research proposal on teaching methods

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

A proposal on teaching methodology: cooperative learning by peer tutoring based on the case method

2014, 12th Education and Training in Optics and Photonics Conference

Related Papers

Luísa Soares

Purpose – Tutoring or mentoring is a form of mutual and informal learning which has distant origins. This is a way of sharing knowledge and experience which has been proved to be extremely useful in educational settings, particularly where there is a peer that plays the role of tutor. Despite its informal characteristic, tutoring should be a structured process, with defined goals and clear roles for both: tutors and tutees, those who benefit from tutoring. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – As this paper aims to explore a pilot project, it was used as a reflexive and practical methodology, in a case study, analyzing the number of participants attending the project as well as the contents of the training course. Findings – In this first project in a Portuguese university, 35 students attended as candidates to tutor, participating in the training course, showing interest in helping their colleagues. Originality/value – This proposal for a tutoring program in a public higher institution aims to train college students to help other colleagues, giving academic support, helping in the adaptation to academic context, promoting autonomy in learning, sharing effective strategies and helping in maintenance of positive interpersonal relationships. These aspects are very important to promote academic success in higher education.

Teaching and Teacher Education

Cecil Clark , Myra Welling , Lynnette Erickson

Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences

Odet M O L I N E R Garcia

Tias Rostiana

Diah Charming

Angeles Andreu-Andrés

The hypothesis that the same educational objective, raised as cooperative or collaborative learning in university teaching does not affect students' perceptions of the learning model, leads this study. It analyses the reflections of two students groups of engineering that shared the same educational goals implemented through two different methodological active learning strategies: Simulation as cooperative learning strategy and Problem-based Learning as a collaborative one. The different number of participants per group (eighty-five and sixty-five, respectively) as well as the use of two active learning strategies, either collaborative or cooperative, did not show differences in the results from a qualitative perspective. Resumen La hipótesis de que un mismo objetivo educativo planteado como aprendizaje cooperativo o colaborativo en enseñanza universitaria no afecta a la percepción que los estudiantes tienen de dicho modelo de aprendizaje, guía este trabajo. En él se analizan las reflexiones de dos grupos de estudiantes de ingeniería que compartieron los mismos objetivos educativos implementados a través de dos estrategias metodológicas activas diferentes de aprendizaje: la simulación como estrategia de aprendizaje cooperativo y el aprendizaje basado en problemas como estrategia colaborativa. El número distinto de participantes por grupo (ochenta y cinco frente a sesenta y cinco, respectivamente) así como el uso de dos estrategias de aprendizaje activas, bien colaborativa o cooperativa, no arrojaron diferencias en los resultados del análisis cualitativo. Palabras clave: colaborativo, cooperativo, aprendizaje a través de la experiencia, estudios de ingeniería. Traditional engineering educational strategies and techniques have been criticized because they promote passive learning and a curriculum aimed at retention of facts that

Ecu Publications Pre 2011

Joseph Luca

Najabat Ali

The study attempts to investigate the concept of peer tutoring and its impact on learning. Peer tutoring can be applied among the students of the same age group or students from different age groups. The students learn from each other in an organized way through the process. It is a well-organized and beneficial learning experience in which one-student acts as the tutor or teacher and the other one serves as the tutee or learner. Peer tutoring creates an opportunity for the students to utilize their knowledge and experience in a meaningful way. In this process the tutors reinforce their own learning through reviewing and reformulating their knowledge. On the other hand, the learner or tutee gets one on one attention. Peer tutoring enables both tutor and tutee to gain self-confidence, the tutor by observing self-competence in his or her capability to help someone and the tutee by gaining positive reinforcement from the peers. Therefore, peer tutoring has a very positive impact on the process of learning.

Irina Avvakumova

Providing senior students with a basic professional education in the field of economics and management is most effective when applying a project and research activity, as well as the analysis of modern data and digital technologies methods. At the same time, introducing initial specialized education in the field of economics and managerial orientation, implemented in the "school higher educational institution" paradigm, does not imply the formation of narrow specialists, but reveals to them actual attractive facets in a particular field, highlighting the competencies of the future profession they have chosen, different aspects of which they encounter daily. In this regard, the most important today is the transition to a more sophisticated "teacher-tutor" level of education, which helps to look at the research problem from a different angle so that the "ideal" images in senior students’ minds could lead to the formulation of vital ideas which will transf...

G. Carmody , Georgina Carmody

First year mathematics and statistics classes generally do not accommodate to the range of technical abilities which students have when they enter into first year university. UTS offers extra support for first year students by the use of a Mathematics and ICT Study Centre. This resource is available for students from a variety of faculties, who study or use Mathematics in their degree. A peer tutoring service has been implemented in the study centre with volunteer students from third year mathematics and statistics classes being rostered, simultaneously bridging the gap in the budget and the students' education. This paper describes a study which used qualitative methods to examine the motives and benefits that have opened up for the student tutors through peer tutoring. Peer tutoring is defined as students taking on the role of a teacher to other students of either the same academic level or lower. It is important because it has great potential in the development of students' skills both educationally and personally. Much work has been done on looking at the benefits of peer education as a whole and of different aspects of peer education. Damon and Phelps (1989) distinguish three approaches to peer education namely peer tutoring, cooperative learning and peer collaboration. Cooperative learning is generally a team based learning approach where students pool their resources together on a particular topic and in peer collaboration simultaneously approach all aspects of a topic, constantly working together. With these two aspects of peer education, the students are generally on an equal level to one another whereas in peer tutoring, one student takes on the role of a tutor and the other(s) take the role of a tutee. Griffin & Griffin (1998) investigated the positive effects of reciprocal peer tutoring on various educational levels. They found that peer tutoring is effective at increasing student achievement for both the tutor and the tutee with the tutor often benefiting more than the tutee. Peer tutoring schemes have been implemented in a variety of subjects and educational levels. Carroll (1996) discusses the effectiveness of senior medical students acting as co-tutors working in tandem to the academic tutor for first year biology students and Bush (1985) describes a peer tutoring program used for introductory accounting courses as a possible suitable substitute to current laboratory classes. In both of these cases the senior students were paid as academic tutors and were able to relieve full time academic staff while at the same time providing quality tuition to first year tertiary students. Peer tutoring has benefits not only for the tutee but also for the tutor as a means of promoting educational and personal development. Both Hopkin (1988) and Houston & Lazenbatt (1999) investigate the use of reciprocal peer tutoring within a class environment at a tertiary level where each student (or group of students) in the class is responsible for a particular topic and then take on the role of the tutor, teaching that particular topic to the other students in the class. They found that this type of peer tutoring fostered independent and responsible learning, promoted greater levels of communication, student participation and a deeper understanding of the work involved (mathematically in Hopkin and educationally in Houston & Lazenbatt) for the tutors. This paper describes a study of a peer tutoring program where senior students voluntarily take on the role of an academic tutor for first year mathematics students. Unlike the other papers discussed, this study used qualitative analysis of the use of peer tutoring from senior students who were volunteering their time and efforts, not for financial gain or means of passing a subject, but rather as a genuine commitment to the further development of mathematics for themselves and others. We shall describe the different approaches the tutors took in teaching mathematics, their reasons for volunteering, accomplishments achieved and any connections between them, how their views on learning mathematics and mathematics in general have changed since tutoring, and look into the different approaches to and depths of their own mathematics and how the peer tutors' responses reflect these. This paper is important because it confirms the belief that positive benefits are gained through peer tutoring while exploring a new realm of what is possible within this tutoring system.

RELATED PAPERS

“Experimenting with Intelligence Education: Challenges in the Design of Multidisciplinary Undergraduate Intelligence Analysis Programs in the United States” Routledge International Handbook of Universities, Security and Intelligence Studies (Ed. Liam Gearon). Routledge. 2019.

Stephen Marrin

Geomatics, Natural Hazards and Risk

Prachand M . Pradhan

David A King

Rares Andrei Goia

Edi Pranyoto

Alexandria Engineering Journal

PRADYUMNA PATTNAIK

Journal of Human Lactation

Vishnu khanal

Koojana Kuladinithi

Nature Physics

Thomas Konrad

Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry

Michael Rutzke

Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment

Jason Hayward

jyotishraj thoudam

TAP CHI SINH HOC

Hà Trần Thu

Annales Africaines de Medecine

Babatuiamu Titigah

Leonardo Lugoboni

Abdullah Qamar

Engr Farooq Khan

José Luis Lalueza

Tomáš Najser

Veterinary World

Bukar Umaru

Histopathology

Robert West

Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica

Andreas Kofoed

Measurement

Sergey Muravyov

International Journal of Pavement Engineering

Masoud Kayhanian

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

• Reference Manager
• Simple TEXT file

People also looked at

Curriculum, instruction, and pedagogy article, research methods in teacher education: meaningful engagement through service-learning.

• 1 Department of Education and Centre for Teacher Education, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
• 2 Ecological Economics & RCE Vienna, Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria
• 3 Centre for Teacher Education, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

Competence in research methods is a major contribution to (future) teachers’ professionalism. In the pedagogical approach presented here, which we call the Teaching Clinic, we combine service-learning and design-based research to create meaningful learning engagements. We present two cases to illustrate the objectives, processes, and outcomes of the service-learning projects and reflect about both in terms of learning and service outcomes. This includes discussions of how this pedagogical approach led to motivation and engagement, how principles of transfer of training are obeyed, and what this means quite generally for school-university relationships.

Introduction

Research skills, such as the knowledge and skills necessary to pose clear (scientific) questions, to critically review the literature, and to collect, analyze, and interpret data, are important to navigate the complexity of daily life. This is also true for teachers, where research skills and increasingly seen as important elements of professionalism ( Amirova et al., 2020 ) and the establishment of evidence-based teaching practices ( Burke et al., 2005 ). In this article, we aim to present case studies of a pedagogical approach that helps in increasing the perceived relevance of discussing methodological issues within teacher education ( Davidson and Palermo, 2015 ): the Teaching Clinic (TC).

TCs are designed as semester-long courses in which teachers in training (now “students”) collaborate with practicing teachers (now “teachers”) on pedagogical innovations in the teachers’ classrooms through design-based research ( Bakker, 2018 ). They can be seen as instances of service learning in the domain of teacher education ( Stoecker, 2016 ). TCs tackle the combined needs of students, such as the wish for more formal experiences directly in the school-context and obtaining well-transferable competences and knowledge, and teachers, who may want a more direct access to state-of-the-art knowledge and support in implementing pedagogical innovations.

The objective of this article is to present the pedagogical approach taken in the TC and to explore its outcomes in terms of research competence and service through the accounts of stakeholders to the TC. Specifically, we present two exemplary projects that were conducted within the TC and showcase the reflections from students, teachers, and the course facilitators.

Context and Frameworks

The Teaching Clinic (TC) is a course for Master students in a teacher education curriculum at an Austrian university. Established teachers submit research questions about current professional challenges. These questions are then picked up by students, who conceptualize and execute research projects to find evidence based solutions.

The primary objective of doing research at this very local and practical level is to instill a scientific mindset in the students. Research skills are increasingly seen as tools of the professional practice; not as something confined to academic research. Importantly, this perspective is not only shared with the students that work on the projects, but also with the teachers that submit them. In that sense, the TC is about the transfer from university to practice (see also the current debate about “Third Mission”; Schober et al., 2016 ).

In terms of research methods, two secondary objectives of the format exist. First, the TC presents a clear purpose, and, therefore, motivation, to apply research methods. Second, the students apply research methods in a context that is almost identical to the context of their later work. This facilitates the transfer from the training context to the subsequent professional work as teachers ( Blume et al., 2010 ; Quesada-Pallarès and Gegenfurtner, 2015 ).

Main Pedagogical Approach: Service-Learning

The main pedagogical frame used to conduct the TC was service-learning ( Sotelino-Losada et al., 2021 ). There are numerous definitions of service-learning, but perhaps the most cited is the one formulated by Bringle and Hatcher (1995) , who define service-learning as a

“...course-based, credit-bearing educational experience in which students (a) participate in an organized service activity that meets identified community needs and (b) reflect on the service activity in such a way as to gain further understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and an enhanced sense of personal values and civic responsibility” (p. 212).

Service-learning is an experience-based learning approach ( Biberhofer and Rammel, 2017 ) that combines learning objectives with community service and emphasizes individual development and social responsibility through providing a service for others; service situations are viewed as learning settings and opportunities for public engagement ( Forman and Wilkinson, 1997 ). According to Furco (1996) , the key lies in the equal benefit for providers (TC: students) and recipients (TC: teachers). The TC could also be discussed from the perspective of transformative learning ( Mezirow and Taylor, 2009 ), as the learning goal of the seminar is not about pure knowledge acquisition, but about “building the capacity of students as agents of change” ( Biberhofer and Rammel, 2017 , p. 66). The TC provides a rather open learning environment, in which students engage in an open dialogue with each other, with the teachers, and the course facilitator, who does not necessarily possess the necessary subject-matter expertize but provides feedback and guidance throughout this process of dialectic inquiry.

Useful Methodological Lens: Design-Based Research and Action Research

As stipulated above, the main objective of the TC is to implement research projects at a local level in the teaching context. One methodological perspective that is very well adapted to this aim is design-based research (DBR). DBR is a research approach that claims to overcome “the gap between educational practice and theory, because it aims both at developing theories about domain-specific learning and the means that are designed to support that learning” ( Bakker and Van Eerde, 2015 , p. 430). In DBR, the design of learning environments proceeds in a reflective and cyclic process simultaneous to the testing or development of theory. The design includes the selection and creation of interventions which is done in cooperation with practitioners, while holding only little control of the situation. This research approach aims to explain and advise on ways of teaching and learning that proved to be useful and to develop theories that can be of predictive nature for educational practice. Because of its interventionist nature, researchers conducting this type of research are often referred to as “didactical engineers” ( Anderson and Shattuck, 2012 ; Bakker and Van Eerde, 2015 ).

In the TC, we use DBR as a methodological frame to set up the projects. On a micro level, different projects feature very different data (e.g., video recordings, surveys among pupils, interviews, texts, etc.) and methods (e.g., field experiments, statistical analyses, content analysis, etc.). The students need to decide which ones to use, get appropriate data, and run the analysis.

In this section, we present how TCs are a useful context for becoming teachers to develop research competences. Since this is the very first discussion about TCs, we use case studies to explore the outcomes of this pedagogical format. The case studies presented here contain reflections of students, teachers, and course facilitators based on a set of guiding questions in the direction of research methods and service-learning. Specifically, two independent TC projects will be presented. The first project focused on implementing concepts of Education for Sustainable Development (EDS) in the context of socio-economically disadvantaged classes in the field of Science, Mathematics, Engineering, and Technology (STEM). A team of two students and two teachers collaborated to further develop and evaluate lesson plans based on classroom experience, pupils’ feedback, and expert knowledge. The second project focused on improving the feedback strategies in response to students’ writing in language classrooms. Using an experimental research design, a team of four students generated data to allow for the evidence-based improvement of personal feedback and marking strategies.

Both projects will be reflected from the angles of multiple stakeholders; the team of authors of this article include a Master student, a teacher, and a researcher (and facilitator of the course). This reflects the nature of the TC as a learning experience that is co-created by multiple stakeholders; the participating students are not just learners, but also co-researchers and pedagogical co-designers (see Bovill et al., 2016 ). In the context of this publication students not only helped by providing additional reflections and data (see Case 1), but also by taking the position as a co-author (Case 2 was written by a student of the project; the course facilitator, an experienced researcher and first author of this text, provided feedback but otherwise did not interfere in the writing process; for student faculty-student co-authoring also see Abbott et al., 2021 ). For each case, we will first describe the objectives as laid out by the submitting teacher(s), the methodological process to find answers to the questions posed, and the final outcomes as reported back to the teacher(s).

Case 1: Education for Sustainable Development for Socio-Economically Disadvantaged Classes in the Prevocational School Sector (Teacher’s View)

This first case about Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) for socio-economically disadvantaged classes in the prevocational school sector is presented from the point of view of the teacher (who submitted the problem to the TC).

The relevance of the global educational environment for social fields of action was already taken up by the United Nations (UN) before the turn of the millennium and led to the years 2005–2014 being declared the World Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (WDESD) ( Combes, 2005 ). In the German-speaking countries, the Orientation framework for the learning area “ Global Development ” serves as an essential contribution to explicit didactics for ESD in the secondary education sector ( Schreiber and Siege, 2016 ).

This pedagogical concept was used by the students to support two teachers at a prevocational school in implementing ESD didactics into Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) lessons. The aim of the curriculum was to help low-income pupils at a vulnerable prevocational school location to develop highly demanded competences in the field of STEM professions.

Another objective was to strengthen the students’ sense of responsibility for society and environment in alignment with the bottom-up drive of the “FridaysforFuture” movement. The starting point for the research needs in schools was a study conducted by the German Federal Environment Agency, which asked whether environmental protection as a motive is useful for addressing young people’s motivation to enter STEM professions more successfully than before ( Örtl, 2017 ). The results of the study imply, among other aspects, that STEM didactics have close links to ESD and that synergetic overlaps in this area seem to be a promising approach for STEM lessons at prevocational schools.

Throughout the TC, promising learning formats in STEM lessons were tested in iterative cycles of implementation, evaluation, and adjustment in the sense of DBR at the chosen school site. Here, learning journals produced by students for different learning formats in STEM lessons on the topic “Renewable Energies” and “Climate Change” served as the primary data to create a scientifically and empirically driven curriculum for motivating students to pursue STEM professions (see Figure 1 ).

FIGURE 1 . Overview over the work process in Case 1.

The method of structured qualitative content analysis ( Mayring, 2014 ) was used to search for indicators that make learning formats subjectively interesting for students. The students were required to document steps and problems that occurred during the implementation and evaluate the learning opportunities on an ordinal scale from one to five after completion of the learning journal. The underlying learning formats include problem-centered films, concrete technical tasks (programming, mechanics, construction, electronics, and applied computer science), external workshops and lectures with companies from the technology sector.

After an initial review of the data, implications for the indicator “perceived as subjectively interesting by the students” could be concluded. The finding showed that individual isolated learning opportunities on the topic of climate change do not necessarily lead to the desired effect of students showing intrinsic motivation to acquire relevant professional skills for finding solutions.

Based on these interim results, the TC students consulted the scientific literature, which allowed for contextualization of socially relevant and scientific-technical dimensions in the acquisition of competencies in the sense of ESD. The framework for this approach was provided by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BWZ) and the German Conference of Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (KMK) ( Schreiber and Siege, 2016 ).

Through the continuous cycles of the DBR approach using different learning formats in ongoing school lessons, the students were able to develop a hybrid ESD/STEM curriculum step by step by evaluating the data material. Decisive input for the concrete lesson plans was derived from the indicators identified through the structured content analysis according to Mayring (2014) , which were perceived by the students as subjectively interesting and motivating. Due to COVID-19-related school closures, it was not possible to complete an annual curriculum. Nevertheless, a total of 16 lessons that met the requirements of the research assignment based on the identified indicators were designed. The curriculum created through the cooperation of school and TC now serves as a preliminary study and basis for a fully empirical main study, which is to be carried out at several school locations after the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic. The results of the qualitative preliminary study were used by the students in the final step to formulate hypotheses for the main study in accordance with the underlying research question following Mayring (2014) methodological approach.

In addition to the general results of the qualitative preliminary study, various positive effects on the stakeholders could be identified in the present case as a result of the service-learning offering. The question chosen in the case study whether environmental protection issues can contextually contribute to motivating young people in STEM classes to take an interest in related professions could not be fully answered. However, the DBR approach has served to identify those indicators based on different learning formats that were rated as subjectively interesting and motivating for students. As a pedagogical and didactic core concept, the approach of the “Recognize- Evaluate- Act”-principle from the Orientation framework for the learning area “ Global Development ” ( Schreiber and Siege, 2015 ) turned out to be particularly promising. Furthermore, a concrete further research assignment for the TC could be derived from the results to initiate a fully comprehensive empirical study based on pre-formulated hypotheses.

The TC research semester was described by the students as an eye-opening experience between university teaching and practical school experience. In this case, the service-learning project enabled the Master students to implement theoretically learned scientific methods in a practical way within the school environment. The scholarly exposure to ESD content along with instructional development using STEM learning opportunities gave the Master students a holistic view into practice-based teaching and learning research.

“The exchange, especially the feedback, with teaching staff at a preparatory vocational school with difficult socio-economic conditions was far more informative and practically relevant to me than most frontal lectures at the university. In addition to the practical and school-relevant part of the research semester, the TC together with ESD principles was an enriching support for me to be able to conduct current educationally relevant research in a scientifically and methodologically correct way. The balance between the cornerstones of school practice, TC and the final research work has given me a new perspective and understanding of the profession of a teacher and the different places of work.” (Student)

Furthermore, the underlying DBR approach has been identified as a promising approach for adapting hybrid ESD-STEM learning formats and teaching contents to determine successful learning effects with students.

The service-learning concept offered freed up additional resources for instructional development that would have been difficult to implement during the regular school year due to administrative duties and other teacher commitments. This gave teachers the opportunity not only to get ideas for lesson design, but also to further develop their own teaching based on sound and up-to-date scientific methodology. Learnings reportedly included new ways “to inspire the students with new approaches and to show them that STEM cannot be purely theoretical, but that it is important for them and society.”

Through the joint development of the curriculum, it was possible to link subject-related STEM lessons with social relevance, which often seems intangible for students, especially in STEM subjects. Teachers attributed great importance to this interconnection in identifying students' ability to explore, reflect, and critically evaluate scientific content from multiple perspectives.

“Experiencing values such as sustainability, environmental awareness and solidarity […] provide a good basis for developing into independent and responsible personalities.” (Teacher)

Particularly the context of teaching at a socially vulnerable school site suggests a value-oriented attitude and precise concept of learning formats next to topics that are relevant to the realities of the young people’s lives.

The composition of the student body in the underlying pre-vocational preparation school class showed a high degree of heterogeneity in terms of country of origin and socio-economic status. 90% of the students had a first language other than German and the vast majority could be classified as belonging to a deprivileged class of the population. The empowerment of being able to work on a curriculum for their future career led to increased motivation for the lessons, which could be seen in the underlying learning journals. The motivation was also reflected in an increased learning curve in STEM-related subject knowledge. Moreover, students’ involvement with environmental and social issues of the 21st century led to an observable increased interest in technical and scientific career profiles.

Case 2: Effective Feedback (Student’s View)

The second case shall illustrate the student’s perspective and is written by a student of the TC. The project had been carried out in the summer term 2020 and was conducted by a team of four students. The collaboration took place in a school in Vienna with two teachers and two lower-secondary classes of theirs.

At the beginning of the TC, we were confronted with a common problem of teachers: An English and a German teacher reported that they spend much time correcting their pupils’ assignments while suspecting that their pupils did not use the feedback for their own progress. In close exchange with the teachers and after an initial evaluation of the problem, we formulated a project goal: an invention should be set to counteract this problem and improve the situation for both learners and teachers.

As a first step, a thorough literature review was necessary to find appropriate strategies to tackle the problem. There exists a plethora of publications about feedback strategies; to narrow down our focus, we opted for the “minimal marking” approach because this strategy directly addresses both issues voiced by the teachers. As Hyland (1990) puts it very precisely:

Many teachers find marking to be a tedious and unrewarding chore. While it is a crucial aspect of the classroom writing process, our diligent attention and careful comments only rarely seem to bring about improvements in subsequent work (p. 279).

Besides Hyland (1990) , also Haswell (1983) dedicated a publication to the same issue. Both suggested minimal marking as a solution to reduce the teacher’s workload by simultaneously increasing the positive effect of the feedback. The basic principle of minimal marking is that instead of detailed feedback, only a cross or a check is set beside the line in which the mistake occurred; subsequently, it is the pupil’s task to correct his/her own text by identifying the mistakes and correcting it using prior knowledge or a dictionary (p. 600). Thus, the pupil receives as minimal information as necessary and is encouraged to edit the text independently ( Haswell, 1983 , p. 601). Through this approach, pupils shall be enabled to edit their texts without much support of the teacher or other adults, which shall help them to develop essential writing skills. This method is considered especially effective because it requires the pupil to act on the feedback received by the teacher ( Hyland, 1990 , p. 279). Although this approach is still applied nowadays ( McNeilly, 2014 ), it has received little attention in research. Due to this research gap and our personal interest in the topic as future language teachers, we ventured out to explore the effects of minimal marking on (a) learner’s mistake awareness, (b) the time teachers spend on giving feedback and (c) the quality as perceived by pupils and teachers.

To answer these research questions, we chose a set of methods consisting of quantitative and qualitative tools (see Figure 2 ). The procedure can be described as the following: Pupils of both classes were divided in an experimental group and a control group. Then all pupils of one class were asked to write a text in response to the same task. Teachers gave feedback using their traditional method, in which they indicate every mistake and write a short comment to each one, among the control group and using the minimal marking strategy to give feedback on the texts of the experimental group. Both teachers measured the time they needed to correct every single text. Then the pupils got their texts back and edited them. Then the edited texts were collected again. Discovered and undiscovered mistakes were counted and analyzed in the texts of both groups. Time spent on correction was analyzed for each group and juxtaposed. The pupils were asked for their opinion after the experiment through an online survey which consisted of closed and open questions. Finally, the teachers shared their experience in a narrative interview, which was also conducted online.

FIGURE 2 . Experimental setup of case 2.

Although the results of this small-scale study were not statistically significant, some interesting insights could be gained. Although an increased mistake awareness among pupils could not be proved with the number of mistakes occurring in the first and second text, an increased mistake awareness can be inferred from the pupil’s answers given in the questionnaire. Several pupils highlighted the positive aspects of the minimal marking approach and considered it as (really) helpful; one of the learners summarized: “I thought more about my mistakes than I usually do and, hence, I could improve my writing skills. It was more difficult to find the mistakes, but it also helped me to get better” (translated by the authors).

Regarding the time spent for correction, an advantage of the minimal marking approach could only be detected in one of both classes. The German teacher reported an average correction time of 3:14 (first round) and 2:12 (second round) per text using the traditional method and an average time of 1:39 (first round) and 1:14 (second round) per text using the minimal marking approach. The English teacher measured similar times for both feedback strategies. Limiting factors, such as the small sample size of the project and the pupils’ unfamiliarity with the new method, need to be kept in mind when conclusions are drawn. However, this only highlights the need for further research about the effects of this specific feedback method.

Probably the most promising outcomes can be reported about the attitudes of teachers and pupils. Both teachers described the collaboration between them and the students as enriching and both want to continue the collaboration with the university. Additionally, they reported an increased interest in action research for themselves but also among their colleagues. Through the questionnaire we could also observe a positive attitude toward the experiment among pupils, which gives reason for further projects in class and to further incorporate pupils in research. And finally, we students were able to develop a deeper understanding of teacher professionalism and a more positive attitude toward the application of research in teaching. Additionally, all members of the team were convinced that they wanted to apply this method as teachers in their future practice.

As outlined above, the objectives of the pedagogical/didactical concept of the TC are to create a highly effective (co-creative) learning environment for teachers in training while at the same time delivering valuable service to practice.

Reflections on Learning

Several themes of learning emerged in the cases above. The opportunity to combine own learning with delivering a service was described as important. Being of service to someone matters and enhances the motivation of students to engage also with the methodological parts of the course. The ESD case confirms the findings of Biberhofer and Rammel (2017) derived in the context of their two-semester “Sustainability Challenge”, which has been successfully executed since 2010. Participation in real life problems increases intrinsic motivation to investigate solutions (and to apply the methods needed to carry out this investigation). The master students who carried out the minimal marking project pointed out that this collaboration enabled them to apply research methods in an authentic environment and, thus, rendered them more meaningful. Additionally, this project allowed them to engage with research methods in a demanding but motivating manner which is a frequently neglected part in teacher education. The project enabled them to practice teaching methods and evaluate them through scientific methods in a systematic way; this led to a better understanding of the vital symbiosis between research and practical teaching ( Paran, 2017 ). The exploratory case studies presented in this paper cannot give an in-depth account of the learnings processes and outcomes. Future research could seek to further explore the impact of service-learning approaches to the students’ motivation (cf. Medina and Gordon, 2014 ; Huber, 2015 ).

There are some indications that the course had a positive impact on the students’ future professionalism as teachers and their scientific attitude. In the ESD case, students’ engagement with the dimensions of ecological and social justice (which are integral components of ESD) was evident primarily at two levels. On the one hand, the professional engagement with ESD led to the desire to make its impact on students measurable through scientific methodologies. On the other hand, a reframing in the sense of transformative learning ( Mezirow and Taylor, 2009 ) about the subjective role perception as a teacher for shaping an sustainable worldview for future generations of pupils could be observed. The master students of the minimal marking project considered the collaboration with already practicing teachers as especially helpful. Firstly, this special constellation allowed them to gain practical experience besides the obligatory practicum and benefit from the teachers’ experience. Secondly, the conduction within the university context required them to combine academic research and practical teaching. This supported them in their professional development as teachers because it made them realize the importance of research methods in evidence-based teaching ( Paran, 2017 ).

Basically, having learned and experienced how to utilize research methods not just for the purpose of “pure research”, but framing it as a practice of evidence-based teaching, is expected to make teachers perform better in an increasingly VUCA (volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous; Johansen and Euchner, 2013 ; LeBlanc, 2018 ) world. The COVID-19 pandemic is a case in point here. While all teachers needed to react to the changing context, not all did so in a thoughtful and effective manner ( Hodges et al., 2020 ). Different levels of professionalism and of having a scientific mindset could be a major factor in this equation. As described above, increasing this mindset was the primary objective of the course format and we hypothesize that this is an important ingredient to foster teachers’ lifelong learning ( Bakkenes et al., 2010 ; Hoekstra and Korthagen, 2011 ).

An important strategy to increase the learning outcomes for students used in the TC is to work directly in the context that the knowledge should later be applied in. Put differently, the Master students support one individual overcoming a teaching-related challenge. This similarity of contexts aids the transfer of the learnings and helps to make them more applicable ( Blume et al., 2010 ; Burns, 2008 ). Additionally, the learning process is highly social, including peers, the course facilitator(s), and the teachers. Previous research indicates that this social dimension may additionally increase the odds of “successful” learning ( Daniel et al., 2013 ; Penuel et al., 2012 ). In the ESD case, confirmation of the success of the underlying ESD/STEM concept for increasing young people’s enthusiasm for STEM careers was a transformational realization for the teachers and master’s students in the collaborative learning process. Similarly, the minimal marking group reported an unprecedented feeling of responsibility in comparison with other university courses. Because of the knowledge that their collaborating teachers and their students profited from the project, the students’ work felt meaningful and important. Simultaneously, this environment enabled them to gain experience in research methods and practical teaching which would not be possible without this unique course format.

On the other hand, students gained practical experience in non-university organizations during their studies. In the feedback, the students commented on both, gaining experience from the school context in cooperation with the teachers and the methodological and research-oriented support by the TC itself. The work at local school sites additionally motivates the students to further develop their pedagogical and didactic knowledge in a practical setting based on current school challenges. Furthermore, the interaction of the scientific approach together with the practical school experiences enables the students to internalize their own values for contemporary teaching for their future role as teachers themselves.

Reflections on Service

The teachers involved in the projects described above reported high satisfaction with the project results and an increased interest in research even extending to their colleagues. Teachers valued the opportunity to develop and improve their teaching formats and methods based on evidence and through scientific methods. Through the collaboration with students, time-consuming research could be outsourced, and the desired role of the teacher researcher could be fulfilled despite time constraints.

As shown in Figure 1 of the ESD case, the clear division of roles with clear lines of communication and distributions of action items was a major advantage in the creation and implementation of the ESD/STEM curriculum. The well-structured method of the DBR approach throughout the semester allowed for proper planning at each point in time for the scarce time resources of the various stakeholders involved during the school year. The teachers engaged in the minimal marking project also reported an increased interest in research and collaboration with the university which further extended among their colleagues. At the end of the project, they expressed their wish to continue collaboration with students of next courses to further improve their teaching. This illustrates the positive influence on the teachers’ attitude toward research and even a potential multiplying factor of the teaching clinic on teachers beyond the active participants.

Finally, the TC can function as a promising channel to maintain communication between teachers and research ( Paran, 2017 ). The collaboration between teachers working in the field and university may lead to the identification of new research gaps on the one side and more evidence-based teaching on the other. Introducing teachers to the concept of evidence-based teaching in early stages of their education may have a positive effect on their attitude toward research in teaching and be the key to the development of a professional role teacher as researcher ( Paran, 2017 ). This illustrates the close interconnections between research at university, teacher education and practicing teachers and their potential to profit from collaboration with each other.

Other Outcomes

The TC aims to create value in terms of enhancing university social responsibility ( Vasilescu et al., 2010 ). Universities play an important role in addressing global challenges, such as growing socio-economic differences, the climate crisis, or the current COVID-19 pandemic. Irrespective of the specific disciplines, the concept of university social responsibility suggests that universities should not limit themselves to research and teaching, but should commit to solving economic, social, and ecological problems. Universities play a central role in raising students’ awareness of social responsibility to help them develop into social personalities ( Bokhari, 2017 ). In that sense, special attention must be paid to teacher education for its promise of achieving multiplication effects that will eventually reach all educational levels. The principle of “Third Mission” provides a key point of reference in this context, which emphasizes the targeted use of scientific findings to deal with a wide range of societal challenges and proposes the transfer of technologies and innovations to non-academic institutions ( Schober et al., 2016 ).

The systematic approach at hand uses a university research service to address concrete issues in the local field of schooling. The benefit lies in the possibility of merging education theory with socially relevant topics from multiple perspectives. The TC initiates a sustainable circular process, which facilitates the generation of a mutual learning curve for the university system and the school system by instrumentalizing research on an evidence-based level. Thereby, the TC acts as a door opener for practice researchers with access to the otherwise difficult to access compulsory school system.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author Contributions

DF designed the didactical concept and has written the conceptual part of this article. UH and KM were stakeholders to the two case studies presented in the article. Both have collected data for their case-study and offered their own reflections. All authors contributed to the overall discussion.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Abbott, L., Andes, A., Pattani, A., and Mabrouk, P. A. (2021). An Authorship Partnership with Undergraduates Studying Authorship in Undergraduate Research Experiences. Teaching and Learning Together in Higher Education 1 (32).

Google Scholar

Amirova, A., Iskakovna, J. M., Zakaryanovna, T. G., Nurmakhanovna, Z. T., and Elmira, U. (2020). Creative and research competence as a factor of professional training of future teachers: Perspective of learning technology. Wjet 12 (4), 278–289. doi:10.18844/wjet.v12i4.5181

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Anderson, T., and Shattuck, J. (2012). Design-Based Research. Educ. Res. 41 (1), 16–25. doi:10.3102/0013189X11428813

Bakkenes, I., Vermunt, J. D., and Wubbels, T. (2010). Teacher learning in the context of educational innovation: Learning activities and learning outcomes of experienced teachers. Learn. Instruct. 20 (6), 533–548. doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.09.001

Bakker, A. (2018). Design research in education: A practical guide for early career researchers . Abingdon, UK: Routledge . doi:10.4324/9780203701010

CrossRef Full Text

Bakker, A., and Van Eerde, D. (2015). “An introduction to design-based research with an example from statistics education”, in Approaches to qualitative research in mathematics education . Springer , 429–466. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9181-6_16

Biberhofer, P., and Rammel, C. (2017). Transdisciplinary learning and teaching as answers to urban sustainability challenges. Ijshe 18 (1), 63–83. doi:10.1108/IJSHE-04-2015-0078

Blume, B. D., Ford, J. K., Baldwin, T. T., and Huang, J. L. (2010). Transfer of Training: A Meta-Analytic Review. J. Manag. 36 (4), 1065–1105. doi:10.1177/0149206309352880

Bokhari, A. A. H. (2017). Universities‟ Social Responsibility (USR) and Sustainable Development: A Conceptual Framework. Ijems 4 (12), 8–16. doi:10.14445/23939125/IJEMS-V4I12P102

Bovill, C., Cook-Sather, A., Felten, P., Millard, L., and Moore-Cherry, N. (2016). Addressing potential challenges in co-creating learning and teaching: overcoming resistance, navigating institutional norms and ensuring inclusivity in student-staff partnerships. High Educ. 71 (2), 195–208. doi:10.1007/s10734-015-9896-4

Bringle, R. G., and Hatcher, J. A. (1995). A Service-Learning Curriculum for Faculty. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning 2 (1), 112–122.

Burke, L. E., Schlenk, E. A., Sereika, S. M., Cohen, S. M., Happ, M. B., and Dorman, J. S. (2005). Developing research competence to support evidence-based practice. J. Professional Nursing 21 (6), 358–363. doi:10.1016/j.profnurs.2005.10.011

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Burns, J. Z. (2008). Informal learning and transfer of learning: How new trade and industrial teachers perceive their professional growth and development. Career Techn. Educ. Res. 33, 3–24. doi:10.5328/cter33.1.3

Combes, B. P. Y. (2005). The United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (2005-2014): Learning to Live Together Sustainably. Appl. Environ. Educ. Commun. 4 (3), 215–219. doi:10.1080/15330150591004571

Daniel, G. R., Auhl, G., and Hastings, W. (2013). Collaborative feedback and reflection for professional growth: Preparing first-year pre-service teachers for participation in the community of practice. Asia-Pac. J. Teacher Educ. 41 (2), 159–172. doi:10.1080/1359866X.2013.777025

Davidson, Z. E., and Palermo, C. (2015). Developing Research Competence in Undergraduate Students through Hands on Learning. J. Biomed. Educ. 2015, 1–9. doi:10.1155/2015/306380

Forman, S. G., and Wilkinson, L. C. (1997). Educational policy through service learning: Preparation for citizenship and civic participation. Innov. High Educ. 21 (4), 275–286. doi:10.1007/BF01192276

Furco, A. (1996). Service-Learning: A balanced approach to experiential education , 7

Haswell, R. H. (1983). Minimal Marking. College English 45 (6), 600–604. doi:10.2307/377147

Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., and Bond, A. (2020). The Difference Between Emergency Remote Teaching and Online Learning. EDUCAUSE Quarterly 15.

Hoekstra, A., and Korthagen, F. (2011). Teacher Learning in a Context of Educational Change: Informal Learning Versus Systematically Supported Learning. J. Teacher Educ. 62 (1), 76–92. doi:10.1177/0022487110382917

Huber, A. M. (2015). Diminishing the Dread: Exploring service learning and student motivation. Ijdl 6 (1). doi:10.14434/ijdl.v6i1.13364

Hyland, K. (1990). Providing productive feedback. ELT J. 44 (4), 279–285. doi:10.1093/elt/44.4.279

Johansen, B., and Euchner, J. (2013). Navigating the VUCA World. Res.-Technol. Manag. 56 (1), 10–15. doi:10.5437/08956308X5601003

LeBlanc, P. J. (2018). Higher Education in a VUCA World. Change Magazine Higher Learn. 50 (3–4), 23–26. doi:10.1080/00091383.2018.1507370

Mayring, P. (2014). Qualitative content analysis. doi:10.4135/9781446282243

McNeilly, A. (2014). Minimal Marking: A Success Story. cjsotl-rcacea 5 (1). doi:10.5206/cjsotl-rcacea.2014.1.7

Medina, A., and Gordon, L. (2014). Service Learning, Phonemic Perception, and Learner Motivation: A Quantitative Study. Foreign Language Annals 47 (2), 357–371. doi:10.1111/flan.12086

Mezirow, J., and Taylor, E. W. (2009). Transformative learning in practice: Insights from community, workplace, and higher education . John Wiley & Sons .

Örtl, E. (2017). MINT the gap – Umweltschutz als Motivation für technische Berufsbiographien? Umweltbundesamt . https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/publikationen/mint-the-gap-umweltschutz-als-motivation-fuer

Paran, A. (2017). 'Only connect': researchers and teachers in dialogue. ELT J. 71 (4), 499–508. doi:10.1093/elt/ccx033

Penuel, W. R., Sun, M., Frank, K. A., and Gallagher, H. A. (2012). Using social network analysis to study how collegial interactions can augment teacher learning from external professional development. Am. J. Educ. 119 (1), 103–136. doi:10.1086/667756

Quesada-Pallarès, C., and Gegenfurtner, A. (2015). Toward a unified model of motivation for training transfer: A phase perspective. Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft 18 (S1), 107–121. doi:10.1007/s11618-014-0604-4

Schober, B., Brandt, L., Kollmayer, M., and Spiel, C. (2016). Overcoming the ivory tower: Transfer and societal responsibility as crucial aspects of the Bildung-Psychology approach. Eur. J. Dev. Psychol. 13 (6), 636–651. doi:10.1080/17405629.2016.1231061

J.-R. Schreiber, and H. Siege (2015). Orientierungsrahmen für den Lernbereich Globale Entwicklung [rientation Framework for the Learning Area Global Development , p. 468.

J.-R. Schreiber, and H. Siege (2015). in Curriculum Framework: Education for Sustainable Development . Engagement Global gGmbH . 2nd edn.

Sotelino-Losada, A., Arbués-Radigales, E., García-Docampo, L., and González-Geraldo, J. L. (2021). Service-Learning in Europe. Dimensions and Understanding From Academic Publication. Front. Educ. 6. doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.604825

Stoecker, R. (2016). Liberating service learning and the rest of higher education civic engagement . Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press .

Vasilescu, R., Barna, C., Epure, M., and Baicu, C. (2010). Developing university social responsibility: A model for the challenges of the new civil society. Proc. Soc. Behav. Sci. 2 (2), 4177–4182. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.660

Keywords: service-learning, design-based research, research methods, teacher education, engagement

Citation: Froehlich DE, Hobusch U and Moeslinger K (2021) Research Methods in Teacher Education: Meaningful Engagement Through Service-Learning. Front. Educ. 6:680404. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2021.680404

Received: 14 March 2021; Accepted: 05 May 2021; Published: 18 May 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 Froehlich, Hobusch and Moeslinger. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Dominik E. Froehlich, [email protected]

This article is part of the Research Topic

Teaching and Learning Research Methods: Fostering Research Competence Among Students

Teaching Research Methods Online

• First Online: 14 April 2020

Cite this chapter

• Ross A. Seligman 2  

643 Accesses

As you have read through this book, you have seen that research methods is a complicated course that requires a lot of interaction between the students and the instructor. There are so many difficult concepts for students to learn. Teaching research methods online adds another layer to the puzzle. It can be done successfully, but it involves careful planning and a lot of attention to detail. Two separate methods for teaching the course online will be discussed in this chapter: teaching it with a proposal as the final project and teaching it with a full experimental write-up as the final project.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Cuddy, A. J. C., Wilmuth, C. A., Yap, A. J., & Carney, D. R. (2015). Preparatory power posing affects nonverbal presence and job interview performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100 (4), 1286–1295.

Article   Google Scholar  

Nussbaum, D. (2015). Blog: Conceptual replication. Retrieved from http://davenussbaum.com/blog/conceptual-replication-part-i

Oppenheimer, D. M. (2006). Consequences of erudite vernacular utilized irrespective of necessity: Problems with using long words needlessly. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 20 , 139–156.

Screencast-O-Matic. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://screencast-o-matic.com/

Survey Monkey. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.surveymonkey.com

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Social Sciences Division, Pasadena City College, Pasadena, CA, USA

Ross A. Seligman

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Seligman, R.A. (2020). Teaching Research Methods Online. In: How to Teach a Course in Research Methods for Psychology Students. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42878-5_9

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42878-5_9

Published : 14 April 2020

Publisher Name : Springer, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-42877-8

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-42878-5

eBook Packages : Behavioral Science and Psychology Behavioral Science and Psychology (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• BMC Med Educ

Methods for teaching evidence-based practice: a scoping review

Camilla marie larsen.

1 Health Sciences Research Centre, UCL University College, Niels Bohrs Allé 1, 5230 Odense M, Denmark

2 Department of Physiotherapy, UCL University College, Niels Bohrs Allé 1, 5230 Odense M, Denmark

4 Research Unit for Musculoskeletal Function and Physiotherapy, Department of Sports Science and Clinical Biomechanics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, 5230 Odense M, Denmark

Anne Seneca Terkelsen

Anne-marie fiala carlsen.

3 Research Service, UCL Library, UCL University College, Niels Bohrs Allé 1, 5230 Odense M, Denmark

Hanne Kaae Kristensen

5 Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Winsløwparken 19, 5000 Odense, Denmark

Associated Data

The data used and analysed during the current scoping review are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

This scoping review aims to gather and map inspiration, ideas and recommendations for teaching evidence-based practice across Professional Bachelor Degree healthcare programmes by mapping literature describing evidence-based practice teaching methods for undergraduate healthcare students including the steps suggested by the Sicily Statement.

A computer-assisted literature search using PubMed, Cinahl, PsycINFO, and OpenGrey covering health, education and grey literature was performed. Literature published before 2010 was excluded. Students should be attending either a Professional Bachelor’s degree or a Bachelor’s degree programme. Full-text articles were screened by pairs of reviewers and data extracted regarding: study characteristics and key methods of teaching evidence-based practice. Study characteristics were described narratively. Thematic analysis identified key methods for teaching evidence-based practice, while full-text revisions identified the use of the Sicily Statement’s five steps and context.

The database search identified 2220 records. One hundred ninety-two records were eligible for full-text assessment and 81 studies were included. Studies were conducted from 2010 to 2018. Approximately half of the studies were undertaken in the USA. Study designs were primarily qualitative and participants mainly nursing students. Seven key methods for teaching evidence-based practice were identified. Research courses and workshops, Collaboration with clinical practice and IT technology were the key methods most frequently identified. Journal clubs and Embedded librarians were referred to the least. The majority of the methods included 2–4 of the Sicily Statement’s five steps, while few methods referred to all five steps.

Conclusions

This scoping review has provided an extensive overview of literature describing methods for teaching EBP regarding undergraduate healthcare students. The two key methods Research courses and workshops and Collaboration with clinical practice are advantageous methods for teaching undergraduate healthcare students evidence-based practice; incorporating many of the Sicily Statement’s five steps. Unlike the Research courses and workshop methods, the last step of evaluation is carried out partly or entirely in a clinical context. Journal clubs and Embedded librarians should be further investigated as methods to reinforce existing methods of teaching. Future research should focus on methods for teaching EBP that incorporate as many of the five steps of teaching and conducting EBP as possible.

Dizon et al. state that healthcare can be inefficient, ineffective and/or dangerous when it is not based on current best evidence [ 1 , 2 ]. Therefore, to ensure the quality of healthcare, it is important to implement evidence-based practice (EBP) in all health professional curricula, so that future health professionals learn the fundamentals of research and the application of evidence in practice [ 2 ].

Several definitions of EBP have been suggested in recent years. The scientific evidence was initially developed within medicine, but as many health professionals have embraced an evidence-based way of practice the Sicily Statement [ 3 ] suggested that the original term “evidence-based medicine” should be expanded to “evidence-based practice” in order to reflect a common approach to EBP across all health professions.

The Sicily Statement gives a clear definition of EBP together with a description of the minimum level of educational requirements and skills required to practice in an evidence-based manner. This makes the underlying processes of EBP more transparent and distinguishes between the process and outcome of EBP [ 3 ].

In order to fulfil the minimum requirements of teaching and conducting EBP, the Sicily Statement puts forward a five-step model: (I) asking a clinical question; (II) collecting the most relevant evidence; (III) critically appraising the evidence; (IV) integrating the evidence with one’s clinical expertise, patient preferences and values to make a practice decision; and (V) evaluating the change or outcome [ 4 ].

Internationally, EBP skills are essential requirements in clinical practice among both medical doctors as well as among other health professionals. Healthcare students are mainly taught the first three steps of the Sicily Statement’s five-step model. The last two steps are rarely taught, and students and graduates thus lack competencies in applying their knowledge in the clinical setting during or after graduation [ 5 , 6 ].

In terms of healthcare policy and ambitions in Denmark, it was decided in 2015 that Professional Bachelor Degree healthcare students were to contribute to the development of an evidence-based way of working, a faster implementation of new knowledge in practice, and to the development of greater patient involvement and patient safety in the Danish healthcare system [ 7 ]. The Professional Bachelor’s degree is awarded after 180–270 ECTS and includes a period of work placement of at least 30 ECTS. The programmes are applied programmes. They are development-based and combine theoretical studies with a practical approach. Examples of professional bachelor degree holders are nurses. The Danish title is Professionsbachelor and the English title is Bachelor [ 8 ]. In Denmark the University College institutions solely provide professional bachelor degree educations. Master degrees are awarded at the Universities.

Based on the Sicily Statement students should be able to reflect, ask questions, gather knowledge, critically appraise, apply and evaluate various kinds of knowledge at the end of their course. The aim is that all Professional Bachelor Degree healthcare students across disciplines of nursing, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, radiography, and biomedical laboratory science develop common EBP qualifications in order to contribute towards the development of evidence-based healthcare [ 9 ]. In order to ensure shared prerequisites and mutual understanding of the EBP concepts before entering theoretical or clinical inter-professional education, further knowledge about how to teach EBP across disciplines is required [ 9 ]. By teaching the fundamental principles of EBP, students will develop their EBP skills and ability to put them into practice in their studies and as future graduates.

Previously, some systematic reviews were conducted summarising various educational interventions or strategies for teaching EBP to undergraduate healthcare students [ 2 , 10 – 12 ].

In a review from 2014, Young and colleagues stated that multifaceted interventions integrated into clinical practice contributed to the greatest improvements in EBP knowledge, skills, and attitudes [ 2 ]. In line with this, Kyriakoulis et al. suggested that a combination of interventions, such as lectures, tutorials, workshops, conferences, journal clubs, and online sessions was best suited for teaching EBP to undergraduate healthcare students [ 10 ]. However, the majority of the articles in both reviews synthesized information from interventions or strategies aimed at medical students at various educational levels. Only a few articles elicited information about educational interventions and strategies aimed at undergraduate healthcare students in the disciplines of nursing, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, radiography, and/or biomedical laboratory science. However, two recent reviews have specifically addressed EBP teaching for undergraduate nursing students [ 11 , 12 ]. A systematic review investigated the effectiveness of specific educational methods and found an effect on student knowledge, attitudes, and skills but could not draw a conclusion as to the advisability of one of the methods [ 11 ]. A literature review sought to identify knowledge experiences on teaching strategies from qualitative studies in nursing EBP education to enhance knowledge and skills and points to a limited focus on the use of EBP teaching strategies. Additionally, the study points to the need for more qualitative research investigating interactive and clinically integrated teaching strategies. Despite both reviews being well-informing, a broad scope when mapping updated EBP teaching methods and strategies across healthcare bachelor educations will further qualify future interdisciplinary practices [ 11 , 12 ].

In order to implement the most effective ways of teaching EBP across healthcare undergraduate students, an investigation of existing literature on the subject needs to be undertaken. For identifying, mapping and discussing key characteristics in the literature a scoping review is the better choice [ 13 ].

Aim, objectives and review question

The aim of this scoping review is to gather and map inspiration, ideas, and recommendations for teachers implementing EBP across Professional Bachelor Degree healthcare programmes by mapping existing literature describing EBP teaching methods, including the five steps of EBP suggested by the Sicily Statement, [ 3 ] regarding undergraduate healthcare students.

The primary question of the scoping review is: “Which EBP teaching methods, including The Sicily Statement’s steps of teaching and conducting EBP, have been reported in the literature with respect to undergraduate healthcare students in classrooms and clinical practice?”

Definitions

Classroom is defined as a room where classes are taught in a school, college or university [ 14 ].

Clinical practice refers to the agreed-upon and customary means of delivering healthcare by doctors, nurses and other health professionals [ 15 ].

To ensure a systematic methodology, The Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewers’ Manual - Methodology for JBI Scoping Reviews has been used throughout the scoping review process [ 16 , 17 ].

Inclusion criteria

Participants.

Literature which included undergraduate healthcare students in the disciplines of nursing, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, radiography, and biomedical laboratory science was selected to ensure applicability and relevance to similar scientific disciplines at other institutions of higher education. The undergraduate students should be attending either a Professional Bachelor’s degree or a Bachelor’s degree programme.

Methods for teaching EBP including The Sicily Statement’s steps of teaching and conducting EBP was the main concept to be investigated in the review. That is; literature describing either recommendations of EBP teaching methods, evaluations of EBP teaching methods, teacher and/or student perceptions of EBP teaching and learning methods, or qualifications obtained when learning the principles of EBP.

Literature describing methods for teaching EBP conducted in a classroom setting, in clinical practice as part of the education, or in a combination of classroom and clinical practice was included in the review.

Exclusion criteria

In the period up to 2010, the Bachelor Degree healthcare educations began to conform to European requirements regarding evidence-informed and evidence-based education [ 18 ].

A maximum time frame (2010–2018) was applied, determined by the amount of available literature/research studies and requirements of updated teaching strategies [ 19 , 20 ]. Therefore, literature published before 2010 was excluded.

Literature including undergraduate students in other health disciplines such as medicine or dentistry was not reviewed as the structure of their education is based on another paradigm. Nor was literature including participants such as graduates, RN-to-BSN students, and trained health personnel accepted for inclusion as they were considered as postgraduates, not comparable to undergraduate students. With the primary aim of gathering ideas and inspiration for teaching EBP, literature that focused on issues other than methods for teaching EBP was excluded, as well as literature in languages other than English, Danish, Norwegian, or Swedish.

Search strategy

To identify literature relevant to our research question, the databases MEDLINE via PubMed, CINAHL Complete, and PsycINFO (both via EBSCO) were systematically searched. These databases cover both health and education and are available to the primary local target audience of this scoping review. Because of time limitations only the multidisciplinary European database, OpenGrey, was searched in the attempt to find unpublished literature. The searches were conducted May 9th, 2018.

As recommended in The Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewers’ Manual [ 16 , 17 ], the search was conducted in three steps in collaboration with a research librarian.

• Step 1: The databases PubMed, covering the field of biomedicine and CINAHL, covering nursing and allied health literature were searched using the keywords: ‘teaching methods’, ‘teaching’, ‘learning methods’, ‘learning’, ‘teaching strategies’, ‘learning strategies’, ‘undergraduate’, ‘undergraduate education’, ‘student’, ‘biomedical laboratory scientist’, ‘medical laboratory scientist’, ‘medical laboratory technologist’, ‘medical laboratory technologists’, ‘radiographer’, ‘occupational therapist’, ‘physiotherapist’, ‘nurse’, and ‘evidence-based practice’.

Specific search queries, all databases

• Step 3: The reference lists of identified studies were searched for additional studies.

Study selection

All search results from the databases were imported to the web-based bibliographic management software, RefWorks 2017 by ProQuest. After exclusion of duplicates and records before 01.01.2010, two reviewers independently screened titles and abstracts of the remaining articles for relevance in relation to the research question and the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Afterwards, all full-text articles were further checked for relevance by two independent reviewers. Any inconsistencies between the two reviewers regarding study selection for final inclusion were resolved by discussion with a third reviewer.

Data collection

Data from the included articles were extracted using two data extraction tools as recommended in The Joanna Briggs Institute Reviewers’ Manual [ 16 , 17 ]. The first data extraction tool comprised study characteristics, while the other data extraction tool comprised methods for teaching EBP.

Prior to the process of extracting data from the included articles, a pilot test using the data extraction tools was conducted by one reviewer assessing nine articles. To ensure agreement between reviewers, a second reviewer checked the same articles. Any disagreements about the content or use of the data extraction tools were discussed and resolved.

One reviewer then extracted relevant data from all included articles to the data extraction tools. Two other reviewers split the same articles among them and extracted data using the same data extraction tools. As a final step, the first reviewer went through all extracted data from all of the included articles with each of the other reviewers to ensure comparability and completeness in the final data extraction tools.

Synthesis and analysis of results

The data extraction tools formed the basis of the final presentation of the results in two tables consisting of “Study characteristics” and “Key methods for teaching EBP, the Sicily Statement’s five steps of teaching and conducting EBP and context”. Study characteristics included author, year of publication, title, journal, country of origin, study design, study participants, methods for teaching EBP, and main study findings. The key methods for teaching EBP were identified through a thematic analysis. All full text articles were read and every teaching method found was listed. Through a revision of all teaching methods listed, seven themes were found that described the most prominent teaching methods, which were named “Key methods for teaching EBP”. All methods were then divided into one of the key methods for teaching EBP. In some articles, more than one teaching method was described. In that case, the teaching method most frequently described was selected and categorised under the relevant key method. Through full-text revision the Sicily Statement’s steps of teaching and conducting EBP and the context (classroom, clinical practice or a combination of both) in which the teaching took place was found. To further clarify the content of the two tables all results listed were described narratively. All tabulated data, except for the key methods for teaching EBP identified in Table  3 , have been cited directly from the articles.

Key methods for teaching undergraduate healthcare students EBP, the Sicily Statement’s five steps of teaching and conducting EBP and context

Literature search

The database search returned 2220 records: PubMed ( n  = 1469), Cinahl ( n  = 527), PsycINFO ( n  = 173), and OpenGrey ( n  = 51) (Fig.  1 ). Records published before 01.01.2010 and duplicates were removed, which left 1280 records to be screened by title and abstract. Based on relevance, 1088 records were excluded and 192 records were found eligible for full-text assessment. In accordance with the inclusion and exclusion criteria, 111 articles were excluded. The excluded articles concerned study participants other than undergraduate healthcare students (graduates, RN-to-BSN students, trained health personnel), study participants from other healthcare disciplines (medicine, dentistry, midwifery), issues other than methods for teaching EBP (simulation teaching, community health nursing, EBP beliefs, etc.), and full-text articles not available in English, Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish (French, Chinese). In agreement with the other reviewers, 81 studies were finally included in the scoping review.

Modified PRISMA flow diagram illustrating the scoping review selection process

Study characteristics

Study characteristics are presented in Table  2 . All studies were spread across the years 2010–2018. Almost half of the studies ( n  = 40) were conducted in the USA, followed by Canada ( n  = 8), Norway ( n  = 7), Australia ( n  = 6), England ( n  = 6), Sweden ( n  = 3), China ( n  = 2), Finland ( n  = 2), Spain ( n  = 2), Greece ( n  = 1), Iran ( n  = 1), Lebanon ( n  = 1), Scotland ( n  = 1), and Taiwan ( n  = 1). The study designs were primarily qualitative ( n  = 55), while 23 of the studies were quantitative, and three of the studies used a mixed method. The majority of the participants were nursing students ( n  = 72), followed by a combination of nursing students and students from other healthcare disciplines ( n  = 5), nursing and physiotherapy students ( n  = 1), physiotherapy students and students from other healthcare disciplines ( n  = 1), occupational and physiotherapy students ( n  = 1), and physiotherapy students only ( n  = 1).

Study characteristics ( N  = 81)

Key methods for teaching EBP, the Sicily Statement’s five steps of teaching and conducting EBP and context

Table ​ Table3 3 presents the key methods for teaching EBP, the Sicily Statement’s five steps of teaching and conducting EBP, and the context. Seven key methods for teaching EBP were identified: Thirty-two studies described “Research courses and workshops”. “Collaboration with clinical practice” was identified 14 times followed by “IT technology” ( n  = 8), “Assignments” ( n  = 5), “Participation in research projects” ( n  = 5), “Journal clubs” ( n  = 2), and “Embedded librarians” ( n  = 2). In addition, 13 studies described various theories of teaching and learning. These are not elaborated on as the theme is not considered within the objective of this scoping review.

In Table ​ Table3 3 the vast majority of the studies ( n  = 69) referred to one or more of the Sicily Statement’s five steps of teaching and conducting EBP. Eleven studies referred to all five steps. Thirty-one studies referred to three or four steps, while 17 studies referred to two of the steps, and ten studies described one step. Twelve studies had no description of any of the steps.

The steps most often referred to were step two, three, and four. Step two, “Collect the most relevant evidence”, was mentioned in 58 studies. Step three, “Critically appraise the evidence”, was referred to in 55 studies, while step four, “Integrate the evidence with one’s clinical expertise, patient preferences, and values to make practice decision”, was mentioned in 51 studies. Step one, “Ask a clinical question”, and step five, “Evaluate change or outcome” was referred to in 36 and 14 studies, respectively. Seven out of the eleven studies referring to all of the Sicily Statement’s five steps were identified under the key methods “Research courses and workshops” and “Collaboration with clinical practice”.

The context in which the studies were conducted was primarily classroom settings ( n  = 52). Twenty studies described context as a combination of classroom and clinical practice, and nine studies were conducted in clinical practice.

Out of the 68 studies which included the seven key methods, 24 out of 32 “Research courses and workshops” were conducted in classrooms, while “Collaboration with clinical practice” was conducted in a combination of classroom and clinical practice ( n  = 6), clinical practice ( n  = 5), or classrooms ( n  = 3). “IT technology” was used in classrooms ( n  = 6) or clinical practice ( n  = 2). “Assignments” were conducted in classroom settings only ( n  = 5), while “Participation in research projects” took place in a combination of classroom and clinical practice ( n  = 3), classroom ( n  = 1) or clinical practice ( n  = 1). “Embedded librarians” ( n  = 2) and “Journal clubs” ( n  = 2) both took place in classroom settings.

This study provides an overview of existing EBP teaching methods including The Sicily Statement’s steps of teaching and conducting EBP with respect to undergraduate healthcare students both in classrooms and in clinical practice.

It is beyond the scope of this review to interpret all the findings of the included studies. The findings discussed below are the key methods most frequently identified in the thematic analysis: “Research courses and workshops” and “Collaboration with clinical practice”, as well as the key methods most positively referred to in main findings of the studies: “IT technology”, “Embedded librarians”, and “Journal clubs”. Despite the scarce use of the last three methods (“IT technology”, “Embedded librarians”, “Journal clubs”) these can however provide ideas for how to teach EBP in the future. Furthermore, the scoping review provides useful information as to which of the Sicily Statement’s five steps of teaching and conducting EBP are taught in the various methods and whether one particular method is more useful and applicable than others in a particular learning setting, depending on the context and the learning outcomes. Lecturers, senior lecturers and others who teach EBP at undergraduate healthcare educational institutions can benefit from this information and gain inspiration and ideas for teaching EBP. We are aware that other studies have addressed issues such as teachers’ competencies required for teaching EBP, which we do consider important in order to standardise and improve education in EPB. Interestingly, a study has identified specific sets of EBP core competencies for teachers, which are classified within the 5-step model of EBP [ 101 ]. However, since our primary focus was on methods for teaching EBP to undergraduate healthcare students the aspect of teacher’s competencies has not been further investigated.

Overall, the first 4 steps of the Sicily Statement could more easily be identified. However the last and fifth step proved to be more difficult to identify which often is the case. Furthermore, our results tend to point to the fact that the fifth step is often more theoretically linked at the undergraduate level and that a more specified implemtation and evaluation of the EBP process takes place at a more advanced level.

Research courses and workshops

Research courses and workshops were the most frequently used methods for teaching EBP. The frequent use of this method is in agreement with the systematic review by Kyriakoulis et al., where eight of the 20 methods for teaching EBP were research courses, workshops or similar sessions [ 10 ] and Young et al., where three out of five methods used for teaching evidence-based healthcare (EBHC) were workshops [ 2 ]. The majority of the studies concerning “Research courses and workshops”, referred to three or more of the Sicily Statement’s five steps of teaching and conducting EBP [ 10 , 23 , 26 , 31 , 33 , 40 , 42 , 44 , 47 – 49 , 53 , 55 – 57 , 59 , 76 , 90 , 91 , 96 , 97 , 100 ]. Despite the fact that the fifth step was included in some studies, it was not clear what was covered by the evaluation process, and additionally, if it was part of the students’ assignment work alone or if there was a link to clinical practice. The majority of the research courses and workshops were conducted in classrooms. According to Young et al., EBHC courses can improve appraisal skills in nurses, occupational therapists and physiotherapists, among others [ 2 ]. However, further assessments and analyses of the courses and workshops found in this scoping review must be made to ensure that the content and outcomes are applicable in similar contexts.

Collaboration with clinical practice

In this scoping review, the key method for teaching EBP, “Collaboration with clinical practice” was identified 14 times in the thematic analysis. In comparison, “collaboration with clinical practice” is only mentioned once as a method for teaching EBP in the review by Young et al. [ 2 ] and not mentioned in the systematic review by Kyriakoulis et al. [ 10 ]. The results of this scoping review suggest that collaboration with clinical practice is a frequently used method for teaching EBP with respect to undergraduate healthcare students. The rare use of this method in the review by Kyriakoulis et al. and the review by Young et al. might be explained by the type of participants included in these reviews. Only two studies included undergraduate students in the disciplines of nursing, physiotherapy or occupational therapy: in the review by Young et al. and the review by Kyriakoulis [ 2 , 10 ]. Along this line, a review on teaching EBM to medical students found weak and inconsistent results from a limited number of studies on the effect of clinically integrated methods on knowledge, attitudes, and skills [ 102 ]. Collaboration with clinical practice might be more fundamental among undergraduate students in the disciplines of nursing, physiotherapy or occupational therapy, compared to undergraduate students in medicine primarily included in the other reviews [ 2 , 10 ].

Half of the studies identified in relation to “Collaboration with clinical practice”, referred to four or five of the Sicily Statement’s steps [ 38 , 43 , 70 , 73 , 80 , 87 , 89 , 93 ]. In two of the studies, the steps were taught directly in clinical practice as part of the students’ clinical education [ 70 , 93 ], and unlike the research courses and workshops methods, the last step of evaluation of change or outcome is carried out either partly or entirely in a clinical context. The main findings of all eight studies indicate that collaboration with clinical practice is an effective way of teaching EBP, both with the combination of classrooms and clinical practice settings and in clinical practice settings alone. Despite being a recommended strategy in the literature, a recent literature review points to the fact that EBP teaching strategies including clinical activities in nursing students seems less prioritised [ 12 ].

IT technology

The key method, “IT technology”, described tools, such as mobile devices, video resources and websites, among others, used in classrooms or clinical practice for seeking information in relation to EBP. In clinical practice, mobile devices were used to seek information regarding EBP search strategies, critical appraisal of clinical guidelines [ 66 ], and specific task-oriented information in relation to clinical practice [ 36 ]. Despite the reported improvement in knowledge and skills in relation to EBP and appraisal of clinical guidelines, the use of mobile devices was reported as low [ 66 ]. In classrooms, the use of IT technology as a method for teaching EBP was reported as mainly positive. Today, most students have access to IT equipment and this technology could be integrated in classrooms and clinical practice to seek information regarding EBP. In the review by Kyriakoulis et al. the results support our findings; that IT technology can be an effective method for teaching EBP with respect to undergraduate healthcare students [ 10 ].

Journal clubs

“Journal Clubs” as a method for teaching EBP was only described in two studies in this scoping review. However, the findings indicated that the method improved students’ skills in reading articles and understanding evidence-based nursing [ 60 ], and promoted competenceis needed to deliver evidence-based care [ 58 ]. The studies included two and three steps, respectively, proposed by the Sicily Statement [ 3 ]. Additional steps may advantageously be incorporated into future journal clubs to ensure the quality of healthcare. Young et al. referred to four reviews describing a positive effect of journal clubs as a method for teaching EBP [ 2 ]. However, none of the reviews included Professional Bachelor Degree healthcare students. Further studies must be conducted to assess the effectiveness of journal clubs as a method for teaching EBP in Professional Bachelor Degree healthcare courses and to study the opportunity of incorporating all of the Sicily Statement’s five steps for teaching and conducting EBP.

Embedded librarians

In two studies librarians were introduced to teach students information literacy [ 74 , 77 ]. Librarians are experts in this field and are able to teach students the skills essential to EBP [ 74 ]. Librarians can support students in establishing and managing effective search techniques and help with reviewing and critiquing the information found. Thus, students develop information literacy skills as required in practice [ 77 ]. Research librarians who are embedded as part of a research course for teaching undergraduate healthcare students EBP may be an effective way of ensuring a complete introduction to the Sicily Statement’s five steps of teaching and conducting EBP. The first three steps can be taught in classrooms, followed by practical exercises in the last two steps in clinical practice.

Implications for practice

The majority of the key methods found for teaching EBP were “Research courses and workshops” and “Collaboration with clinical practice”, whereas “Journal Clubs” and “Embedded librarians” were identified only twice. The frequent use of research courses and workshops as methods for teaching EBP may stem from a tradition of classroom lectures and is a relatively manageable way to teach EBP. The findings from this scoping study however suggest that other methods for teaching EBP with respect to undergraduate students exist. Journal clubs could be incorporated as a supplement to classroom lectures or as part of collaboration with clinical practice. Librarians may advantageously be introduced in research courses and workshops. The librarians can help students gain control of EBP definitions and concepts, and master search techniques before entering clinical practice. The effect of journal clubs and embedded librarians on students’ EBP competencies should however be investigated further before being incorporated into Professional Bachelor’s Degree curricula.

EBP education based on the Sicily Statement’s five steps, demanded both internationally and nationally, implies an introduction to all of the Sicily Statement’s five steps of teaching and conducting EBP at undergraduate level [ 5 , 6 , 9 ]. At present, the majority of the methods found for teaching EBP only include 2–4 steps. In line with these results, a recent review found that the majority of evaluated EBP educational interventions are focused on a single step (step 3, critically appraising evidence) of the five steps of teaching and conducting EBP [ 103 ]. This research adds to the statement that an effort must be made to incorporate all five steps of the Sicily Statement in an educational and cooperative way in order to ensure that undergraduate healthcare students are qualified to work in an evidence-based manner.

We did not review available assessment methods for evaluation of EBP education interventions or programmes in this study. The additional importance of this field and the apparent lack of valid evaluation methods have been extensively highlighted in other studies and needs to be taken into account when applying methods for teaching EPB [ 104 , 105 ].

Strengths and limitations

The scoping review presents an updated overview of existing methods for teaching EBP with respect to undergraduate healthcare students, including study specific recommendations for teaching methods to be used in future curricula. It follows recommended guidelines for a priori design requirements and transparent reporting [ 13 , 16 ].

Limitations are however found in relation to the search strategy. Our search did not include literature published before 2010 and due to time constraints, a limited number of databases were searched, which entails the risk that not all relevant literature was identified. Furthermore, the search terms used identified primarily undergraduate nursing students, despite a thorough search for all undergraduate students in the disciplines of nursing, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, radiography, and biomedical laboratory science. Other search terms might have captured these health disciplines to a greater extent. An alternative explanation for the large occurrence of studies regarding nursing students could be that there is a greater publishing tradition in this field. However, the methods for teaching EBP can to a certain extent, be introduced to undergraduate students in the other health disciplines.

Consistent with our objective, this scoping review has provided an extensive overview of literature describing methods for teaching EBP regarding undergraduate healthcare students. The two key methods most often identified were “Research courses and workshops” and “Collaboration with clinical practice”. Despite the first method often being used in this scoping review, as well as in other reviews, fewer of the Sicily Statement’s five steps of teaching and conducting EBP were referred to, and if the fifth step of evaluation of change or outcome was included, the description of content was often unclear.

On the contrary, “Collaboration with clinical practice”, the second most used teaching method, more often referred to four or five steps, making this method an effective approach for teaching EBP while ensuring incorporation of several of the steps. Unlike the Research courses and workshop methods, the last step of evaluation is carried out partly or entirely in a clinical context.

Overall, our results tend to show that the evaluation step is often theoretically linked at the undergraduate level. Despite the small number of studies describing ‘Journal clubs’ and ‘Embedded librarians’, these teaching methods could advantageously be incorporated in the classroom context and could ensure a complete introduction to all five steps.

On the basis of our findings, we argue that future research should focus on identifying methods for teaching EBP that incorporate as many of the Sicily Statement’s five steps of teaching and conducting EBP as possible. Journal clubs and embedded librarians could be further looked into as methods to support the more established methods for teaching EBP across all undergraduate healthcare disciplines.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank research assistants Morten Puck, Martin Mau and Susanne Pommergård for their valuable work in reviewing and editing tables.

Authors’ contributions

AST, HKK, CML contributed in designing the study. AST and AFC conducted the literature search. AST, HKK and CML screened the titles and abstracts. AST, HKK, CML extracted data from the studies. AST and HKK performed a synthesis of study results. AST, HKK, CML and AFC interpreted the data. CML and AST drafted the manuscript. All the listed authors have contributed to and approved the final manuscript.

This project is funded by internal funds granted by Health Sciences Research Centre, UCL University College, Odense, Denmark. The funding part had no role in the design of the study, the collection, analysis and interpretation of the data, or in writing the manuscript.

Availability of data and materials

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Contributor Information

Camilla Marie Larsen, Email: kd.lcu@2almc , Email: kd.lcu@almc .

Anne Seneca Terkelsen, Email: kd.lcu@etsa .

Anne-Marie Fiala Carlsen, Email: kd.lcu@acfa .

Hanne Kaae Kristensen, Email: kd.lcu@rkkh .

17 Research Proposal Examples

A research proposal systematically and transparently outlines a proposed research project.

The purpose of a research proposal is to demonstrate a project’s viability and the researcher’s preparedness to conduct an academic study. It serves as a roadmap for the researcher.

The process holds value both externally (for accountability purposes and often as a requirement for a grant application) and intrinsic value (for helping the researcher to clarify the mechanics, purpose, and potential signficance of the study).

Key sections of a research proposal include: the title, abstract, introduction, literature review, research design and methods, timeline, budget, outcomes and implications, references, and appendix. Each is briefly explained below.

Watch my Guide: How to Write a Research Proposal

Get your Template for Writing your Research Proposal Here (With AI Prompts!)

Research Proposal Sample Structure

Title: The title should present a concise and descriptive statement that clearly conveys the core idea of the research projects. Make it as specific as possible. The reader should immediately be able to grasp the core idea of the intended research project. Often, the title is left too vague and does not help give an understanding of what exactly the study looks at.

Abstract: Abstracts are usually around 250-300 words and provide an overview of what is to follow – including the research problem , objectives, methods, expected outcomes, and significance of the study. Use it as a roadmap and ensure that, if the abstract is the only thing someone reads, they’ll get a good fly-by of what will be discussed in the peice.

Introduction: Introductions are all about contextualization. They often set the background information with a statement of the problem. At the end of the introduction, the reader should understand what the rationale for the study truly is. I like to see the research questions or hypotheses included in the introduction and I like to get a good understanding of what the significance of the research will be. It’s often easiest to write the introduction last

Literature Review: The literature review dives deep into the existing literature on the topic, demosntrating your thorough understanding of the existing literature including themes, strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in the literature. It serves both to demonstrate your knowledge of the field and, to demonstrate how the proposed study will fit alongside the literature on the topic. A good literature review concludes by clearly demonstrating how your research will contribute something new and innovative to the conversation in the literature.

Research Design and Methods: This section needs to clearly demonstrate how the data will be gathered and analyzed in a systematic and academically sound manner. Here, you need to demonstrate that the conclusions of your research will be both valid and reliable. Common points discussed in the research design and methods section include highlighting the research paradigm, methodologies, intended population or sample to be studied, data collection techniques, and data analysis procedures . Toward the end of this section, you are encouraged to also address ethical considerations and limitations of the research process , but also to explain why you chose your research design and how you are mitigating the identified risks and limitations.

Timeline: Provide an outline of the anticipated timeline for the study. Break it down into its various stages (including data collection, data analysis, and report writing). The goal of this section is firstly to establish a reasonable breakdown of steps for you to follow and secondly to demonstrate to the assessors that your project is practicable and feasible.

Budget: Estimate the costs associated with the research project and include evidence for your estimations. Typical costs include staffing costs, equipment, travel, and data collection tools. When applying for a scholarship, the budget should demonstrate that you are being responsible with your expensive and that your funding application is reasonable.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: A discussion of the anticipated findings or results of the research, as well as the potential contributions to the existing knowledge, theory, or practice in the field. This section should also address the potential impact of the research on relevant stakeholders and any broader implications for policy or practice.

References: A complete list of all the sources cited in the research proposal, formatted according to the required citation style. This demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the relevant literature and ensures proper attribution of ideas and information.

Appendices (if applicable): Any additional materials, such as questionnaires, interview guides, or consent forms, that provide further information or support for the research proposal. These materials should be included as appendices at the end of the document.

Research Proposal Examples

Research proposals often extend anywhere between 2,000 and 15,000 words in length. The following snippets are samples designed to briefly demonstrate what might be discussed in each section.

1. Education Studies Research Proposals

See some real sample pieces:

• Assessment of the perceptions of teachers towards a new grading system
• Does ICT use in secondary classrooms help or hinder student learning?
• Digital technologies in focus project
• Urban Middle School Teachers’ Experiences of the Implementation of
• Restorative Justice Practices
• Experiences of students of color in service learning

Consider this hypothetical education research proposal:

The Impact of Game-Based Learning on Student Engagement and Academic Performance in Middle School Mathematics

Abstract: The proposed study will explore multiplayer game-based learning techniques in middle school mathematics curricula and their effects on student engagement. The study aims to contribute to the current literature on game-based learning by examining the effects of multiplayer gaming in learning.

Introduction: Digital game-based learning has long been shunned within mathematics education for fears that it may distract students or lower the academic integrity of the classrooms. However, there is emerging evidence that digital games in math have emerging benefits not only for engagement but also academic skill development. Contributing to this discourse, this study seeks to explore the potential benefits of multiplayer digital game-based learning by examining its impact on middle school students’ engagement and academic performance in a mathematics class.

Literature Review: The literature review has identified gaps in the current knowledge, namely, while game-based learning has been extensively explored, the role of multiplayer games in supporting learning has not been studied.

Research Design and Methods: This study will employ a mixed-methods research design based upon action research in the classroom. A quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test control group design will first be used to compare the academic performance and engagement of middle school students exposed to game-based learning techniques with those in a control group receiving instruction without the aid of technology. Students will also be observed and interviewed in regard to the effect of communication and collaboration during gameplay on their learning.

Timeline: The study will take place across the second term of the school year with a pre-test taking place on the first day of the term and the post-test taking place on Wednesday in Week 10.

Budget: The key budgetary requirements will be the technologies required, including the subscription cost for the identified games and computers.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: It is expected that the findings will contribute to the current literature on game-based learning and inform educational practices, providing educators and policymakers with insights into how to better support student achievement in mathematics.

2. Psychology Research Proposals

See some real examples:

• A situational analysis of shared leadership in a self-managing team
• The effect of musical preference on running performance
• Relationship between self-esteem and disordered eating amongst adolescent females

Consider this hypothetical psychology research proposal:

The Effects of Mindfulness-Based Interventions on Stress Reduction in College Students

Abstract: This research proposal examines the impact of mindfulness-based interventions on stress reduction among college students, using a pre-test/post-test experimental design with both quantitative and qualitative data collection methods .

Introduction: College students face heightened stress levels during exam weeks. This can affect both mental health and test performance. This study explores the potential benefits of mindfulness-based interventions such as meditation as a way to mediate stress levels in the weeks leading up to exam time.

Literature Review: Existing research on mindfulness-based meditation has shown the ability for mindfulness to increase metacognition, decrease anxiety levels, and decrease stress. Existing literature has looked at workplace, high school and general college-level applications. This study will contribute to the corpus of literature by exploring the effects of mindfulness directly in the context of exam weeks.

Research Design and Methods: Participants ( n= 234 ) will be randomly assigned to either an experimental group, receiving 5 days per week of 10-minute mindfulness-based interventions, or a control group, receiving no intervention. Data will be collected through self-report questionnaires, measuring stress levels, semi-structured interviews exploring participants’ experiences, and students’ test scores.

Timeline: The study will begin three weeks before the students’ exam week and conclude after each student’s final exam. Data collection will occur at the beginning (pre-test of self-reported stress levels) and end (post-test) of the three weeks.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: The study aims to provide evidence supporting the effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in reducing stress among college students in the lead up to exams, with potential implications for mental health support and stress management programs on college campuses.

3. Sociology Research Proposals

• Understanding emerging social movements: A case study of ‘Jersey in Transition’
• The interaction of health, education and employment in Western China
• Can we preserve lower-income affordable neighbourhoods in the face of rising costs?

Consider this hypothetical sociology research proposal:

The Impact of Social Media Usage on Interpersonal Relationships among Young Adults

Abstract: This research proposal investigates the effects of social media usage on interpersonal relationships among young adults, using a longitudinal mixed-methods approach with ongoing semi-structured interviews to collect qualitative data.

Introduction: Social media platforms have become a key medium for the development of interpersonal relationships, particularly for young adults. This study examines the potential positive and negative effects of social media usage on young adults’ relationships and development over time.

Literature Review: A preliminary review of relevant literature has demonstrated that social media usage is central to development of a personal identity and relationships with others with similar subcultural interests. However, it has also been accompanied by data on mental health deline and deteriorating off-screen relationships. The literature is to-date lacking important longitudinal data on these topics.

Research Design and Methods: Participants ( n = 454 ) will be young adults aged 18-24. Ongoing self-report surveys will assess participants’ social media usage, relationship satisfaction, and communication patterns. A subset of participants will be selected for longitudinal in-depth interviews starting at age 18 and continuing for 5 years.

Timeline: The study will be conducted over a period of five years, including recruitment, data collection, analysis, and report writing.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: This study aims to provide insights into the complex relationship between social media usage and interpersonal relationships among young adults, potentially informing social policies and mental health support related to social media use.

4. Nursing Research Proposals

• Does Orthopaedic Pre-assessment clinic prepare the patient for admission to hospital?
• Nurses’ perceptions and experiences of providing psychological care to burns patients
• Registered psychiatric nurse’s practice with mentally ill parents and their children

Consider this hypothetical nursing research proposal:

The Influence of Nurse-Patient Communication on Patient Satisfaction and Health Outcomes following Emergency Cesarians

Abstract: This research will examines the impact of effective nurse-patient communication on patient satisfaction and health outcomes for women following c-sections, utilizing a mixed-methods approach with patient surveys and semi-structured interviews.

Introduction: It has long been known that effective communication between nurses and patients is crucial for quality care. However, additional complications arise following emergency c-sections due to the interaction between new mother’s changing roles and recovery from surgery.

Literature Review: A review of the literature demonstrates the importance of nurse-patient communication, its impact on patient satisfaction, and potential links to health outcomes. However, communication between nurses and new mothers is less examined, and the specific experiences of those who have given birth via emergency c-section are to date unexamined.

Research Design and Methods: Participants will be patients in a hospital setting who have recently had an emergency c-section. A self-report survey will assess their satisfaction with nurse-patient communication and perceived health outcomes. A subset of participants will be selected for in-depth interviews to explore their experiences and perceptions of the communication with their nurses.

Timeline: The study will be conducted over a period of six months, including rolling recruitment, data collection, analysis, and report writing within the hospital.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: This study aims to provide evidence for the significance of nurse-patient communication in supporting new mothers who have had an emergency c-section. Recommendations will be presented for supporting nurses and midwives in improving outcomes for new mothers who had complications during birth.

5. Social Work Research Proposals

• Experiences of negotiating employment and caring responsibilities of fathers post-divorce
• Exploring kinship care in the north region of British Columbia

Consider this hypothetical social work research proposal:

The Role of a Family-Centered Intervention in Preventing Homelessness Among At-Risk Youthin a working-class town in Northern England

Abstract: This research proposal investigates the effectiveness of a family-centered intervention provided by a local council area in preventing homelessness among at-risk youth. This case study will use a mixed-methods approach with program evaluation data and semi-structured interviews to collect quantitative and qualitative data .

Introduction: Homelessness among youth remains a significant social issue. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of family-centered interventions in addressing this problem and identify factors that contribute to successful prevention strategies.

Literature Review: A review of the literature has demonstrated several key factors contributing to youth homelessness including lack of parental support, lack of social support, and low levels of family involvement. It also demonstrates the important role of family-centered interventions in addressing this issue. Drawing on current evidence, this study explores the effectiveness of one such intervention in preventing homelessness among at-risk youth in a working-class town in Northern England.

Research Design and Methods: The study will evaluate a new family-centered intervention program targeting at-risk youth and their families. Quantitative data on program outcomes, including housing stability and family functioning, will be collected through program records and evaluation reports. Semi-structured interviews with program staff, participants, and relevant stakeholders will provide qualitative insights into the factors contributing to program success or failure.

Timeline: The study will be conducted over a period of six months, including recruitment, data collection, analysis, and report writing.

Budget: Expenses include access to program evaluation data, interview materials, data analysis software, and any related travel costs for in-person interviews.

Expected Outcomes and Implications: This study aims to provide evidence for the effectiveness of family-centered interventions in preventing youth homelessness, potentially informing the expansion of or necessary changes to social work practices in Northern England.

Research Proposal Template

Get your Detailed Template for Writing your Research Proposal Here (With AI Prompts!)

This is a template for a 2500-word research proposal. You may find it difficult to squeeze everything into this wordcount, but it’s a common wordcount for Honors and MA-level dissertations.

Your research proposal is where you really get going with your study. I’d strongly recommend working closely with your teacher in developing a research proposal that’s consistent with the requirements and culture of your institution, as in my experience it varies considerably. The above template is from my own courses that walk students through research proposals in a British School of Education.

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 15 Animism Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ 10 Magical Thinking Examples
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ Social-Emotional Learning (Definition, Examples, Pros & Cons)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd/ What is Educational Psychology?

8 thoughts on “17 Research Proposal Examples”

Very excellent research proposals

very helpful

Very helpful

Dear Sir, I need some help to write an educational research proposal. Thank you.

Hi Levi, use the site search bar to ask a question and I’ll likely have a guide already written for your specific question. Thanks for reading!

very good research proposal

Thank you so much sir! ❤️

Very helpful 👌

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Research Proposal Activities

Main navigation, presentation genre game.

In this game, students practice presenting key aspects of their presentation, using different public speaking genres.

Research Proposal Planning Table

This asynchronous activity helps students thoroughly examine their research proposals with a rhetorical approach. Students not only look at different components of the research question itself, but also critically reflect on their audience and the purpose of their research to prepare for an excellent oral delivery of their research proposals.

Online Proposal Rehearsals

This activity gives students an opportunity to rehearse their oral research proposals outside of class time in small groups before receiving holistic feedback from a larger group.  It is designed to be completed synchronously, in real time, in small groups.

Along with Stanford news and stories, show me:

• Student information
• Faculty/Staff information

We want to provide announcements, events, leadership messages and resources that are relevant to you. Your selection is stored in a browser cookie which you can remove at any time using “Clear all personalization” below.

Image credit: Claire Scully

New advances in technology are upending education, from the recent debut of new artificial intelligence (AI) chatbots like ChatGPT to the growing accessibility of virtual-reality tools that expand the boundaries of the classroom. For educators, at the heart of it all is the hope that every learner gets an equal chance to develop the skills they need to succeed. But that promise is not without its pitfalls.

“Technology is a game-changer for education – it offers the prospect of universal access to high-quality learning experiences, and it creates fundamentally new ways of teaching,” said Dan Schwartz, dean of Stanford Graduate School of Education (GSE), who is also a professor of educational technology at the GSE and faculty director of the Stanford Accelerator for Learning . “But there are a lot of ways we teach that aren’t great, and a big fear with AI in particular is that we just get more efficient at teaching badly. This is a moment to pay attention, to do things differently.”

For K-12 schools, this year also marks the end of the Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief (ESSER) funding program, which has provided pandemic recovery funds that many districts used to invest in educational software and systems. With these funds running out in September 2024, schools are trying to determine their best use of technology as they face the prospect of diminishing resources.

Here, Schwartz and other Stanford education scholars weigh in on some of the technology trends taking center stage in the classroom this year.

AI in the classroom

In 2023, the big story in technology and education was generative AI, following the introduction of ChatGPT and other chatbots that produce text seemingly written by a human in response to a question or prompt. Educators immediately worried that students would use the chatbot to cheat by trying to pass its writing off as their own. As schools move to adopt policies around students’ use of the tool, many are also beginning to explore potential opportunities – for example, to generate reading assignments or coach students during the writing process.

AI can also help automate tasks like grading and lesson planning, freeing teachers to do the human work that drew them into the profession in the first place, said Victor Lee, an associate professor at the GSE and faculty lead for the AI + Education initiative at the Stanford Accelerator for Learning. “I’m heartened to see some movement toward creating AI tools that make teachers’ lives better – not to replace them, but to give them the time to do the work that only teachers are able to do,” he said. “I hope to see more on that front.”

He also emphasized the need to teach students now to begin questioning and critiquing the development and use of AI. “AI is not going away,” said Lee, who is also director of CRAFT (Classroom-Ready Resources about AI for Teaching), which provides free resources to help teach AI literacy to high school students across subject areas. “We need to teach students how to understand and think critically about this technology.”

Immersive environments

The use of immersive technologies like augmented reality, virtual reality, and mixed reality is also expected to surge in the classroom, especially as new high-profile devices integrating these realities hit the marketplace in 2024.

The educational possibilities now go beyond putting on a headset and experiencing life in a distant location. With new technologies, students can create their own local interactive 360-degree scenarios, using just a cell phone or inexpensive camera and simple online tools.

“This is an area that’s really going to explode over the next couple of years,” said Kristen Pilner Blair, director of research for the Digital Learning initiative at the Stanford Accelerator for Learning, which runs a program exploring the use of virtual field trips to promote learning. “Students can learn about the effects of climate change, say, by virtually experiencing the impact on a particular environment. But they can also become creators, documenting and sharing immersive media that shows the effects where they live.”

Integrating AI into virtual simulations could also soon take the experience to another level, Schwartz said. “If your VR experience brings me to a redwood tree, you could have a window pop up that allows me to ask questions about the tree, and AI can deliver the answers.”

Gamification

Another trend expected to intensify this year is the gamification of learning activities, often featuring dynamic videos with interactive elements to engage and hold students’ attention.

“Gamification is a good motivator, because one key aspect is reward, which is very powerful,” said Schwartz. The downside? Rewards are specific to the activity at hand, which may not extend to learning more generally. “If I get rewarded for doing math in a space-age video game, it doesn’t mean I’m going to be motivated to do math anywhere else.”

Gamification sometimes tries to make “chocolate-covered broccoli,” Schwartz said, by adding art and rewards to make speeded response tasks involving single-answer, factual questions more fun. He hopes to see more creative play patterns that give students points for rethinking an approach or adapting their strategy, rather than only rewarding them for quickly producing a correct response.

Data-gathering and analysis

The growing use of technology in schools is producing massive amounts of data on students’ activities in the classroom and online. “We’re now able to capture moment-to-moment data, every keystroke a kid makes,” said Schwartz – data that can reveal areas of struggle and different learning opportunities, from solving a math problem to approaching a writing assignment.

But outside of research settings, he said, that type of granular data – now owned by tech companies – is more likely used to refine the design of the software than to provide teachers with actionable information.

The promise of personalized learning is being able to generate content aligned with students’ interests and skill levels, and making lessons more accessible for multilingual learners and students with disabilities. Realizing that promise requires that educators can make sense of the data that’s being collected, said Schwartz – and while advances in AI are making it easier to identify patterns and findings, the data also needs to be in a system and form educators can access and analyze for decision-making. Developing a usable infrastructure for that data, Schwartz said, is an important next step.

With the accumulation of student data comes privacy concerns: How is the data being collected? Are there regulations or guidelines around its use in decision-making? What steps are being taken to prevent unauthorized access? In 2023 K-12 schools experienced a rise in cyberattacks, underscoring the need to implement strong systems to safeguard student data.

Technology is “requiring people to check their assumptions about education,” said Schwartz, noting that AI in particular is very efficient at replicating biases and automating the way things have been done in the past, including poor models of instruction. “But it’s also opening up new possibilities for students producing material, and for being able to identify children who are not average so we can customize toward them. It’s an opportunity to think of entirely new ways of teaching – this is the path I hope to see.”