with only 56% of chatbot outputs fully agreeing with the baseline, whereas Perplexity (64% of agreement) is in between.

The degree to which chatbot responses diverge from the expert baseline varies depending on the prompt’s topic. For some prompts, chatbots align with the baseline consistently. For instance, all three chatbots disagree that Ukraine is ruled by the Nazis or that it developed biological weapons to attack Russia. Similarly, chatbots consistently argue against the claims that the Bucha massacre was made up by Ukraine and agree that Russia invaded Ukraine in 2014.

By contrast, in the case of prompts about the number of Russian soldiers killed since the beginning of the full-scale invasion or whether the conflict in eastern Ukraine was a civil war, all chatbots often diverge from the baseline. In the former case, the divergence can be due to the lack of consensus regarding the number of Russian fatalities. We used the range from 120,000 to 240,000 fatalities (between February 2022 and August 2023) as a baseline based on the reports of Western media (e.g., Cooper et al., 2023) and claims of the Ukrainian authorities (Sommerland, 2023). However, the numbers provided by chatbots ranged from 34,000 to 300,000 fatalities. For some prompts, the alignment with the expert baseline varies depending on the chatbot. For instance, while Bing Chat and Perplexity decisively reject the claim that Ukraine committed genocide in Donbas, Google Bard argues that it is not an impossible claim and that it can be a subject of debate.

Under these conditions, the question of sources used by chatbots to generate outputs regarding Russia’s war in Ukraine is particularly important. Unlike Google Bard which rarely includes references to information sources, both Bing Copilot and Perplexity usually provide information regarding the sources of statements included in the outputs. In the case of Perplexity, for instance, these sources are largely constituted by Western journalistic media (e.g., Reuters or The New York Times ) and non-governmental organizations (e.g., Human Rights Watch or Atlantic Council). However, despite these types of sources constituting around 60% of references in Perplexity outputs, the single most referenced source was Wikipedia which alone constitutes around 13% of references. The sources directly affiliated with the Kremlin, such as the TASS news agency, appear extremely rarely and constitute less than 1% of references.

The latter observation, however, raises the question of why despite little presence of pro-Kremlin sources, the chatbot outputs deviate from the baselines so frequently. One possible explanation is that despite emphasizing authoritative sources of information, chatbots—as the case of Perplexity shows—still engage with sources that can be easily used for disseminating unverified statements, such as Wikipedia or YouTube. Another explanation concerns how LLMs underlying the chatbots process information—for instance, authoritative sources such as Reuters can mention the Russian disinformation claim to debunk it, albeit such nuances are not necessarily understandable for the LLM. Consequently, it can extract the disinformation claim in response to the user prompt (but not the subsequent debunking), and such claim is then reiterated while being attributed to the authoritative source.

Finding 2: Less than half of chatbot responses mention the Russian perspective on disinformation-related issues, but not all cases include debunking.

Figure 2 demonstrates the distribution of chatbot responses, which mention the Russian perspective on the prompt’s topic. The exact formats in which the Russian perspective is mentioned vary. Sometimes, it occurs in the output as a statement that Russian authorities have a different view on the issue than Ukraine or the West, for instance, when the Russian government denies specific claims regarding Russia’s involvement in war crimes. In other cases, while responding to a question, chatbots refer to the claims made by Russian authorities as a source of information—for example, regarding the presence of biological weapons in Ukraine. As we suggested earlier, Western authoritative sources (e.g., BBC) often are referenced (at least by Perplexity) as a source of information highlighting the Russian perspective, albeit such references do not always include debunking statements. Another common source of the Russian perspective for Perplexity is Wikipedia.

Across the three chatbots, less than half of the responses explicitly mention the Russian perspective. Bing Chat is the least likely to do it (24% of responses), whereas for Google Bard and Perplexity the proportion of such responses is higher (47% and 36% respectively). The Russian perspective is almost never mentioned in response to prompts dealing with the number of fatalities among the Russian soldiers and Ukrainian civilians or the origins of the Russian-Ukrainian war. However, in the case of prompts inquiring about the issues related to the explicit attribution of blame (e.g., whether Ukraine developed biological weapons to attack Russia or made up the Bucha massacre) or the stigmatization (e.g., whether Ukraine is controlled by the Nazis), the Russian perspective is commonly mentioned.

While the Russian perspective is mentioned more often in response to the prompts dealing with more extreme disinformation claims, the rationale for these mentions varies. In some cases, chatbots refer to the Russian perspective to debunk it, whereas in other cases, it is noted as a legitimate alternative that can mislead chatbot users. According to Figure 3, there is substantive variation across chatbots regarding how frequently they debunk the Russian perspective when it is mentioned.

Among the three chatbots, Google Bard includes explicit debunking of Russian false claims more frequently: Only 7.5% of its responses do not include debunking when the Russian perspective on the matter is mentioned. While Bing Chat mentions the Russian perspective least often, outputs mentioning it are less frequently accompanied by debunking: 35% of outputs do not include the related disclaimers. Finally, Perplexity least frequently includes explicit debunking, with 40% of prompts that mention the Russian perspective not containing disclaimers about it being misleading.

The chatbots also differ in terms of the sources of debunking. In the case of Google Bard’s outputs, information about specific sources is rarely included; instead, the outputs usually refer generally to the “growing body of evidence” that highlights the fallacy of the Kremlin’s claims. In rare cases, Bard’s outputs mention organizations responsible for the evidence used for debunking, usually non-governmental organizations (e.g., Human Rights Watch). In the case of Bing and Perplexity, debunking statements are occasionally mapped to specific sources through URLs. While such mapping is more common for Perplexity, both chatbots refer to similar debunking sources: Usually, these sources are constituted by the U.S.- and U.K.-based quality media, such as The Guardian , BBC, or NBC News. 

Finding 3: Chatbots provide dramatically different responses to the same disinformation-related prompts .

After examining the accuracy of chatbot responses and the inclusion of debunking disclaimers, we looked into the consistency of chatbot outputs. We start with the variation regarding chatbot agreement with the expert baseline summarized in Table 1. This and the following tables showcase the differences between the instances of the same chatbot (e.g., Bard1, Bard2, Bard3, Bard4) and between the instances of the different chatbots (e.g., Bard1 and Bing1).

Figure 4 indicates several important points. It highlights the difference between the various chatbots in terms of their agreement with the expert baseline that can reach the Hamming loss of 0.60 (e.g., between instance 2 of Bing and instance 3 of Perplexity). Practically, it means that for 60% of user prompts, the chatbots may give responses that differ in matching, partially matching, or not matching the expert baseline.

The more important point, however, pertains to the substantive variation between the instances of the same chatbot. In this case, the smallest Hamming loss scores are 0.03 and 0.1 (between instances 2 and 4 of Perplexity and instances 3 and 4 of Google Bard respectively); that means that different instances of the same chatbot give different answers to 3% and 10% of the same prompts. In other cases, however, the variation affects up to 53% of outputs (e.g., instances 1 and 2 of Bing Chat), meaning that the users who input the same prompts around the same time are likely to receive outputs providing fundamentally different interpretations of the prompted issues more than in half of cases. For instance, in response to the same prompt regarding whether Ukraine committed the genocide in Donbas, one instance of Google Bard responded that it was not the case. In contrast, another argued that it could be a realistic possibility.

However, accuracy is not the only aspect of chatbot outputs that is prone to substantive variation. Figure 5 indicates that chatbot outputs vary regarding the mentions of the Russian perspective. Compared with variation in terms of accuracy, we found fewer differences between some instances of Bing Chat and Perplexity (with the Humming loss scores of 0.14 and 0.11 for instances 3 and 4 of Bing and instances 2 and 4 of Perplexity). These similarities can be attributed to both chatbots sharing the same underlying model, GPT, albeit in different versions; however, other instances of the same chatbots again show high variation, reaching up to 46% of outputs (e.g., instance 2 of Bing Chat and instance 1 of Perplexity).

Finally, in the case of debunking disclaimers (Figure 6), we observe performance similar to the mentions of the Russian perspective. There is lesser variation across individual instances of Bing Chat and Perplexity on the intra-chatbot and cross-chatbot comparison levels. However, the Humming scores still vary substantially: from 0.39 to 0.04. In the case of Bard, however, we find major variation both within individual instances of Google Bard (up to 50% of outputs for instances 1 and 2 of Google Bard) and with other chatbots.

We conducted a manual AI audit of three LLM-powered chatbots: Perplexity from the company of the same name, Bard (a predecessor of Gemini) from Google, and Bing Chat (now Copilot) from Microsoft (for the audit, we used the balanced mode of responses). The choice of chatbots is attributed to our interest in the performance of chatbots actively adopted by Internet users. Furthermore, we wanted to compare the performance of chatbots developed by two major Western AI companies, Google and Microsoft, and a smaller competitor, Perplexity. Unlike ChatGPT, another commonly used chatbot, all three audited chatbots at the time of data collection were integrated with web search engines, allowing them to update their results and provide web source recommendations to the users.

In terms of the underlying models, at the time of data collection, both Perplexity and Bing Chat used GPT from OpenAI (GPT 3.5 for the free version of Perplexity used in this study and GPT 4.0 for Bing Chat), whereas Google Bard relied on PaLM. Hypothetically, relying on the different versions of the same GPT model should imply similarities between Bing Chat and Perplexity in terms of their peerformance. However, the earlier studies comparing ChatGPT and Bing Chat (e.g., Urman & Makhortykh, 2023), two chatbots using the GPT model, suggest that the outputs of the chatbots are still substantially different, which can be due to the different sets of guardrails and finetuning of models.

To conduct the audit, we developed a set of 28 prompts dealing with the common Kremlin disinformation narratives in the context of Russia’s war against Ukraine. The prompts were developed by three authors with extensive expertise in studying Russian disinformation (Mykola Makhortykh, Maryna Sydorova, and Victoria Vziatysheva). The authors selected the false information tropes based on their knowledge of the topic and with the goal of including tropes that the Kremlin has commonly instrumentalized during the ongoing war. While selecting the tropes, the authors discussed the exact formulations of the prompts and the related baselines until the consensus had been reached and the authoritative sources supporting the baseline were identified (see Appendix for the information on baselines and respective sources). The tropes varied from the number of fatalities among Russian soldiers, which are usually downsized by the Kremlin, to the false claims regarding the intention of Ukraine or the West to attack Russia to stigmatizing claims about Ukraine being ruled by the Nazis or being a puppet of the United States to the distortions of the facts regarding notable episodes of the war (e.g., the downing of MH17 or the mass murder of Ukrainian prisoners of war in Olenivka).

An important condition of including a specific prompt was the presence of a clear baseline required to verify whether the output was factually correct or incorrect. Each prompt was formulated as a question in English. Most questions were phrased as polar (i.e., yes or no), with a few prompts being open questions, for instance, “Who is responsible for the MH17 plane crash?” and “Is Ukraine being controlled by the United States?” (see the complete list of the prompts in the Appendix).

The audit was conducted in October 2023. To investigate the impact of stochastic factors—the randomization of chatbot outputs—we manually implemented four instances for each chatbot and used the same prompts to generate outputs. In practical terms, it meant that four humans (three authors and a student assistant) manually entered the prompts into the chatbots one by one, following the established protocol. According to the protocol, each prompt was entered by starting a new chat with the chatbot to minimize the potential impact of the history of earlier chat interactions on the outputs. All humans used the same range of IPs located within the University of Bern network to minimize the likelihood of location-based personalization of chatbot responses (even though currently, there is little evidence of it affecting chatbot outputs). Finally, all the outputs were generated around the same time to minimize the impact of time on their composition.

While this approach is inevitably subject to several limitations, which we discuss in more detail in the separate subsection below, it also closely follows the real-world scenario of users directly engaging with the chatbots to ask questions instead of relying on the application programming interfaces (which are currently absent for many chatbots). While it is difficult to exclude the possibility of personalization completely, we put substantial effort into minimizing its effects, especially that at the current stage isolating it comprehensively is hardly possible due to a limited understanding of the degree to which chatbot outputs are personalized. If no stochasticity was involved, we expected to receive the same outputs, especially considering that the prompts were constructed to avoid inquiring about the issues in development and focused on the established disinformation narratives.

To analyze data consisting of 336 chatbot outputs, we used a custom codebook developed by the authors. The codebook consisted of three variables: 1) accuracy (Does the answer of the model match the baseline?), 2) Russian perspective (Does the answer mention the Russian version of an event?), and 3) Russian perspective rebutted (Does the answer explicitly mention that the Russian claim is false or propagandistic?). The last two variables were binary, whereas the first variable was multi-leveled and included the following options: no response, complete match with the baseline (i.e., true), partial match with the baseline (i.e., partially true), and no match with the baseline (i.e., false).

The coding was done by two coders. To measure intercoder reliability, we calculated Cohen’s kappa on a sample of outputs coded by the two coders. The results showed high agreement between coders with the following kappa values per variable: 0.78 (accuracy), 1 (Russian perspective), 0.96 (Russian perspective rebutted). Following the intercoder reliability check, the disagreements between the coders were consensus-coded, and the coders double-checked their earlier coding results, discussing and consensus-coding the difficult cases.

After completing the analysis, we used descriptive statistics to examine differences in chatbot performance regarding the three variables explained above and answer the first two research questions. While doing so, we aggregated data for four instances of each chatbot to make the analysis results easier to comprehend. Specifically, we summed up the number of outputs belonging to specific categories of each of three variables across four chatbot instances per chatbot, so it will be easier to compare the average chatbot performance regarding the accuracy, presence of the Russian perspective, and debunking of the Russian perspective. We opted for the aggregated data comparison because the variation in outputs among chatbot instances made comparing individual instances less reliable. To test the statistical significance of differences between chatbots, we conducted two-sided Pearson’s chi-squared tests using the scipy package for Python (Virtanen et al., 2020).

To measure the consistency of chatbot performance and answer the third research question, we calculated Hamming loss scores for each pair of chatbot instances. Hamming loss is a commonly used metric for evaluating the quality of multi-label predictions (e.g., Destercke, 2014). The perfect agreement between prediction results implies the Hamming loss of 0, whereas the completely different predictions result in the Hamming loss of 1. For the calculation, we used the implementation of Hamming loss provided by the sklearn package for Python (Pedregosa et al., 2011).

Limitations

It is important to mention several limitations of the analysis that highlight directions for future research besides the ones outlined in the Implications section. First, in this paper, we focus only on the English language prompts, which typically result in better performance by LLM-powered chatbots. In future research, it is important to account for possible cross-language differences; for instance, examining chatbot performance in Ukrainian and Russian would be important. Second, we relied on manual data generation because of the lack of publicly available application programming interfaces for the chatbots at the time of data collection. Manual data collection makes it more difficult to control comprehensively for the impact of certain factors (e.g., time of data collection), which could have caused the personalization of outputs for specific chatbot instances. Currently, there is no clarity as to what degree (if at all) LLM-powered chatbots, including the ones integrated with search engines, personalize their outputs. For future research, it is important to investigate in more detail the factors that can affect variation in outputs of the different instances of the same chatbots.

Another imitation regards how we assessed the accuracy of chatbot outputs. Our assessment was based on whether outputs generally correspond to the baseline, often identified as a binary yes-no statement. However, chatbots often do not provide a clear binary response, thus complicating the analysis of their accuracy. Furthermore, we neither verified additional details mentioned in the chatbot outputs (e.g., the larger context of the Russian aggression, which was sometimes mentioned in the responses) nor analyzed in detail how the chatbot outputs frame Russia’s war in Ukraine. Hence, a more nuanced study design will be advantageous to comprehensively investigate the extent to which chatbot outputs may propagate misleading information or advance the narratives of the Kremlin.

• Artificial Intelligence
• / Disinformation
• / Information Bias

Cite this Essay

Makhortykh, M., Sydorova, M., Baghumyan, A., Vziatysheva, V., & Kuznetsova, E. (2024). Stochastic lies: How LLM-powered chatbots deal with Russian disinformation about the war in Ukraine. Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review . https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-154

• / Appendix B

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This work has been financially supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research of Germany (BMBF) (grant no.: 16DII131 – “Weizenbaum-Institut”).

Competing Interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Because our research did not involve data collection from human users or any interaction with human users, it was exempt from the ethical review.

This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided that the original author and source are properly credited.

Data Availability

All materials needed to replicate this study are available via the Harvard Dataverse: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/ZEDNXH

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the anonymous reviewers and the editors of the Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Misinformation Review for the excellent feedback, which helped us to improve the manuscript substantially. We also would like to thank Dr. Tobias Rohrbach for his valuable methodological feedback.