reflective essay on critical pedagogy

5 Critical Pedagogy: Challenging Bias and Creating Inclusive Classrooms

Introduction.

Regardless of the type of library you work in, your learners will come from varied backgrounds, identities, and life experiences, and will bring different interests and educational needs to the classroom. These experiences shape how learners experience the classroom, the content, and the learning activities, and ultimately impact what they learn and how they use that knowledge. As instructors, we need not only to recognize these differences and how they influence learning but also acknowledge and honor the richness of experience our learners bring. We need to create an inclusive classroom environment where everyone feels welcome and valued, and where our content is relevant to our learners’ diverse identities and interests.

In order to be effective in this role, we must better understand how existing educational, social, and political systems shape our learners’ experiences from their earliest moments and continue to influence what and how they learn inside and outside of the classroom through the rest of their lives. We must recognize how bias has impacted and continues to impact both our learners’ and our own experiences, and develop culturally competent and inclusive practices in order to mitigate bias in the classroom and interact effectively with learners from varied cultural backgrounds.

Critical pedagogy provides a theoretical framework to examine issues of power in the classroom, and to surface and challenge the biases and oppressive structures that can undermine learning and alienate students. Inclusive teaching offers strategies for translating that theoretical knowledge into action. This chapter begins with a brief overview of critical pedagogy, followed by an examination of some of the biases critical pedagogy uncovers and how those biases can impact the work we do as instructors. Next, the chapter presents strategies for mitigating bias, improving our cultural competence, and creating inclusive classrooms where all learners are able to engage with relevant content and effective pedagogies. Chapter 6 extends the discussion of inclusion to address specific issues of accessibility and universal design for learners with disabilities.

Critical Pedagogy

As discussed briefly in Chapter 3, social constructivists in particular recognize that learners’ cultures, including shared values, behaviors, and beliefs, shape their knowledge. However, no society is made up of a single, monolithic culture; rather, different communities reflect different values and beliefs, and encourage and discourage different behaviors. Political, social, and educational systems tend to reflect the dominant culture, and over time the values, behaviors, and beliefs associated with that culture become so ingrained as to be invisible. Those living within the dominant culture do not recognize it as a system but simply see it as “normal,” and anything outside of that system is “other” than normal. Some educational theorists recognized that these differences have a profound impact on education.

Bourdieu (see, e.g., Bourdieu & Passeron, 2000) and Freire (2000), for instance, saw that traditional educational systems tended to reflect and favor the experiences of children from wealthy families. Because these children understood that system and saw themselves reflected in it, they thrived and were successful, while children from poorer families struggled. Since the dominant systems are essentially invisible, those in power tend to attribute the challenges faced by marginalized individuals as inherent to the person. In other words, if a child from a poor family struggles to learn to read, teachers will often assume the issue is with the child’s innate ability to learn, rather than recognize that the child might not have had the same preliteracy experiences and current support systems that other children have. Because they do not recognize the root issue, these educational models tend to replicate rather than challenge the existing systems, so learners from the dominant culture continue to succeed while those from marginalized communities continue to struggle, a phenomenon that Bourdieu refers to as cultural reproduction. While earlier theorists tended to focus mostly on the impact of economic disparities in education, other writers and educators like bell hooks, Henry Giroux, and Ileana Jiménez have applied feminist, queer, and critical race theory to examine how existing classroom power structures marginalize women, people of color, individuals who identify as LGBTQIA+, and other learners as well.

Importantly, critical pedagogy does not end with theory but rather focuses on praxis, or translating knowledge into action. Critical pedagogy sees education as a tool for empowerment, a place where learners develop the knowledge and skills they need to undo oppressive structures and achieve liberation (Freire, 2000; Tewell, 2015). Unlike the traditional “banking” model of education that positions learners as passive recipients of information, in a classroom guided by critical pedagogy, learners engage with problems that are personally meaningful and are active agents in their own education, and through that education gain agency to enact change in the world beyond the classroom (Elmborg, 2006; Freire, 2000; Tewell, 2015).

Critical pedagogy informs the critical approaches to information literacy discussed in Chapter 2, which urge us to move away from a skills-based, teacher-centered approach to information literacy toward one that questions dominant information structures and adopts student-centered teaching methods. Building on the ideas of agency and empowerment, critical information literacy encourages learners to see themselves as part of the “scholarly conversation” and as creators of information, rather than just consumers, and provides them with ways to recognize and challenge dominant powers within the current systems of creating, sharing, and evaluating information. Thus, for instructors, critical pedagogy pushes us to surface power dynamics in the classroom and the larger communities in which our learners live, and to reflect on how our own culture and biases color our approach to the classroom. In doing so, it offers a model for a more inclusive teaching practice.

Bias in the Classroom

We all have bias. These biases might be based on gender, race or ethnicity, class, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity, body type, or other elements of people’s personal identity. In some cases, we may be aware that we have a bias, while in other cases, we hold unconscious biases that we have unwittingly picked up over the course of our lifetime. Banaji and Greenwald (2013) show that our unconscious biases are particularly pernicious because we are unaware of the effect they have on our thoughts and actions, resulting in discriminatory judgments and behaviors that are automatic and hard to recognize. For example, research shows that when given résumés with equivalent qualifications from applicants with stereotypically white names and stereotypically Black names, search committees will favor applicants with stereotypically white names (Bertrand & Mullainathan, 2003) and that orchestras have historically favored men over women in auditions (Goldin & Rouse, 2000). Unconscious bias also affects library services. Shachaf and Horowitz (2006) found differences in librarians’ replies to email reference queries based on the patron’s perceived ethnicity and religious affiliation, including the time taken to reply, length and quality of answers, and the use of welcoming, professional greetings and conclusions. These examples demonstrate one of Banaji and Greenwald’s important findings–that hidden biases result in acts of commission, such as favoring men or whites in hiring, as well as acts of omission, such as providing less thorough service to some patrons.

It can be uncomfortable and even challenging to recognize our own bias. As Sue (2010a) notes, most people “see themselves as fair-minded individuals who would never consciously discriminate” and “their self-image of being ‘a good moral human being’ is assailed if they realize and acknowledge that they possess biased thoughts, attitudes and feelings.” As we grapple with our own biases, it can be helpful to remember that our brains evolved to develop heuristics that allow us to function effectively and safely in our environment. These heuristics often operate at an unconscious level; if you have ever seen a snake and instinctively jumped back even before you could assess whether the snake was venomous, you have experienced an unconscious heuristic that told you snakes are dangerous. Unfortunately, unconscious thoughts and biases influence how we react to people as well, particularly when we perceive those people as “different” from ourselves. If we want to be fair-minded, rational people, it is essential that we identify and reflect on our unconscious biases, including recognizing how our society shapes and influences those biases, in order to mitigate the effect they have on our thoughts and actions (Banaji and Greenwald, 2013). Activity 5.1 provides an opportunity to learn more about unconscious biases you may hold.

Activity 5.1: Take an Implicit Bias Test

As part of its research on implicit bias, Project Implicit at Harvard University offers tests that attempt to measure personal biases. While these tests are not perfect measures, they offer a starting point for reflecting on how we might be impacted by unconscious bias. Visit Project Implicit and try one or more of the available tests.

Questions for Reflection and Discussion:

• How did you feel about your results? Were you surprised or uncomfortable? Did other feelings emerge?
• If your test results revealed a personal bias, how might that bias affect your work in the classroom? What strategies could you use to mitigate this bias and deliver high-quality instruction to all your learners?

Microaggressions

One manifestation of bias is microaggressions, which Sue (2010a) defines as “the everyday verbal, nonverbal, and environmental slights, snubs, or insults, whether intentional or unintentional, which communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to target persons based solely upon their marginalized group membership.” Microaggressions may be aimed at women, people of color, individuals who identify (or are perceived) as LGBTQIA+, and people with disabilities, among others. Microaggressions come in many forms, including verbal (e.g., “Where are you from?” which implies a person of color must be a foreigner; telling a woman to smile), nonverbal (e.g., clutching one’s purse more tightly or crossing the street around a person of color), or environmental (e.g., Native American mascots) (Sue, 2010b). While microaggressions may appear minor, they create hostile classroom environments, perpetuate stereotype threat, lower workplace productivity, and cause mental and physical health problems (Sue et al., 2009, p. 183).

Because microaggressions often reflect our unconscious biases, they can be hard to eliminate. Princing (2019) notes that when we first meet someone new, we tend to notice what makes them different from us. She recommends we reflect on those thoughts and question any beliefs or stereotypes that may accompany them. The Reinert Center for Transformative Teaching and Learning (n.d.) also recommends that instructors reflect on their assumptions and expectations as a first step to avoid committing microaggressions. For example, an instructor who assumes that learners from first-generation or lower socioeconomic backgrounds are less prepared for college might make a comment to that effect in the classroom, making students hesitant to attend office hours lest they confirm the instructor’s negative belief. Additional strategies instructors can use:

• Resist the myth of color blindness. Unconscious bias makes it difficult to be truly colorblind. In addition, claims of color blindness obscure structural disadvantages and the very real differences in the experiences of people from marginalized groups (Princing, 2019).
• Believe the stories of people from marginalized groups. We can learn more about everyday bias by listening to and learning from the stories of individuals who have firsthand experience with bias. We must take care not to dismiss those stories as exaggerations, misunderstandings, or isolated incidents.
• Do not ask students to speak for their entire racial or culture group. As noted elsewhere in this chapter, learners from the same broad cultural group will not necessarily share all of the same values, beliefs, and understandings, and students may not feel capable of speaking for the experience of others (Reinert Center, n.d.). In addition, singling out learners in this way can make it appear that the instructor sees them as a one-dimensional representative of a particular identity, rather than as an individual bringing varied strengths, interests, and experiences to the classroom.
• Assume groups you are talking about are represented in the classroom. Treating every classroom interaction as if we were speaking with a member of the group under discussion can remind us to choose our words with care (Reinert Center, n.d.).
• Remain open to learning about microaggressions and yourself. While it is natural to feel defensive when others point out that we have said something problematic or offensive, we can approach such instances as learning opportunities.

In addition to recognizing the role that bias might play in our own actions, instructors should be aware that students will bring their own biases to the classroom. These biases will affect how learners understand and interact with instructional content, peers, and instructors, and instructors should be attentive to instances where learners commit microaggressions against one another. Microaggressions can be awkward and even challenging to address, especially if they were framed as a compliment (e.g., “You speak English so well”) or reflect commonly accepted stereotypes. Offenders may be unaware of the offense they have caused and because they did not intend to offend others, may be reluctant to accept responsibility for having done so. However, it is important to address such events clearly and promptly. Sue et al. (2019, p. 134) note that when microaggressions occur, small interventions by allies and bystanders have a “profound positive effect in creating an inclusive and welcoming environment” and discouraging further microaggressions. Strategies for addressing microaggressions in the classroom include:

• Make the “invisible” visible.  Create awareness by naming the microaggression with statements such as “I think that’s a stereotype I just heard” (Sue et al., 2019, p. 136).
• Disarm the microaggression. Statements such as “I don’t agree” or “I don’t see it that way” and actions such as shaking one’s head communicate to the perpetrator and others that the microaggression is not acceptable (Sue et al., 2019, p. 136).
• Take an educational, nonpunitive approach. Turn microaggressions into teachable moments by asking learners to reflect on their assumptions (Center for Teaching and Learning, n.d., p. 11). Phrases like “it sounds like you think” or “Could there be another way to look at this?” can prompt speakers to identify and question their unconscious biases (Gonzaga et al., 2019). Ferguson (2015) suggests we approach microaggressions in the spirit of “calling in” rather than “calling out.”
• Redirect. When students are asked to speak for all members of their racial or cultural group, we can redirect the conversation with statements such as “Let’s open this question up to others” (Gonzaga et al., 2019).
• Use “I” statements. The use of “I” statements such as “I felt uncomfortable when you said . . . ” communicate impact while minimizing blame (Gonzaga et al., 2019).
• Discuss intent versus impact. Instructors can use statements like “I know you meant to be funny, but you hurt . . . ” to help learners recognize the impact of something they said. If learners struggle with the idea that they may have offended or harmed someone despite not intending to cause offense, instructors can use metaphors such as bumping someone in the grocery store or causing a car accident to explain the difference between intent and impact (and the need to make amends).
• Rewind. Sometimes microaggressions happen so quickly, the conversation moves on before they are addressed. Statements like “I’d like to revisit something that was said earlier” allow us to step back and address these microaggressions ( Gonzaga et al., 2019).

Another manifestation of bias can be “othering,” or treating the history and experiences of white, middle-class, heterosexual, cisgender, able-bodied people as universal or the norm, while presenting the history and experiences of other groups as unusual, exceptional, or only of interest to members of those communities. For example, displaying books by Black authors in February, but not at other times, sends an implicit message that the history of America is the actions and accomplishments of whites and that the accomplishments of others are of limited value or interest. While special displays and programs are an important way to recognize and support events like Black History Month, Women’s History Month, and Pride Month, librarians should also integrate materials by individuals of color, women, and LGBTQIA+ authors into displays year-round.

In some cases, the systems that are foundational to libraries treat selected groups as the other. For example, the Dewey Decimal System reserves 200-289 for topics related to Christianity and the Bible, leaving only the 290s for all other religions; Schingler (2015) points out that this reflects an underlying assumption that Christianity not only has more to say on theological topics, what it has to say is more valuable. Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH) are notoriously problematic in their treatment of women and people of color (Berman, 1969, 1993; Drabinski, 2008; Knowlton, 2005). The presence of subject headings such as “women astronauts” and “African American business enterprises” reveals an assumption that these professions are for white men and that the presence of others is unusual or remarkable, while subject headings that utilize biased terminology, such as “illegal aliens,” send a message about who belongs in America.

These instances of bias and othering can create barriers to information seeking. Howard and Knowlton (2018) point out that Library of Congress Classification distributes materials related to African American and LGBTQIA+ issues throughout the collection, making browsing or even grasping the scope of the topic challenging for researchers. Even when controlled vocabulary uses neutral terminology, the accompanying thesauri can obscure topics for patrons trying to identify the database’s preferred subject heading. For example, a search for “queer” in the ERIC thesaurus returns “the term(s) you entered could not be found” with no suggestions for next steps ( ERIC uses the subject heading “homosexuality”). In comparison, a search for “queer” in the thesaurus for PubMed takes one to the preferred subject heading, “sexual and gender minorities,” along with notes about how the term is applied and related/narrower terms.

As part of creating inclusive classrooms, we must be aware of the ways in which library systems and spaces can “other” marginalized groups, and take steps to improve equity and inclusion in our spaces and collections. For example, when creating lessons, we can plan search examples that reflect the diversity of our community and learners’ interests. As appropriate, we can surface and acknowledge problematic practices, and engage students in a dialogue about the impact of those practices and how they might be changed. Integrating diversity into curricular content is addressed in more detail later in this chapter.

Deficit-Based Thinking

Learners, by their very nature, come to our libraries and classrooms with gaps in their knowledge and skills. Oftentimes, instructors seek out research that will help them identify these gaps in order to develop relevant content. While this research can provide valuable guidance for instructors, it is sometimes framed solely in terms of what learners are lacking and can lead us to focus exclusively on students’ weaknesses, an approach termed deficit-based thinking.

Increasingly, educators are taking an asset-based approach that recognizes and builds on the strengths students bring to the classroom (Heinbach, 2019; Ilett, 2019; Kocevar-Weidinger et al., 2019; Matteson & Gersch, 2019; Tewell, 2020). For example, research on returning adult learners may show that they lack up-to-date research and citation skills, framing this as a problem that will hinder academic success. An asset-based approach recognizes that adult learners, by virtue of having spent time in the workforce, bring valuable life experience that can enrich classroom discussions, along with strong collaborative and interpersonal skills developed in the workplace. In addition, adult learners tend to have clear educational and career goals and are highly motivated to develop the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in higher education. As another example, Kocevar-Weidinger et al. (2019) show that despite the stereotype that first-year college students lack research skills, they actually have extensive everyday research experience that can serve as a starting point for academic information literacy instruction.

Sometimes things characterized as weaknesses or deficits are in fact strengths if we recast our narrative. For instance, research on first-generation students may focus on the challenges they encounter because their families are unable to advise them on how to navigate the academic and social aspects of college. Research also shows that first-generation undergraduate students are less likely to use campus support services (Longwell-Grice et al., 2016; Portnoi & Kwong, 2011). An asset-based approach recognizes that families of first-generation students are often very supportive of their students’ academic endeavors and, if given information about support services on campus, will recommend their students take advantage of such services. Thus, while they lack firsthand knowledge of higher education, family members can be a conduit to connecting first-generation students to campus resources. Activity 5.2 asks you to think more deeply about asset-based approaches.

Activity 5.2: Reflecting on Asset-Based Thinking

Individually or with a group of classmates, select a group of learners you might work with, such as recent immigrants, English-language learners, international students, or older adults.

• What gaps in knowledge or skills are typically ascribed to this group? Are these viewed as simple gaps or as deficits?
• What strengths will this group of learners bring to the classroom?
• How could you use an asset-based approach to build on these strengths in designing instruction?

Cultural Competency

Cultural competency is the ability to work effectively with people from varied cultural backgrounds. Cultural competency is an essential skill for librarians; it prepares us to recognize barriers to information use, to work with colleagues and patrons of diverse backgrounds, and to develop culturally responsive services and programs (Cooke et al., 2017; Kim & Sin, 2006; Morris, 2007; Overall, 2009). Instructors who are culturally competent understand how culture influences teaching and learning, and are able to engage learners from diverse backgrounds in the classroom.

Cultural differences can emerge in our classrooms in numerous ways. For example, contemporary American classrooms tend to be student-centered; students are expected to ask questions during lectures, discuss ideas and even disagree with instructors and peers, and engage in self-directed learning activities. In contrast, some cultures value teacher-centered classrooms where learners are expected to listen respectfully as teachers share their expertise. International students and recent immigrants who are accustomed to teacher-centered instruction may be uncomfortable during discussions and student-led activities and may even feel instructors are abdicating their responsibility to share expertise. They may also be reluctant to “bother” the instructor by asking questions or admitting they did not understand something. Culturally competent instructors can attend to these differences by interspersing discussion and active learning with direct instruction, encouraging questions and participation in discussions, and explaining how the planned activities support learning. In addition, librarians can create more culturally inclusive classrooms by:

• Speaking slowly and clearly, especially when working with learners from different cultures and language backgrounds.
• Avoiding slang, idioms, and sarcasm, none of which translates well across cultures, and using humor judiciously.
• Avoiding library jargon, which is likely to be unfamiliar to international students and recent immigrants, as well as to novice learners in general.
• Respecting cross-cultural rules for personal space and touching.
• Making expectations for participation explicit.

Cultural differences may surface in surprising ways. Bunner (2017, p. 43) provides an example of a student who got in trouble for answering a question in class, not realizing that the teacher was asking a rhetorical question, something that does not exist in his culture. The student explained, “in my culture when an adult asks you a question, you are supposed to answer.” Osa et al. (2006) highlight the care we must take in using or interpreting body language and facial expressions; they provide the example of raised eyebrows, which can indicate surprise, interest, approval, skepticism, or disapproval, depending on the culture of the speaker. Whether or not to make eye contact as a sign of respect and the appropriate finger with which to point also differ by culture.

These are only a few examples of cultural differences. Cultural differences also influence written and conversational communication styles, preferences for individual or cooperative problem solving and study, tolerance for uncertainty, conventions of politeness, and expectations for how children will interact with adults (Brook et al., 2015; Cifuentes & Ozel, 2006; Gay, 2002; Weinstein et al., 2003). Activity 5.3 asks you to think about cultural differences you have experienced.

Activity 5.3: Reflecting on Cultural Differences

Think of a specific instance of a cultural difference or misunderstanding that you have observed.

• What behaviors were central to the situation?
• What values, beliefs, or assumptions are reflected in the behaviors of each person involved?
• How might these values, beliefs, or assumptions influence a person’s experience in the classroom?
• How might your recognition of these values, beliefs, and assumptions impact your understanding of your students and your instruction?

In order to provide culturally competent instruction, librarians must develop their cultural knowledge and translate that knowledge into strategies for action. Villagran (2018) suggests librarians use the Cultural Intelligence (CQ) model as a framework for reflection and professional development. This model, shown in Figure 5.1, has four components: drive, knowledge, strategy, and action (Cultural Intelligence Center, n.d.).

• Drive: This component reflects our interest, persistence, and confidence in learning about other cultures and working in culturally diverse environments. For example, librarians might be motivated to learn about other cultures in order to improve their ability to design and deliver inclusive services for members of their community.
• Knowledge: This component is our understanding of cultural similarities and differences. Instruction librarians who want to improve their cross-cultural knowledge might seek out readings and professional development opportunities on how culture impacts teaching and learning.
• Strategy: This component reflects the metacognitive element of cultural competence; it is our ability to plan for and reflect on multicultural encounters. Culturally competent instruction librarians recognize their learners will come from varied backgrounds, develop strategies to create inclusive instruction, and reflect on their teaching experiences in order to identify areas for improvement.
• Action: This component is our ability to use appropriate behaviors during multicultural interactions. Instruction librarians can translate cultural competence into action through their instructional design and delivery and through their interactions with individual learners.

Figure 5.1: The Cultural Intelligence Model

An example may demonstrate how librarians can use the Cultural Intelligence model as a guide to professional development. Early in her career as an academic librarian, one of the authors, Melissa, heard that international students from Asia would answer questions such as “Do you understand?” with “yes” out of politeness, whether or not they understood the material being taught. Concerned that she might not be teaching international students effectively (drive), Melissa sought out articles about library services for international students and talked with a colleague with expertise in the area (knowledge). This research helped her better understand cultural differences in teaching and learning, and confirmed the need to modify the instructional strategies she used in the classroom and at the reference desk (strategy). As a result, Melissa became conscientious about speaking slowly, avoiding slang and library jargon, using open-ended questions that could not be answered with “yes,” providing written handouts, and using a pencil or her entire hand to point, instead of the index finger (action).

Librarians can use a number of strategies to develop their cultural knowledge, including reading books and articles, participating in relevant conferences and webinars, and attending cultural events such as festivals, museum exhibits, and film screenings. Reflection is an important part of cultural competence; a teaching journal, discussed in more detail in Chapter 14, can prompt librarians to reflect on classroom experiences, record teaching success, and identify areas for improvement. Conversations with colleagues are also a way to increase cultural knowledge, reflect on one’s teaching, and develop new strategies for inclusive pedagogy. Activity 5.4 is an exercise to reflect on your own learning and instructional practices using the Cultural Intelligence model.

Activity 5.4: Building Cultural Competency

Using the Cultural Intelligence Model shown in Figure 5.1, reflect on your cultural competence, either in general or with regard to a specific patron group with whom you anticipate working.

• How would you rate your cultural competence? Are you stronger in some areas, such as Drive or Knowledge, than others?
• What motivates you to improve your cultural competency?
• How have you built your cultural knowledge? What resources can you use to continue building your knowledge?
• Do you feel confident applying your cultural competence in the classroom? What strategies would you use as you plan and deliver instruction?

While learning about different cultures can empower librarians to provide more culturally relevant instruction, librarians should avoid categorizing or stereotyping specific learners. Cultural groups are not static or homogeneous, meaning learners from the same broad cultural group will not necessarily share all of the same values, beliefs, and understandings, or react in exactly the same way to instructional experiences. In addition, learners are comprised of multiple identities, of which culture is only one aspect. Thus, we should use the knowledge we develop about different cultures as a way to be alert to potential differences that could lead to misunderstandings, but not to pigeonhole or predict the behavior and experience of an individual learner.

Strategies for Inclusive Teaching

Increasing our knowledge and understanding of other cultures is only a first step toward cultural competence and inclusive teaching. We also need to parlay that understanding into instructional practices that acknowledge, appreciate, and attend to the rich diversity of our classrooms. This section presents strategies for inclusive teaching, including fostering a positive classroom climate, integrating diverse content, and using inclusive pedagogies.

Fostering a Positive Classroom Climate

Our sense of belonging in the classroom influences our motivation to learn. The Center for Teaching and Learning (2019) at Columbia University identifies four types of classroom environments:

• Explicitly Marginalizing: The instructor or other students say or do things, such as committing microaggressions or repeating stereotypes, that exclude learners and perspectives from marginalized backgrounds.
• Implicitly Marginalizing: The instructor excludes some learners through subtle actions such as calling primarily on male students or using examples solely from the predominant culture.
• Implicitly Centralizing: The instructor will discuss issues of marginalization and diversity if a student raises the topic, but such conversations are not planned or presented as essential.
• Explicitly Centralizing: The instructor intentionally integrates marginalized perspectives into course content, raises issues of diversity and inclusion, and takes action to foster sensitivity, such as establishing norms for discussion and group work.

While the environment in any classroom can fluctuate, the overall classroom climate is often less inclusive and welcoming than instructors realize. In one study, instructors rated their course as falling midway between implicitly and explicitly centralizing, while learners rated the same course as implicitly marginalizing (Center for Teaching and Learning, 2019).

One conclusion we might take away from this research is the need for critical self-reflection on the part of instructors. In addition, the research suggests that instructors must make a concerted effort to create an inclusive classroom environment. Some strategies we can use include:

• Express interest in students. Welcoming participants as they enter the room and learning their names help participants feel recognized (if you are worried about remembering names, you can have them create a table tent or name tag). In addition, instructors should come out from behind podiums, which can be perceived as distancing, to engage with participants. Reflective activities such as minute papers also offer opportunities to respond to individuals and demonstrate interest in their learning (Center for Teaching and Learning, n.d.; Bunner, 2017).
• Establish ground rules for discussions. Establishing guidelines for civil, constructive interaction is becoming more common in credit courses; oftentimes, instructors engage students in creating these guidelines in order to foster a sense of ownership. The time constraints of library workshops may not allow for lengthy or collaborative agreements; however, librarians can establish simple ground rules, such as respecting the opinions of others and valuing diverse perspectives, at the beginning of sessions (Watts, 2017).
• Foster student-to-student relationships. Instructional strategies that foster interaction such as think-pair-share, small group work, and class discussions promote positive classroom relationships.
• Make expectations explicit. As mentioned earlier, cultural background can influence classroom behaviors such as participation styles and how, or whether, to ask questions. Instructors should make their expectations explicit with comments such as “I hope you will ask a lot of questions as we go along,” or “Right now we are going to work independently, but later we’ll share our work with others.”
• Express high expectations for all students. Instructors should use an encouraging, positive tone, while also setting high expectations for all learners. Gay (2002) and Weinstein et al. (2003) point out that stereotypes based on race and/or gender can cause instructors to lower expectations for certain groups of students. Weinstein et al. (2003) offer the example of a non-native speaker of English who was offended when a teacher told him his English was “good,” rather than suggesting he continue to practice. He felt the former was patronizing and did not help him improve his language skills.
• Address microaggressions and other forms of bias. As discussed earlier, instructors should be mindful of stereotypes and take care not to perpetuate them, and to practice intervention strategies that can be used when microaggressions occur in the classroom.
• Ask for feedback. Instructors can use course evaluations and classroom observations to gather feedback on how well they foster an inclusive classroom environment.

Integrating Diverse Content

All learners have a right to instructional offerings that address their needs and interests. At the program level, we should offer workshops and other instructional resources on a wide variety of topics that are suitable for patrons of varied ages and ability levels. We should take care to schedule classes and programs at varied times to ensure access for the widest number of people. For example, a traditional storytime program on a weekday morning will serve families with a stay-at-home parent as well as families where parents work the late shift or on weekends, while a pajama storytime held in the evening will serve families where parents and other caregivers work during the day.

In addition, our course content should reflect the diversity of our communities and the larger world. Not only does this allow learners to “see” themselves in the curriculum, it provides opportunities for all learners to learn about diversity and equity and to develop cultural competence. In addition, integrating discussions of diversity and equity throughout the curriculum ensures these issues are not “othered” or treated as an addendum to a curriculum where whiteness and heterosexuality are the norm. Further, we must engage these topics in authentic ways, rather than with benign or superficial celebrations of multiculturalism (Bunner, 2017, p. 42; Kumasi & Hill, 2011, p. 252). Some strategies librarians can use to integrate diversity and inclusion into instructional content:

• Use diverse examples. For instance, a librarian teaching a workshop on Overdrive can conduct sample searches featuring authors of diverse identities. An academic librarian or archivist teaching students to locate primary documents from World War II might highlight sites with materials from the Tuskegee Airmen or the all Japanese-American 442nd Regiment. Hinchliffe (2016) notes that librarians can call attention to issues of human rights through the examples used in class.
• Choose metaphors and analogies carefully. While metaphors and analogies can help learners build on prior knowledge and make concepts more concrete, they are often embedded in cultural knowledge or experiences that not everyone will share. Similarly, pop culture references may exclude learners based on their age or cultural background, although in some cases librarians can pause to offer a brief explanation.
• Discuss how issues of race, class, and gender impact the material being covered. Gorski and Swalwell (2015, p. 36) argue, “at the heart of a curriculum that is meaningfully multicultural lie principles of equity and social justice—purposeful attention to issues like racism, homophobia, sexism, and economic inequality.” Gay (2002) suggests that instructors address topics such as racism, historical atrocities, and structures of power, and contextualize issues within race, class, and gender. While librarians may initially feel uncomfortable discussing challenging topics in the classroom, Bunner (2017, p. 43) found that ignoring issues of race is more problematic for students of color than imperfect conversations.
• Model how participants can seek out marginalized voices and perspectives. In addition to incorporating a wide range of perspectives into our own teaching, we can encourage others to adopt a wider perspective and demonstrate resources and search strategies to uncover marginalized voices.

As part of creating a more inclusive curriculum, librarians will need to build collections that incorporate the histories and voices of marginalized groups. After all, it will be difficult to use diverse examples or demonstrate strategies for surfacing marginalized voices if our print and online collections do not contain that material. In addition, we need to be skilled at working within these collections. Curry (2005, p. 70) found that small behaviors like raised eyebrows, biting one’s lip, or a reserved or even neutral affect communicated discomfort while helping a patron research LGBTQIA+ topics, leading the patron to be less likely to ask for help in the future. In the same study, Curry (2005, p. 71) found that even librarians who indicated a willingness to help the patron lacked the necessary knowledge to identify appropriate sources of information. While Curry’s study focused on assisting patrons at the reference desk, her findings are very applicable to the classroom.

Part and parcel with building our knowledge of resources, we must understand the biases and weaknesses built into existing search systems, and develop strategies to find information within (or despite) those systems. Drabinski (2008) shares her experience of teaching with a colleague who incorrectly assumed that if LCSH has a heading for “African American women,” it must also have a heading for “white women” and advised students to use that phrase when searching. Noble (2012, 2018) shows that search engines such as Google are not neutral; rather, they replicate the biases inherent in society, delivering search results that reinforce stereotypical depictions of women and people of color. Ultimately, librarians who are committed to integrating equity and inclusion into the classroom must step back to look at the totality of their library’s spaces, collections, and systems.

Inclusive Pedagogy

Pedagogy is our approach to teaching. It reflects our understanding of the learning process, our goals for the classroom environment and student learning, and, subsequently, the activities one plans for the classroom. Instructors who practice inclusive pedagogy recognize that students have varied preferences for and comfort levels with different learning activities such as lecture, whole-class discussion, and small group work, and offer varied ways for learners to engage in the classroom.

Instructors can select from a wide variety of activities when planning instructional sessions. In fact, novice instructors are sometimes overwhelmed by the seemingly endless array of options. Chávez and Longerbeam (2016, pp. 8-9) suggest cultural approaches to teaching and learning range from “individuated,” which tend to compartmentalize content and treat learning as an individual experience, to “integrated,” which are more interconnected and focus on shared learning experiences. Instructors might seek to balance activities that reflect an individuated approach such as lecture, independent practice, and reflective writing, with activities that reflect an integrated approach such as discussion, case studies, and collaborative work.

Another approach we can take is balancing instructor-centered and learner-centered activities. Instructor-centered activities are those in which the instructor has a strong role in directing course content and the process of student learning, such as lecture and demonstration. In student-centered activities, students direct and shape their own learning; examples of student-centered activities include small group work, case-based and problem-based learning, and practice exercises that allow students to explore their own interests.

In addition to varying classroom activities, instructors can offer learners choices. For example, during an online searching activity, we might give learners the option of trying a task on their own or collaborating with their neighbor. Instructors can also adapt activities to create a more inclusive environment. For example, workshop participants might be reluctant to engage in a discussion with others they do not know well, especially if the topic is sensitive. A think-pair-share, which offers time for individual reflection and ordering one’s thoughts, or a small group discussion, where one shares ideas with just a few others, may feel safer for participants and can be used as a lead-in to a whole-class discussion or activity.

Emancipatory Education

While inclusive pedagogy outlines the strategies we can take as instructors to honor our learners’ experiences and make our classrooms and instruction welcoming and accessible to all learners, critical pedagogy also recognizes learners as agents in the classroom and in the world. In Pedagogy of the Oppressed , Freire (2000) discusses the emancipatory aspects of education, or how education can be structured so as to empower marginalized and oppressed communities to liberate themselves from systems of oppression. Crucial to Freire’s approach is that the learners are the agents of their own liberation. Instructors can facilitate this process by recognizing and mitigating bias and through the inclusive strategies outlined in this chapter, but ultimately, learners should be empowered to act on their own behalf.

We can foster emancipatory education within the library classroom by surfacing oppressive practices not only within education but within library systems and structures, facilitating dialogues about these practices, and encouraging students to imagine and adopt roles for themselves in challenging those systems. Chapter 2 outlines steps we could take in the context of critical information literacy, such as helping students recognize how prevailing publishing practices and notions of authority favor some voices and marginalize others, and encouraging them to seek out those voices that have been marginalized to include their perspectives. We can also work with learners to take action in the wider world, as librarians at Dartmouth College did when they collaborated with students to petition the Library of Congress to eliminate the term “illegal aliens” from its official subject headings (Albright, 2019).

Our learners bring varied backgrounds, identities, and educational needs to the classroom. Using critical pedagogy as a guide, librarians can adopt inclusive teaching practices that create classrooms, libraries, and, ultimately, communities that are more just and equitable for all members.

Key takeaways from this chapter include:

• Instructors should understand the role unconscious bias plays in discrimination and inequity, and develop strategies to prevent and address microaggressions, othering, and deficit thinking.
• Cultural competence is a set of knowledge, skills, and dispositions that enable librarians to interact effectively with patrons from diverse backgrounds. Instruction librarians need to understand how culture affects teaching and learning, and develop strategies for inclusive pedagogy.
• Elements of inclusive teaching include fostering a positive classroom climate, integrating diverse perspectives and issues of diversity and equity into course content, and using inclusive pedagogies.

Activity 5.5 asks you to reflect on inclusive teaching.

Activity 5.5: Reflecting on Inclusive Teaching

Find (or draw) an image, photo, gif, etc., that captures your thoughts on inclusive teaching. Share your image and a brief explanation with your classmates.

Suggested Readings

Accardi, M. T., Drabinski, E., & Kumbier, A. (Eds.). (2010). Critical library instruction: Theories and methods . Library Juice Press.

Edited by leading writers on issues of diversity, equity, and inclusion in LIS, this book offers a series of authored chapters that apply feminist, critical race, queer, and anti-oppressive theory and strategies to the library classroom. Chapters range from a broad examination of social power in the library classroom to application of specific strategies such as service learning and problem-based learning.

Adichie, C. N. (2009). The Danger of a Single Story. TED: Ideas Worth Spreading . https://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_ngozi_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story

Adichie’s warning about how seeing others through a “single story” reflects systems of power and leads to deficit thinking is an important one for instruction librarians.

Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2013). Blind spot: Hidden biases of good people . Delacorte.

Based on the authors’ extensive research, this is an excellent and highly readable introduction to unconscious bias.

Bunner, T. (2017). When we listen: Using student voices to design culturally responsive and just schools.  Knowledge Quest, 45(3), 38–45.

Bunner worked with students in grades 4 through 12 to identify strategies for culturally responsive teaching. In this article, she outlines six strategies and uses student voices to illustrate their importance and examples of successful implementation. The article includes an activity where instructors can reflect on their own practice.

Ettarh, F. (2018). Vocational awe and librarianship: The lies we tell ourselves. In the Library with the Lead Pipe . http://www.inthelibrarywiththeleadpipe.org/2018/vocational-awe/

Ettarh coined the term “vocational awe” to describe the perception that librarianship is a calling that requires sacrifice. As a result of vocational awe, librarians are hesitant or unable to critique libraries and the work of librarians, not only leading to workplace problems but oftentimes preventing us from solving (or even acknowledging) those problems.

Feminist Teacher . https://feministteacher.com .

By noted critical pedagogist Ileana Jiménez, this blog explores a variety of issues around critical pedagogy, diversity, equity, and inclusion in teaching, with a focus on the K-12 classroom.

Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed (30th anniversary edition). Bloomsbury.

Freire’s foundational text examines the ways in which traditional models of education replicate oppressive structures and argues for an educational model that centers the learners’ experiences in order to empower them to challenge those systems.

Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(2), 106-116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487102053002003

Gay provides four strategies for culturally responsive pedagogy: developing knowledge about cultural diversity, designing culturally relevant curricula, developing cross-cultural communication skills, and demonstrating caring.

Inclusive teaching: Supporting all students in the college classroom. Center for Teaching. Columbia University. https://www.edx.org/course/inclusive-teaching-supporting-all-students-in-the

Available from edX, this professional development course offers a thoughtful introduction to inclusive teaching. Although aimed at faculty teaching credit courses, instructors in all types of libraries will find valuable tips for creating an inclusive classroom environment, diversifying content, and engaging in critical self-reflection. A print resource with similar information, Guide to inclusive teaching at Columbia , is available online at https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/inclusive-teaching-resources/ and numerous videos from the course are available from Columbia Learn on YouTube at https://www.youtube.com/user/CCNMTL/playlists?view=50&sort=dd&shelf_id=26

Jensen, R. (2004). The myth of the neutral professional. Progressive Librarian, 24, 28-34. http://www.progressivelibrariansguild.org/PL/PL24/028.pdf

Jensen challenges the myth of neutrality within libraries, arguing that to claim to be neutral is to support the existing political system. His critique of library programming is particularly relevant for instruction librarians.

Leckie, G. J., Given, L. M, & Buschman, J. E. (2010). Critical theory for library and information science: Exploring the social from across the disciplines . Libraries Unlimited.

Through a series of essays, chapter authors explore various aspects of library and information science through different critical lenses and apply the work of specific theorists to examine current practices in LIS. Chapter 8 proposes a model for transformative pedagogy based on the work of Freire, but readers will find inspiration and ideas for integrating critical theory into their work throughout the text.

McCombs School of Business. (2018). Implicit bias. University of Texas. https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/video/implicit-bias

This brief, nine-minute video offers a cogent introduction to unconscious bias.

Southern Poverty Law Center. (2015). Speaking up: Responding to everyday bigotry. https://www.splcenter.org/20150125/speak-responding-everyday-bigotry

The Southern Poverty Law Center offers strategies and scripts for responding to microaggressions and other forms of bigotry in workplace, educational, social, and family settings.

Souza, T. (2018, April 30). Responding to microaggressions in the classroom: Taking ACTION. Faculty Focus . https://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/effective-classroom-management/responding-to-microaggressions-in-the-classroom

Souza provides a framework and helpful scripts for instructors to address microaggressions.

Storti, C. (1997). Culture matters: The Peace Corps cross-cultural workbook. Peace Corps Information Collection and Exchange. https://files.peacecorps.gov/multimedia/pdf/library/T0087_culturematters.pdf

Developed for Peace Corps volunteers, this interactive workbook is an excellent introduction to cultural competence. Chapters address how people of different cultures understand the concept of self, personal and social obligations, time, and locus of control, and how these differences impact communication, interpersonal relationships, and the workplace.

Sue, D. W., Alsaidi, S., Awad, M. N., Glaeser, E., Calle, C. Z., & Mendez, N. (2019). Disarming racial microaggressions: Microintervention strategies for targets, white allies, and bystanders. American Psychologist, 74 (1) , 128-42. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000296

Sue et al. provide a concise introduction to microaggressions and the harm they cause and suggest strategies that targets, allies, and bystanders can use to disarm them. Although the discussion and examples focus on racial microaggressions, the strategies are applicable to all types of microaggressions.

Tewell, E. (2015). A decade of critical information literacy: A review of the literature. Communications in Information Literacy, 9 (1) , 24-43. https://doi.org/10.15760/comminfolit.2015.9.1.174

Tewell provides a concise, cogent explanation of critical pedagogy and its application to library instruction.

Weinstein, C., Curran, M., & Tomlinson-Clarke, S. (2003). Culturally responsive classroom management: Awareness into action. Theory into Practice, 42(4), 269-276. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4204_2

This article is rich with examples of how culture affects expectations for teaching and learning, and provides strategies for developing a culturally responsive classroom practice.

Albright, C. (2019, April 22). ‘Change the subject’: A hard-fought battle over words. Dartmouth News . https://news.dartmouth.edu/news/2019/04/change-subject-hard-fought-battle-over-words

Berman, S. (1969, February 15). Chauvinistic headings. Library Journal, 94, 695.

Berman, S. (1993). Prejudices and antipathies: A tract on the LC subject heads concerning people. McFarland.

Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2003). Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination (NBER Working Paper No 9873). https://www.nber.org/papers/w9873

Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J.C. (2000). Reproduction in education, society, and culture (2nd edition). Sage Publications.

Brook, F., Ellenwood, D., & Lazzaro, A. E. (2015). In pursuit of antiracist social justice: Denaturalizing whiteness in the academic library.  Library Trends, 64, 246-284. https://doi.org/10.1353/lib.2015.0048

Bunner, T. (2017). When we listen.  Knowledge Quest, 45(3), 38–45.

Center for Teaching and Learning. (n.d.). Guide to inclusive teaching at Columbia . Columbia University. https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/inclusive-teaching-resources/

Center for Teaching and Learning. (2019). Common challenges related to course climate [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=441&v=blM6IPlu2nM

Chávez, A. F., & Longerbeam, S. D. (2016). Teaching across cultural strengths: A guide to balancing integrated and individuated cultural frameworks in college teaching. Stylus.

Cifuentes, L., & Ozel, S. (2006). Resources for attending to the needs of multicultural learners. Knowledge Quest, 35 (2) , 14-21.

Cooke, N. A., Spencer, K., Jacobs, J. M., Mabbott, C., Collins, C., & Loyd, R. M. (2017). Mapping topographies from the classroom: Addressing whiteness in the LIS curriculum. In G. Schlesselman-Tarango (Ed.), Topographies of whiteness: Mapping whiteness in library and information science (pp. 235-250). Library Juice Press.

Cultural Intelligence Center. (n.d.). CQ model. https://culturalq.com/about-cultural-intelligence/research/

Curry, A. (2005). If I ask, will they answer? Evaluating public library reference service to gay and lesbian youth. Reference & User Services Quarterly, 45, 65-75.

Drabinski, E. (2008). Teaching the radical catalog. In K. R. Roberto (Ed.), Radical cataloging: Essays at the front . McFarland. http://www.emilydrabinski.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/drabinski_radcat.pdf

Elmborg, J. (2006). Critical information literacy: Implications for instructional practice. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 32 (2) , 192-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2005.12.004

Ferguson, S. (2015). Calling in: A quick guide on when and how. Everyday Feminism . https://everydayfeminism.com/2015/01/guide-to-calling-in/

Gay, G. (2002). Preparing for culturally responsive teaching. Journal of Teacher Education, 53 (2) , 106-116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487102053002003

Goldin, C., & Rouse, C. (2000). Orchestrating impartiality: The impact of “blind” auditions on female musicians. American Economic Review, 90 (4) , 715-741. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.90.4.715

Gonzaga, A. M., Ufomata, E., Bonifacino, E., & Zimmer, S. (2019, August 29). Microaggressions: What are they? How can we avoid? How can we respond? [PowerPoint slides]. https://www.chp.edu/-/media/chp/healthcare-professionals/documents/faculty-development/microaggressions.pdf?la=en

Gorski, P. C., & Swalwell, K. (2015). Equity Literacy for All. Educational Leadership, 72(6), 34-40.

Heinbach, C., Fiedler, B. P., Mitola, R., & Pattni, E. (2019, February 6). Dismantling deficit thinking: A strengths-based inquiry into the experiences of transfer students in and out of academia. In the Library with the Lead Pipe. http://www.inthelibrarywiththeleadpipe.org/2019/dismantling-deficit-thinking/

Hinchliffe, L. J. (2016). Loading examples to further human rights education. In N. Pagowsky & K. McElroy (Eds.), Critical library pedagogy handbook 1: Essays and workbook activities (pp. 75-84). ACRL. http://hdl.handle.net/2142/91636

Howard, S. A., & Knowlton, S. A. (2018). Browsing through bias: The Library of Congress classification and subject headings for African American studies and LGBTQIA studies. Library Trends, 67 (1) , 74-88. http://doi.org/10.1353/lib.2018.0026

Ilett, D. (2019). A critical review of LIS literature on first-generation students. portal: Libraries and the Academy, 19 (1) , 177-96. http://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2019.0009

Kim, K., & Sin, S. J. (2006). Recruiting and retaining students of color in LIS programs: Perspectives of library and information professionals. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 47 (2) , 81-95.

Knowlton, S. A. (2005). Three decades since Prejudices and Antipathies : A study of changes in the Library of Congress Subject Headings. Cataloging and Classification Quarterly , 40 (2), 123-145. https://doi.org/10.1300/J104v40n02_08

Kocevar-Weidinger, E., Cox, E., Lenker, M., Pashkova-Balkenhol, T. T., & Kinman, V. (2019). On their own terms: First-year student interviews about everyday life research can help librarians flip the deficit script.  Reference Services Review, 47 (2) , 169–192.   https://doi.org/10.1108/RSR-02-2019-0007

Kumasi, K. D., & Hill, R. F. (2011). Are we there yet? Results of a gap analysis to measure LIS students’ prior knowledge and actual learning of cultural competence concepts. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 52 (4) , 251-264.

Longwell-Grice, R., Adsitt, N. Z., Mullins, K., & Serrata, W. (2016). The first ones: Three studies on first-generation college students.” NACADA Journal, 36(2), 34-46. https://doi.org/10.12930/NACADA-13-028

Matteson, M. L., & Gersch, B. (2019). Unique or ubiquitous: Information literacy instruction outside academia. Reference Services Review 47 (1) , 73-84. https://doi.org/10.1108/RSR-12-2018-0075

Morris, V. J. (2007, January). A seat at the table: Seeking culturally competent pedagogy in library education [Conference presentation]. American Library Association Midwinter Meeting / Association of Library and Information Science Education Annual Conference, Forum on Library Education, Seattle, WA, United States. http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~gdc27/final/documents/seatatthetable.pdf

Noble, S. U. (2012, Spring). Missed connections: What search engines say about women. Bitch, 54 . https://safiyaunoble.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/54_search_engines.pdf

Noble, S. U. (2018). Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism . New York University.

Osa, J. O., Nyana, S. A., & Ogbaa, C. A. (2006). Effective cross-cultural communication to enhance reference transactions: Training guidelines and tips. Knowledge Quest, 35(2), 22-24.

Overall, P. M. (2009). Cultural competence: A conceptual framework for library and information science professionals. The Library Quarterly: Information, Community, and Policy, 79 (2), 175-204. https://doi.org/10.1086/597080

Portnoi, L. M., & Kwong, T. M. (2011). Enhancing the academic experiences of first-generation master’s students. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 48 (4) , 411-27. https://doi.org/10.2202/1949-6605.6268

Princing, M. (2019, September 3). What microaggressions are and how to prevent them. Right as Rain . https://rightasrain.uwmedicine.org/life/relationships/microaggressions

Reinert Center for Transformative Teaching and Learning. (n.d.). Avoiding microaggressions in the classroom. https://www.slu.edu/cttl/resources/resource-guides/microaggressions.pdf

Schingler, M. A. (2015, August 18). How Dewey do: Head-scratching library categorizations. Book Riot. https://bookriot.com/2015/08/18/head-scratching-dewey-decimal-systemhead-scratching-dewey-decimal-system-categorizations/

Shachaf, P., & Horowitz, S. (2006). Are virtual reference services color blind? Library & Information Science Research, 28 (4) , 501-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2006.08.009

Sue, D. W. (2010a). Microaggressions: More than just race. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/microaggressions-in-everyday-life/201011/microaggressions-more-just-race

Sue, D. W. (2010b). Racial microaggressions in everyday life. Psychology Today. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/microaggressions-in-everyday-life/201010/racial-microaggressions-in-everyday-life

Sue, D. W., Lin, A. I., Torino, G. C., Capodilupo, C. M., & Rivera, D. P. (2009). Racial microaggressions and difficult dialogues on race in the classroom. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15 (2) , 183-90. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014191

Tewell, E. (2020). The problem with grit: Dismantling deficit thinking in library instruction. portal: Libraries and the Academy, 20 (1) , 137-59. https://doi.org/10.1353/pla.2020.0007

Villagran, M. A. L. (2018). Cultural intelligence: Ability to adapt to new cultural settings.  Knowledge Quest, 46 (5), 8–14.

Watts, J. (2017). Inclusive cultural and social pedagogy in the library classroom. LOEX Quarterly, 44 (1) , 8-10. https://commons.emich.edu/loexquarterly/vol44/iss1/4/

Weinstein, C., Curran, M., & Tomlinson-Clarke, S. (2003). Culturally responsive classroom management: Awareness into action. Theory into Practice, 42 (4) , 269-276. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4204_2

Instruction in Libraries and Information Centers Copyright © 2020 by Laura Saunders and Melissa A. Wong is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

• Deakin University
• Learning and Teaching

Critical reflection for assessments and practice

• Critical reflection writing

Critical reflection for assessments and practice: Critical reflection writing

• Reflective practice
• Critical reflection
• How to reflect
• Recount and reflect

Critically reflective language and writing

"Our language is the reflection of ourselves..."

Mahatma Ghandi -  Cries of Never  (1916)

Our language is part of our identity. How we speak or write or paint or move when communicating shapes our sense of self and our presence in this world.  Critical reflection uses particular language and writing styles.

What is reflective writing? 

Critical reflection uses particular language and writing styles, often linked to your study area. For example, critical reflection in Health disciplines is linked to evidence-based practice and therefore uses a combination of clinical language and first-hand clinician perspective. In contrast, critical reflective writing for a dance student may have technical terms and creative language. Regardless of area, reflective writing at uni needs you to link your reflection to theories. This means that there is a formal tone to reflective writing assessments.    

What does critical reflective writing include?

Critical reflective writing is not just a summary or description of an event or something that you have observed. Description is needed for context in a critical reflection but the core of good reflective writing is exploring the significance of events (the ‘why’ and ‘how’) by providing analysis and insights into your thinking.  

In critical reflective writing you need to:

This helps you to develop new insights and perspectives which can inform your future practice. 

Language of reflective writing

The language used in reflective writing allows you to discuss your personal experiences, feelings and ideas. It’s fine to refer to yourself and use “I”, “my” and “me”. 

You can also use action verbs when writing about your feelings and opinions, for example, “I felt…”, “I think…”, “I realise…”. 

Remember you also need to include theory to support what you are saying. Take a look at the  language of reflective writing  for more support in this area. 

What? So What? Now What? Model 

Just as there are models to help you critically reflect on your actions, thoughts and feelings, there are also models to help you write critical reflections. 

The 'What? So What? Now What?' model guides your own reflections and learning from events that are significant for you. It gives you prompts to help you identify and discuss the different components of critical reflective writing. 

Click on the plus symbols (+)  below to see what is discussed in each section. 

What? So What? Now What? template

To help you put this model into practice for your own context, download the template provided below to use for assessments. 

• What? So What? Now What? template

Essay versus critical reflection essay

At uni a common form of critical reflection writing is the critical reflection essay. For a quick recap on the major differences, look at this table.

Try to express your reactions, feelings, attitudes and views in an open and honest way. Avoid writing what you think others ‘want to hear’.

Remember that a critical reflection should describe, analyse and evaluate? Use this checklist to shape up a draft critical reflection based on a recent experience. Don’t forget to use the SWOT model to help prompt your writing

• A brief description of the event or context
• What you noticed
• What you were thinking and feeling
• Why this learning is significant to you
• What you have learnt from this experience
• How this will inform future practice.
• << Previous: How to reflect
• Next: Recount and reflect >>
• Last Updated: Mar 15, 2024 4:53 PM
• URL: https://deakin.libguides.com/critical-reflection-guide

Critical Theory Pedagogies Guide

• Welcome to the Guide

Critical Pedagogy

• Anti-Racist Pedagogy
• Feminist Pedagogy
• Inclusive Pedagogy

Critical Theory

Critical pedagogy is based in critical theory.  Critical pedagogy connects the concepts of critical theory with education.

“Many “critical theories”...have emerged in connection with the many social movements that identify varied dimensions of the domination of human beings in modern societies. In both the broad and the narrow senses, however, a critical theory provides the descriptive and normative bases for social inquiry aimed at decreasing domination and increasing freedom in all their forms" (Bohman, J., Flynn, J., & Celikates, R., 2019).

Critical Pedagogy Influences

Critical pedagogy originates especially from the work of Paulo Freire, an educator and philosopher whose work Pedagogy of the Oppressed formed the basis for critical pedagogy. Critical pedagogy overlaps with pedagogies such as feminist pedagogy, anti-racist pedagogy, and inclusive pedagogy. These three pedagogies strongly pull from key theories introduced by critical pedagogues. 

Education as Political

Critical pedagogy identifies education as being inherently political, and therefore, not neutral (Kincheloe, 2004, p.2). Critical pedagogy encourages students and instructors to challenge commonly accepted assumptions that reveal hidden power structures, inequities, and injustice in society. 

Critical pedagogy acknowledges education is political; education has a history of inequalities, oppression, and domination that need to be recognized (Kincheloe, 2004). Likewise, education can become a way in which students are equipped to engage against systems of oppression when existing structures in education are challenged.

"A central tenet of pedagogy maintains that the classroom, curricular, and school structures teachers enter are not neutral sites waiting to be shaped by educational professionals" (Kincheloe, 2004, p.2). 

Education and Social Justice

Critical pedagogy connects social justice and teaching/learning. Students are seen as active participants in the classroom, and students, alongside teachers, have power.  

Critical pedagogy at its core seeks to recognize systems and patterns of oppression within society and education itself, and in doing so, decrease oppression and increase freedom. As such, social justice is at the core of critical pedagogy. 

"Questions of democracy and justice cannot be separated from the most fundamental features of teaching and learning” (Kincheloe, 2004, p.6). 

Empowering Students

In order to decrease oppression and domination, critical pedagogy seeks to empower students through enabling them to recognize the ways in which "dominant power operates in numerous and often hidden ways" (Kincheloe). Students and instructors alike are empowered through their knowledge of the hidden influences and politics within education and throughout society that lead to oppression and domination.

In this system, teachers become students and students become teachers. Paulo Freire introduced the concept of the "banking model of education" as a criticism of passive learning (Freire, p.72). Critical pedagogy pushes against passive learning, which places the instructor in a position of much higher power than the student. Active learning is one method in which the instructor can become less powerful in the classroom by having students collaborate in creating the content of the course.  Dialogue is also used as a form of education. By allowing many perspectives, students' and instructors' perspectives can be changed and learning takes place. 

“We must expose the hidden politics of what is labeled neutral” (Kincheloe, 2004, p.10).

Putting it into Practice

Encouraging Dialogue

• Focus on providing activities that encourage dialogue among students and instructor.
• Dialogue is an area in which students can offer perspectives and contribute to the instruction as active participants. 
• Incorporate discussion-based activities into instruction. 

Active Learning

Active learning gives students an opportunity to engage in the course using their own knowledge and personal experiences, as well as to learn using multiple methods of engagement. Active learning strategies such as group activities need to have clear expectations and roles, and instructors can check in to make sure students understand the expectations and roles. Brown University provides several examples of active learning strategies outlined below:

Small Discussion

• Entry/Exit Tickets - short prompts that provide instructors with quick information. Entry tickets can help students focus on a particular topic. Exit tickets can help determine students' understanding of the material or allow students to think about what they've learned. 
• Minute Paper/Free Writing: Short, 1-2 minute writing exercises where students can share their thoughts or provide feedback. Can also focus on a particular topic and have students make predictions about a topic.
• A Gallery Walk: Prompts are placed around the room (or in a Google Doc if online) and students can go from station to station and answer the prompts.
• Think-Pair-Share: Students are given a question or problem to consider on their own. Then, students are grouped into pairs to discuss and share their responses before sharing with the group. 
• Jigsaw: Students are grouped into teams to solve a problem or analyze something. The teams can work on separate parts of an assignment before sharing to the whole class, or each student in the team can be assigned with a different part of the assignment. The puzzle pieces come together at the end to share a solution or conclusions. 

Large Groups

• Incorporate pauses: Incorporate pauses into lectures to give students time to take notes or compare notes with peers.
• Clicker Questions  / Polls: Can help increase participation in the class and facilitate active learning methods. Can be incorporated with other activities (e.g. clicker question, discussion with a peer, large discussion). 
• Carousel Brainstorm: Students are separated into small groups, and a piece of paper is passed along from group to group with responses being written down. Students vote on the "best" responses. 
• Role Playing: Role playing can be used to provide a new perspective. Students take on the perspective of historical figures/authors or other characters and interact from that figure's perspective. 
• Sequence of Events: Students can work together to put a process into the correct sequence of events. This can test their understanding of the process. 

Diverse Perspectives

• Activities which allow students to experience alternative perspectives can also help invite dialogue and critical thinking.

Key Figures & Theorists

• Paulo Freire  (1921-1997) - Paulo Freire was a philosopher of education whose work became the foundation of critical pedagogy. Read more about Paulo Freire at the Freire Institute .
• Henry Giroux (1943-Present) - A founding theorist in critical pedagogy, professor, and scholar. Read more about Giroux on Henry Giroux's website .
• bell hooks (1952-Present) - A scholar, feminist, and activist whose work focuses on intersectionality, feminism, and critical pedagogy.
• Peter McLaren  (1948-Present) - A leading scholar in critical pedagogy whose work relates to Marxist theory, critical literacy, and cultural studies. Read more about McLaren at his Chapman University faculty profile.
• Ira Shor  (1945-Present) - A scholar and professor whose research is based in Freire's critical pedagogy. Read more about Shor on his faculty page at City University of New York.  
• Antonia Darder  (1952-Present) - A scholar whose work covers issues of pedagogy, race, and culture. Darder's work is based in Freire's theories. Read more about Darder. 
• Joe Kincheloe   (1950 - 2008) - Joe Kincheloe was a scholar whose work focused on critical pedagogy, cultural studies, and urban studies. 
• Shirley Steinberg  - A scholar, activist, and author whose work focuses on critical pedagogy, cultural studies, and social justice. Read more about Steinberg at her faculty page at the University of Calgary. 

Key Readings

Paulo Freire Key Terms

Key Terms Introduced by Paulo Freire:

Banking Model of Education - On the banking model of education, students are empty receptacles and teachers hold the source of knowledge. Students are treated as passive and as lacking knowledge themselves. "Knowledge is a gift bestowed by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those whom they consider to know nothing" (Freire Institute).

Praxis (Action/Reflection) - "It is not enough for people to come together in dialogue in order to gain knowledge of their social reality.  They must act together upon their environment in order critically to reflect upon their reality and so transform it through further action and critical reflection" (Freire Institute).

Dialogue  - "To enter into dialogue presupposes equality amongst participants.  Each must trust the others; there must be mutual respect and love (care and commitment).  Each one must question what he or she knows and realize that through dialogue existing thoughts will change and new knowledge will be created" (Freire Institute).

Conscientization  - "The process of developing a critical awareness of one’s social reality through reflection and action.  Action is fundamental because it is the process of changing the reality.  Paulo Freire says that we all acquire social myths which have a dominant tendency, and so learning is a critical process which depends upon uncovering real problems and actual needs" (Freire Institute).

Additional Readings & Resources

• Foundations of Critical Pedagogy (Stony Brook University) A LibGuide with a collection of readings regarding critical pedagogy.
• Interrupting Bias - PALS Approach (University of Michigan) A PDF handout outlining the PALS method of interrupting bias in dialogue. The purpose of this method is to "introduce a new perspective in a way that others can hear."
• Four Levels of Oppression (University of Michigan) Including 1) individual oppression, 2) interpersonal oppression, 3) structural/institutional/systemic oppression, 4) cultural oppression.

Referenced Guides & Sources

• Bohman, J., Flynn, J., & Celikates, R. (2019). Critical Theory. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Concepts Used by Paulo Freire. (n.d.). Freire Institute.
• Kincheloe, J. L. (2004). Critical pedagogy primer. P. Lang.
• << Previous: Welcome to the Guide
• Next: Anti-Racist Pedagogy >>
• Last Updated: Sep 22, 2023 9:57 AM
• URL: https://guides.library.charlotte.edu/criticaltheory

Critical Reflection

Critical reflection is a “meaning-making process” that helps us set goals, use what we’ve learned in the past to inform future action and consider the real-life implications of our thinking. It is the link between thinking and doing, and at its best, it can be transformative (Dewey, 1916/1944; Schön, 1983; Rodgers, 2002). Without reflection, experience alone might cause us to “reinforce stereotypes…, offer simplistic solutions to complex problems and generalize inaccurately based on limited data” (Ash & Clayton, 2009, p.26). Engaging in critical reflection, however, helps us articulate questions, confront bias, examine causality, contrast theory with practice and identify systemic issues all of which helps foster critical evaluation and knowledge transfer (Ash & Clayton, 2009, p. 27).  While critical reflection may come more easily for some students than others, it is a skill that can be learned through practice and feedback (Dewey, 1933, Rodgers, 2002).  

Guidelines for Integrating Reflections into Your Course

Incorporating the following characteristics into the design of your reflective activities can help make the reflective process as effective as possible.  

Create Curiosity.  When students learn new concepts or subject matter, they often experience a sense of uncertainty and disequilibrium until they can make sense of the new information. Critical reflection is necessary to assimilate the new information and resolve the state of disequilibrium. It takes time to do well; sparking students’ curiosity can motivate them to engage in the reflective process(Dewey, 1933; Rodgers, 2002). Providing appropriate question prompts, activities, problems and tasks can help spark the necessary curiosity. See CTE's online resource: Reflection Framework and Prompts .

Make it Continual.  Build in “periodic, structured opportunities to reflect and integrate learning” (Kuh, O’Donnell & Reed, 2013). Because critical reflection is a defined way of thinking, students have to have numerous opportunities throughout the course and the program to practice and receive feedback.

Connect It.  Activities to promote reflection can range from writing/rewriting exercises, problem solving activities, discussions, role playing/simulations, and group work to name a few. To be effective, though, be sure to explicitly connect the reflective activities to course/program learning outcomes, specific assignments, course concepts or experiences .  For an example of role playing/simulations, please see CTE's resource, an interview (YouTube) with Dr. Veronica Kitchen about Using Simulations in the Classroom .

Give it Context.  Design reflective activities to support integration of learning across courses and to engage students with “big questions” related to community/public issues that matter beyond the classroom. Ideally, reflective activities should ask students to consider messy, ill-defined problems that do not have a ‘right’ answer (Moon, 1999).  This helps move them towards higher order thinking and higher levels of reflection. 

Consider your Class Size.  Assessing and providing feedback to reflections require time and resources. For smaller classes, it might be manageable to assess individual reflections through journals, logs, and blogs. For larger classes, consider facilitating whole class discussions and opportunities for peer feedback. Dividing a large class into smaller groups for discussions and small group brainstorming sessions can provide the practice and feedback students need without all the feedback having to come from you, the instructor. Having students share reflections through ePortfolios is yet another way for students to receive feedback from peers. See CTE's online resource about ePortfolios .

Model the Reflective Process.  During class discussions, model the reflective process by asking the kinds of questions that members of your discipline ask. Explicitly point out how you support a claim with evidence. As you go through the process, explain how you are modeling the critical reflection process. Providing students with a rubric may help them practice the process themselves.  

Breakdown the Assignment.  When you provide students with details for a particular assignment, lead a discussion asking them as a group to outline a process for tackling the assignment. Have each student then create a personal plan for addressing the areas which might cause them more difficulty.  Ask students to hand in different pieces of the assignment throughout the term, providing feedback to the various components. Over time, less guidance and feedback will be required to help students with the reflective thinking process. 

Encourage Multiple Perspectives.  Being exposed to different perspectives (through discussions with classmates, or through resources such readings, websites, case studies, simulations that represent different points of view), and being able to participate in a dialogue with others (peers, instructors) about matters of importance is critical to the reflective thinking process. Having students work on collaborative projects can facilitate this; they learn to listen to others and consider different approaches to solving problems.

Provide a Safe Environment  where students can explore and articulate emotional responses. Students might not mind sharing their knowledge and understanding about content with their classmates but may be less inclined to share emotional responses with others. In these cases, consider splitting up the task so that the descriptive, non-personal component is done in class and the articulation of learning part is handed in individually to a TA or instructor.    

Assess It.  Making reflections part of a course grade encourages students to engage in the reflective process, helps them track their growth and development over time, and signals to them that critical reflection is a worthwhile and valued activity. Provide students with ‘frequent, timely and constructive feedback’ to the reflective activities.

Provide Clear Marking Criteria and Exemplars.  Clearly state the criteria for success and show students an example of a good reflection. Explain why the example is a good one (e.g., show how the reflection provides concrete examples to support the observations, and ties the observations back to the course content/learning outcome). Provide students with opportunities to self-assess or provide peer-feedback using the rubric that you will use to assess their reflections. 

Assignment and Rubric Examples:

See the links below for examples of critical reflection assignments that have been shared with CTE. Some of the instructors have also included their assessment rubrics along with the assignment instructions. 

• Reflecting on Professional Skill Development
• Becoming Reflexive Practitioners
• ePortfolio: Inspired Insights, Magnificent Failures, and Unanticipated Connections
• AAC&U Integrative Learning VALUE rubric
• Higher Levels of Reflection Rubric

Choose Prompts that Suit Your Goals    

Use language that suits your course and discipline.  The term ‘reflection’ has come to mean different things to different people (Rodgers, 2002). Use a term that makes sense to your discipline. Science students might roll their eyes if asked to reflect on personal development in a chemistry course. Is there a term that your discipline uses instead of the term reflection (design notes, lab notes, documentation of bugs)? 

Choose the type of reflection that suits your goals.  Reflective activities can be of two types: one type helps students focus on their growth and development, and on their personal learning process and another type fosters students’ capacity to think deeply about content and concepts. Be sure to choose reflective prompts that align with your course goals.  

• Process Reflection.  This type of reflection promptsstudents to think about their progress and the strategies they are using while they are working on a project or assignment (e.g., where are you with your project? What challenges are you having? What are you planning to do about those challenges? What problems did you encounter in completing the assignment? How did you troubleshoot them? What still needs work?) This can be done individually or, in large classes, consider using small group discussions.
• Inward-Looking Reflection.  When reflecting inward, students focus on their personal strengths, gaps, resources, standards, values, response to challenges, strategies, etc. 
• Outward-Looking Reflection.  By observing others, students can build their awareness of alternative perspectives and ways of doing things. When contrasts are noted, students can give examples to support their observations.
• Forward-Looking Reflection.  At the beginning of a course, project, or assignment, prompt students to think about which components look familiar and which look more challenging and difficult, and why. Towards the end of the course, hand these lists back to the students and have them discuss whether they have met their goals. As a class, have the students list which of the goals they believe they achieved, and which they did not. Alternatively, have students write a letter to the students who take the course next, giving advice and encouragement.
• Backward-Looking Reflection . At the end of a project, work term or volunteer experience a backward-looking reflection is a good way for students to take stock of their experience.

Examples of Reflection Models and Reflection Questions:

• Sample Reflection Questions
• Eight Reflection Models
• Reflections to Foster Deep Thinking & Connection Making

If you would like support applying these tips to your own teaching, CTE staff members are here to help.  View the  CTE Support  page to find the most relevant staff member to contact. 

• AAC&U Integrative Learning VALUE rubrics retrieved from  https://www.aacu.org/value-rubrics
• Habits of Mind: The Questions Intelligent Thinkers Ask that Help Them Solve Problems and Make Decisions retrieved from  https://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/stw/edutopia-stw-assessment-high-sch-humanities-habits-of-mind.pdf
• Sample reflection questions retrieved from  https://www.edutopia.org/pdfs/stw/edutopia-stw-replicatingPBL-21stCAcad-reflection-questions.pdf
• Teaching Metacognitive Skills CTE tipsheet retrieved from  https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-tips/metacognitive
• Ash, S.L., & Clayton, P. H. (2009). Generating, deepening, and documenting learning: The power of critical reflection in applied learning. Journal of Applied Learning in Higher Education, 1(1), 25-48.
• Boss, S. (2009). High tech reflection strategies make learning stick retrieved from  http://www.edutopia.org/student-reflection-blogs-journals-technology
• Dewey, J. (1916/1944). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: The Free Press.
• Kalman, C.S., Sobhanzadeh, M., Thompson, R., Ibrahim, A., Wang, X. (2015). Combination of interventions can change students’ epistemological beliefs.  Physical Review Special Topics Physics Education Research,  11(2):020136-. doi:10.1103/PhysRevSTPER.11.020136
• Kuh, G. D., O’Donnell, K., & Reed, S. (2013). Ensuring quality and taking high-impact practices to scale.  Washington, DC: Association of American Colleges and Universities .
• Moon, J. (1999). Reflection in learning and professional development. Abingdon, Oxon: RoutledgeFalmer.
• Rodgers, C. (2002). Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective thinking.  The Teachers College Record ,  104 (4), 842-866.
• Schön, D. A. (1983).  The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action  (Vol. 5126). Basic books.

Catalog search

Teaching tip categories.

• Assessment and feedback
• Blended Learning and Educational Technologies
• Career Development
• Course Design
• Course Implementation
• Inclusive Teaching and Learning
• Learning activities
• Support for Student Learning
• Support for TAs

Advertisement

Teaching critical reflection in health professions education with transformative-vygotskian praxis

• Published: 08 March 2023
• Volume 28 , pages 1191–1204, ( 2023 )

Cite this article

• Brett A. Diaz   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2274-3860 1 , 2 ,
• Jacob Rieker   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6071-0157 3 &
• Stella Ng   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1433-6851 2 , 4 , 5  

979 Accesses

3 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Reflective practice is a complex concept to adequately describe, communicate about and, ultimately, teach. Unrelieved tensions about the concept persist within the health professions education (HPE) literature owing to reflection’s diverse theoretical history. Tensions extend from the most basic, e.g., what is reflection and what are its contents, to the complex, e.g., how is reflection performed and whether it should be evaluated. Nonetheless, reflection is generally seen as vital to HPE, because it imparts crucial strategies and awareness to learners in their professional practices. In this article, we explore both conceptual and pedagogical dimensions of teaching for reflection. We address the concept of reflection, its application to practice, and how to remain faithful to transformative, critical pedagogy when teaching for it. We present (a) an analysis of two theories of education in HPE: Transformative Learning and Vygotskian Cultural Historical Theory. We (b) outline a pedagogical approach that applies Piotr Gal’perin’s SCOBA: schema for the complete orienting basis of an action. We then employ (a) and (b) to provide affordances for developing materials for educational interventions across HPE contexts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Dialogic Reflection: An Exploration of Its Embodied, Imaginative, and Reflexive Dynamic

The Philosophy of Education: Freire’s Critical Pedagogy

Acknowledgements

Christina Weese for the visual design of the conceptual SCOBA. Douglas Buller for the visual design of the procedural SCOBA. Lindsay Baker and Lindsay Herzog for informing and supporting the SCOBA design. Members of the Bridging Lab for their feedback during the conceptualization and design phases of the SCOBA.

Work for this article was funded by the Arrell Family Chair in Health Professions Teaching and the AMS Healthcare Foundation.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Centre for Faculty Development, Li Ka Shing International Healthcare, Education Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital, 209 Victoria Street, 4th floor, Toronto, ON, Canada

Brett A. Diaz

The Wilson Centre for Research in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Brett A. Diaz & Stella Ng

Department of Applied Linguistics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA

Jacob Rieker

University of Toronto Centre for Advancing Collaborative Healthcare & Education at University Health Network, Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada

Department of Speech-Language Pathology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All authors contributed equally to the writing and composition of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Brett A. Diaz .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Diaz, B.A., Rieker, J. & Ng, S. Teaching critical reflection in health professions education with transformative-vygotskian praxis. Adv in Health Sci Educ 28 , 1191–1204 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-023-10209-y

Download citation

Received : 17 November 2022

Accepted : 15 January 2023

Published : 08 March 2023

Issue Date : October 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10459-023-10209-y

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Critical reflection
• Cultural historical theory
• Reflective practice
• Transformative learning
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Critical Reflection and Community Education Values

• Graham MacLellan

While Reflective Practice is widely regarded as an essential, but orthodox, part of Community Education, Critical Reflection is a more radical, transformative process that questions fundamental assumptions (Fook, 2015). It is, by its nature, difficult to implement within organisational cultures dominated by a narrow managerialism. Within a Community Education department, we introduced a number of initiatives, over the course of a year, to enhance such Critical Reflection. We report here on the process and its outcomes. First, we discuss the central role that Critical Reflection can have in informing decision making and individual professional development. We go on to outline the pressures on Community Education professionals who work within organisational cultures increasingly driven by a neo-liberal agenda, the managerialist imperatives of which undermine both the principles and practices of Critical Reflection. We then describe the process of introducing Critical Reflection into team processes using Reflective Circles and our evaluation of it, focusing on the use of Community Learning and Development (CLD) values to frame discussions. Finally, we draw some conclusions and outline the questions that this work poses.

• Endnote/Zotero/Mendeley (RIS)
• Community Development Reader
• Community Engagement: A Critical Guide
• Letters from Lockdown
• For Readers
• For Authors
• For Librarians

Take Down Policy | Privacy Policy | Cookies |  Website Accessibility Statement

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Critical Reflection

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Writing Critical Reflection

Reflective writing is a common genre in classrooms across disciplines. Reflections often take the form of narrative essays that summarize an experience or express changes in thinking over time. Initially, reflective writing may seem pretty straightforward; but since reflective writing summarizes personal experience, reflections can easily lose their structure and resemble stream-of-consciousness journals capturing disjointed musings focused on only the self or the past.   

Critical reflection still requires a writer to consider the self and the past but adopts an argumentative structure supported by readings, theories, discussions, demonstrated changes in material conditions, and resources like post-collaboration assessments, testimonial evidence, or other data recorded during the collaboration . Common arguments in critical reflections present evidence to demonstrate learning, contextualize an experience, and evaluate impact. While critical reflections still require authors to reflect inwardly, critical reflection go es beyond the self and examine s any relevant contexts that informed the experience. Then, writers should determine how effectively their project addressed these contexts. In other words, critical reflection considers the “impact” of their project: How did it impact the writer? How did it impact others? Why is the project meaningful on a local, historical, global, and/or societal level? H ow can that impact be assessed?  

In short: reflection and critical reflection both identify the facts of an experience and consider how it impacts the self. Critical reflection goes beyond this to conceive of the project’s impact at numerous levels and establish an argument for the project’s efficacy. In addition, critical reflection encourages self-assessment—we critically reflect to change our actions, strategies, and approaches and potentially consider these alternative methods.  

Collecting Your Data: Double-Entry Journaling

Double-entry journaling is a helpful strategy for you to document data, observations, and analysis throughout the entire course of a community-based project. It is a useful practice for projects involving primary research, secondary research, or a combination of both. In its most basic form, a double-entry journal is a form of notetaking where a writer can keep track of any useful sources, notes on those sources, observations, thoughts, and feelings—all in one place.  

For community-based projects, this might involve:  

• Recording your observations during or after a community partner meeting in one column of the journal.  
• Recording any of your thoughts or reactions about those observations in a second column.   
• Writing any connections you make between your observations, thoughts, and relevant readings from class in a third column.  

This allows you to document both your data and your analysis of that data throughout the life of the project. This activity can act as a blueprint for your critical reflection by providing you with a thorough account of how your thinking developed throughout the life of a project.   

The format of a double-entry journal is meant to be flexible, tailored to both your unique notetaking practice and your specific project. It can be used to analyze readings from class, observations from research, or even quantitative data relevant to your project.  

Just the Facts, Please: What, So What, Now What

Getting started is often the hardest part in writing. To get your critical reflection started, you can identify the What , So What , and Now What? of your project. The table below presents questions that can guide your inquiry . If you’re currently drafting, we have a freewriting activity below to help you develop content.  

Freewrite your answers to these questions; that is, respond to these questions without worrying about grammar, sentence structure, or even the quality of your ideas. At this stage, your primary concern is getting something on the page. Once you’re ready to begin drafting your critical reflection, you can return to these ideas and refine them.  

Below are some additional prompts you can use to begin your freewriting. These reflection stems can organize the ideas that you developed while freewriting and place them in a more formal context.  

• I observed that...  
• My understanding of the problem changed when...  
• I became aware of (x) when....  
• I struggled to...  
• The project's biggest weakness was…  
• The project's greatest strength was…   I learned the most when...  
• I couldn't understand...  
• I looked for assistance from...  
• I accounted for (x) by...  
• I connected (concept/theory) to...  
• (Specific skill gained) will be useful in a professional setting through…  

Analyzing Your Experience: A Reflective Spectrum

Y our critical reflection is a space to make an argument about the impact of your project . This means your primary objective is to determine what kind of impact your project had on you and the world around you. Impact can be defined as the material changes, either positive or negative, that result from an intervention , program , or initiative . Impact can be considered at three different reflective levels: inward, outward, and exploratory.

Inward reflection requires the writer to examine how the project affected the self. Outward reflection explores the impact the project had on others. Additionally, you can conceptualize your project’s impact in relation to a specific organization or society overall, depending on the project’s scope. Finally, exploratory reflection asks writers to consider how impact is measured and assessed in the context of their project to ultimately determine: What does impact look like for the work that I’m doing? How do I evaluate this? How do we store, archive, or catalog this work for institutional memory? And what are the next steps?  

This process is cyclical in nature; in other words, it’s unlikely you will start with inward reflection, move to outward reflection, and finish with exploratory reflection. As you conceptualize impact and consider it at each level, you will find areas of overlap between each reflective level.   

Finally, if you’re having trouble conceptualizing impact or determining how your project impacted you and the world around you, ask yourself:   

• What metrics did I use to assess the "impact" of this project? Qualitative? Quantitative? Mixed-methods? How do those metrics illustrate meaningful impact?  
• How did the intended purpose of this project affect the types of impact that were feasible, possible, or recognized?  
• At what scope (personal, individual, organizational, local, societal) did my outcomes have the most "impact"?  

These questions can guide additional freewriting about your project. Once you’ve finished freewriting responses to these questions, spend some time away from the document and return to it later. Then, analyze your freewriting for useful pieces of information that could be incorporated into a draft.  

Drafting Your Critical Reflection

Now that you have determined the “What, So What, Now What” of your project and explored its impact at different reflective levels, you are ready to begin drafting your critical reflection.  

If you’re stuck or find yourself struggling to structure your critical reflection, the OWL’s “ Writing Process ” [embe ded link ] resource may offer additional places to start. That said, another drafting strategy is centering the argument you intend to make.  

Your critical reflection is an argument for the impact your project has made at multiple levels; as such, much of your critical reflections will include pieces of evidence to support this argument. To begin identifying these pieces of evidence, return to your “reflection stem” responses . Your evidence might include :  

• H ow a particular reading or theory informed the actions during your partnership ;  
• How the skills, experiences, or actions taken during this partnerhsip will transfer to new contexts and situations;  
• Findings from y our evaluation of the project;  
• Demonstrated changes in thoughts, beliefs, and values, both internally and externally;  
• And, of course, specific ways your project impacted you, other individuals, your local community, or any other community relevant to the scope of your work.  

As you compile this evidence, you will ulti mately be compiling ways to support an argument about your project’s efficacy and impact .  

Sharing Your Critical Reflection

Reflective writing and critical reflections are academic genres that offer value to the discourse of any field. Oftentimes, these reflective texts are composed for the classroom, but there are other venues for your critical reflections, too.  

For example, Purdue University is home to the Purdue Journal of Service-Learning and International Engagement ( PJSL ) which publishes student reflective texts and reflections with research components. Although PJSL only accepts submissions from Purdue students, other journals like this one may exist at your campus. Other venues like the Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Impact publish reflective essays from scholars across institutions, and journals in your chosen discipline may also have interest in reflective writing.  

Document explaining the theories, concepts, literature, strategies that informed the creation of this content page.  

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

How to Read the News: A Reflective Essay on Pedagogy

2023, Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences

How do we want our students to read the news? Do we want them to be skeptical of everything? Do we want them to only trust sources that professors and universities have deemed authoritative? Should we encourage students to read types of news that challenge their beliefs or identities? Do we want them to understand the retrospective bias, the media bias toward the negative and spectacular, and other biases of journalism? Most importantly, how do we communicate all the answers to these questions in a way that an eighteen-year-old freshman would understand? This essay starts from a position of weakness. Despite many years of formal education and many more hours of personal reading, I no longer know how to teach students how to read the news. From this position of weakness, however, perhaps a simple, wise approach to getting students to read the news can be found.

Related Papers

Millennium: Journal of International Studies

Marie Beauchamps

In this article, I explore questions of pedagogy and knowledge-writing practices in their relation to knowledge production. Starting from the observation that different styles of writing are present in our work, but many of them are systematically pushed back and mis-read as non-academic, the article brings to the fore a discussion on the direct relationship between practices of knowledge-writing and those modes of knowing that escape the linear and propositional academic style while still being part of how knowledge comes into being. Following a tradition of intersectional feminist epistemologies, I engage with questions of epistemologies and critical pedagogies, speaking to and with several generations of scholars who address and work with questions of diversity and knowledge production that are seminal within International Relations (IR), yet underexplored from the perspective of knowledge-writing practices.

Virginia English Journal

Erika L Bass

The role of place-based education (PBE) in a teacher education methods course was explored in a constructivist case study of preservice secondary English teachers during their semester of student teaching. Written and discourse data were examined through the lens of a conceptual framework of PBE. Findings suggest that PBE methods can prepare student teachers for success with classroom management, assessment, and meeting students’ individual needs. Further research is needed to explore PBE and its role in teacher education. The implications of this research extend benefits to students and society through improvements in teacher education and connecting classrooms to communities.

Vincent Rone

The Legend of Zelda series is one of the most popular and recognizable examples in videogames of what Tolkien referred to as mythopoeia, or myth-making. In his essay On Fairy Stories and a short poem entitled Mythopoeia, Tolkien makes the case that the fairy tale aesthetic is simply a more intimate version of the same principle underlying the great myths: the human desire to make meaning out of the world. By using mythopoeia as a touchstone concept, the essays in this volume explore how The Legend of Zelda series turns the avatar, through which the player interacts with the in-game world, into a player-character symbiote wherein the individual both enacts and observes the process of integrating worldbuilding with storytelling. Twelve essays explore Zelda’s mythmaking from the standpoints of literary criticism, videogame theory, musicology, ecocriticism, pedagogy, and more.

Christy Wenger

James Bucky Carter

Pages 35-43 of _InLand_ reveals for teachers that they needn't worry that using comics and graphic novels keeps them from addressing important standards. This truth holds true when using the IRA/NCTE standards from 1996 or the inferior Common Core State Standards, which were just starting to gain traction in 2011. Brian Kelley coauthors with Carter and Monnin.

UMI. ProQuest® Dissertations & Theses The world&#39;s most comprehensive collection of dissertations and theses. Learn more... ProQuest. Feeling Bodies: Moving toward a Feminist-Contemplative Praxis of Embodied Writing. by ...

Harry Whitehead

In recent years, creative writing has spread far beyond its origins in the Anglophone higher education institutions of the Global North. This essay positions Mark McGurl's much-lauded The Program Era in the global(-ized) arena and asks how, why, and to what end the creative writing program might influence global literary production, given the cultural and historical particularity of its teaching models and craft devices. The essay moves beyond a discourse on pedagogy to draw on wider debates around cultural and linguistic imperialism as well as literary production in the global marketplace. It uses the key example of the subject's recent expansion into China and focuses on the " workshop model, " writing anthologies, and " plot " as it is articulated in canonical writing guides. The essay argues that the subject must better articulate its historical and cultural particularities. If it does not, it risks enacting a form of cultural imperialism on the production of future world literatures and limiting the potential for experimental writing in a globalizing world.

Caty Ribas , Cornelis Martin Renes

The present Coolabah volume, nr 15, flows from the January 2014 Watershed congress at the University of Barcelona, organized by the Philology Faculty’s Centre for Australian Studies (ASC) in collaboration with the Centre for Peace and Social Justice (CPSJ) at the University of Southern Cross, Australia. A select number of delegates have contributed to the making of this volume of essays, which, as is usual with our post-congress issues, covers a wide range of topics relating to the congress theme—Watershed—and so offers an eclectic, yet therefore challenging mix of papers within the field of postcolonial and cultural studies. Part of what is left after the water has been shed and the streams of conversation have settled down (without drying up) becomes visible in this compilation.

Jodi Latremouille

In this work, I consider teachers as eco-intellectuals, who engage in deep scholarly study, contemplation, and interdisciplinary thinking as they consider the deeper purposes of public education and their own role within it. This emerges from my own enduring commitment as an educator to practice a pedagogy of possibility—that is, to work with children and teachers to imagine the possible ways of shaping our lives together. Within a context of socially, economically, politically, and ecologically challenging times, this pedagogy is characterized by self-reflexive practice, careful attention to the lives of children and students, and composing measured and careful responses to the challenges that we face. I bring social and economic justice together with ecological and Indigenous sensibilities to inquire poetically and narratively into the possibilities for collaborative critical and creative thinking, rich teaching practices, and learning communities. Land-based knowledge, spiritual ...

Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning

Alette Willis

RELATED PAPERS

Elizabeth Thoman , Jeff Share

Jill Reading

Gelson Silva

2017 21st European Microelectronics and Packaging Conference (EMPC) & Exhibition

Frantisek Urban

The IJPC Journal

Bariskan Unal

Alexandros Papadopoulos

Qualitative Inquiry

Jasmine Ulmer

2016 ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition Proceedings

George Catalano

SAGE Handbook of Critical Pedagogies

Sarah Bridges-Rhoads , Hilary E . Hughes , Jessica Van Cleave

BRINGING CRITICAL MEDIA LITERACY INTO ELA CLASSROOMS

Paul Mihailidis

Maya Tracy E Borhani

Dissertation, Simon Fraser University

Louise St. Pierre

Rozina Bibi

The SAGE Handbook of Critical Pedagogies

David Sylvan

The Educational Forum

Jeicholine Jaikol

Stephanie Murray

Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences

Viral Bhatt

The The Journal of the Assembly for Expanded Perspectives on Learning

Anastassiya Andrianova

Krista Cote

Matter: Journal of New Materialist Research

delphi carstens , Evelien Geerts

Will Fastiggi

David A G Clarke

Ethnography and Education

David S Mills

Henry Jenkins

kenza laichi

Suresh Canagarajah

Pamela M Pease

Clare Stanhope

Educational Theory

Hilary Davis

Asao B Inoue

Wendy Beth Hyman

megan boler

Christopher Metress

The Image of Adventure in Literature, Media, and Society: 2019 SASSI Conference Proceedings

Jennifer Barajas

International journal of pharma and bio sciences

neeraj pathak

The Journal of the Assembly For Expanded Perspectives on Learning

Brad Peters

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

The Limits of White Privilege Pedagogy: A Reflective Essay on using Privilege Walks in the College Classroom

Article sidebar.

Main Article Content

The privilege walk is a pedagogical tool used to teach students about often-ignored aspects of privilege. Despite their popularity, privilege walks are under-examined in the scholarship of teaching and learning. This leaves open questions about the efficacy of the walk, and whether, and to what extent, the walk yields different results among students from different backgrounds. This paper critically examines the privilege walk by reflecting on our experience of teaching the walk and analyzing student learning reflections about the exercise. We draw on critical race theory to interpret our data and also to help introduce the concept of slippage. We use slippage as shorthand for systematic issues long described by critical race theorists, such as meritocracy, that are reframed as individual responsibilities. We conclude by discussing how educators might prioritize teaching about structural power by integrating ideas from critical race theory, and abandon intellectual traditions that center Whiteness or the individual.

Article Details

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .

• Authors retain copyright and grant the Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning (JoSoTL) right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License, (CC-BY) 4.0 International, allowing others to share the work with proper acknowledgement and citation of the work's authorship and initial publication in the Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning.  
• Authors are able to enter separate, additional contractual agreements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in the Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning.
• In pursuit of manuscripts of the highest quality, multiple opportunities for mentoring, and greater reach and citation of JoSoTL publications, JoSoTL encourages authors to share their drafts to seek feedback from relevant communities unless the manuscript is already under review or in the publication queue after being accepted. In other words, to be eligible for publication in JoSoTL, manuscripts should not be shared publicly (e.g., online), while under review (after being initially submitted, or after being revised and resubmitted for reconsideration), or upon notice of acceptance and before publication. Once published, authors are strongly encouraged to share the published version widely, with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in the Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning.

Alcoff, L. (2007). “Epistemologies of Ignorance: Three Types” in Shannon Sllivan and Nancy Tuana

eds. Race and Epistemologies of Ignorance. New York: SUNY Press.

Alexander, Q. R. & Hermann, M. A. (2015). African-American women's experiences in graduate science,

technology, engineering, and mathematics education at a predominantly White university: A qualitative investigation. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 9(4), 307-322. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039705

Alon, S. and Tienda, M. (2007). Diversity, opportunity, and the shifting meritocracy in higher education. American Sociological Review, 72(4), pp.487-51. doi:10.1177/000312240707200401

Andreotti, V., Ahenakew, C. and Cooper, G., (2011). Epistemological pluralism: Ethical and pedagogical challenges in higher education. AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 7(1), pp.40-50. https://doi.org/10.1177/117718011100700104

Appiah, K.A., Taylor, C., Habermas, J., Rockefeller, S.C., Walzer, M. and Wolf, S., 1994. Multiculturalism.

Arapah, E. (2016). Privilege Walk in CCU Class:'If in Your Family, Your Mom is working Mother and Your Dad is Househusband, Please Take One Step Back.

Balibar, Etienne and Immanuel Wallerstein. (1991). Race, Nation, Class: Ambiguous Identities. New York and London: Verso.

Bass, R (1999) The scholarship of teaching: what's the problem? Inventio: creative thinking about learning and teaching. Feb 1999 1(1):1-28

Benson Clayton, T. (2021). "Refocusing on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion During the Pandemic and Beyond: Lessons from a Community of Practice". Higher Education Today: a Blog by the American Council on Education. https://www.higheredtoday.org/2021/01/13/refocusing-diversity-equity-inclusion-pandemic-beyond-lessons-community-practice/

Bell Jr, D.A., (1980). Brown v. Board of Education and the interest-convergence dilemma. Harvard law review, pp.518-533.

Bell, D. (1972). Meritocracy and equality. The Public Interest, 29. 29-68.

Bell, D. (2004). Silent covenants: Brown v. Board of Education and the unfulfilled hopes for racial reform. Oxford University Press.

Bergerson, A.A., (2003). Critical race theory and White racism: Is there room for White scholars in fighting racism in education?. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 16(1), pp.51-63. https://doi.org/10.1080/0951839032000033527

Bonilla-Silva, E. (2002). The Linguistics of Color Blind Racism: How to Talk Nasty about Blacks without Sounding “Racist.” Critical Sociology, 28(1–2), 41–64. doi:10.1177/08969205020280010501

Bonilla-Sliva, E.. (2017) [2006]. Racism Without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Inequality in America 5th Edition. New York and London: Rowman and Littlefield.

Braun, Virginia and Victoria Clarke. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3:2, 77-101. DOI: 10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

Brock, C.H., Pennington, J.L. and Ndura, E. (2012). Using multimodality as a conceptual lens:

examining two teachers' learning in the Multiliteracies Teacher Institute Project. Pedagogies: An International Journal, 7(4), pp.275-294. https://doi.org/10.1080/1554480X.2012.715729

Cabrera, N.L., Watson, J.S. and Franklin, J.D. (2016). Racial arrested development: A critical Whiteness analysis of the campus ecology. Journal of College Student Development, 57(2), pp.119-134. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2016.0014

Cabrera, N L. (2017). White immunity: working through some of the pedagogical pitfalls of ‘White Privilege’” JSCORE: Journal Committed to Social Change on Race and Ethnicity 3(1): 77-90. https://doi.org/10.15763/issn.2642-2387.2017.3.1.77-90

Cabrera N L. (2022). Cause and effect: critical Whiteness studies and the material consequences of Whiteness on communities of color. Internationalournal of Qualitative Studies in Education, pp 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2022.2061628

Cabrera, N.L., (2012). A state-mandated epistemology of ignorance: Arizona's HB2281 and Mexican American/Raza Studies. Journal of Curriculum and Pedagogy, 9(2), pp.132-135.

Calderón, D., (2011). Locating the foundations of epistemologies of ignorance in education ideology and practice. Epistemologies of ignorance in education, pp.105-127.

Chapman, T.K., (2008). Desegregation and multicultural education: Teachers embracing and manipulating reforms. The Urban Review, 40(1), pp.42-63.

Chen, Yea-Wen, and Brandi Lawless. (2018). "Rethinking “difficult” conversations in communication

instruction from an intercultural lens: Pedagogical strategies for “SWAP-ping” the communication classroom." Communication Studies 69, no. 4: 372-388. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2018.1472117

Choi, J.A., (2008). Unlearning Colorblind Ideologies in Education Class. Educational Foundations, 22, pp.53-71.

Clarke, V., Braun, V. and Hayfield, N., (2015). Thematic analysis. Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods, 222, p.248.

Clayton, T.B. (2021). “Refocusing on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion During the Pandemic and Beyond: Lessons from a Community of Practice.” Higher Education Today: A Blog by the American Council on Education. https://www.higheredtoday.org/2021/01/13/refocusing-diversity-equity-inclusion-pandemic-beyond-lessons-community-practice/

Cochran-Smith, Marilyn. (1995) "Color blindness and basket making are not the answers: Confronting the dilemmas of race, culture, and language diversity in teacher education." American Educational Research Journal 32, no. 3: 493-522.

Cook-Sather, A., Abbot, S. and Felten, P. (2019). Legitimating reflective writing in SoTL:“Dysfunctional illusions of rigor” revisited. Teaching & Learning Inquiry, 7(2), pp.14-27. https://doi.org/10.20343/teachlearninqu.7.2.2

Cranton, P. (2011). A transformative perspective on the scholarship of teaching and learning. Higher Education Research & Development, 30(1), 75-86. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2011.536974

Crenshaw, K.W. (1997). Color blindness, history, and the law in V Lubiano (ed), The House that Race Built. New York: Random House

Crenshaw, K W. (2011). Twenty years of critical race theory: Looking back to move forward commentary: Critical race theory: A commemoration: Lead article. Connecticut Law Review 117. https://opencommons.uconn.edu/law_review/117 Crenshaw, K.W. (2017). On Intersectionality: Essential Writings. New York: New Press.

Crenshaw, K.W. (2017). Race Liberalism and the Deradicalization of Racial Reform. Harvard Law Review: Race and the Law, Vol. 130, No. 9, p. 2298

Crowley, R.M. and Smith, W.L. (2020). A divergence of interests: Critical race theory and White privilege pedagogy. Teachers College Record, 122(1), pp.1-24.

DeCuir, J T and Dixson, A D. (2004). “So when it comes out, they aren’t that surprised that it’s there”: Using critical race theory as a tool of analysis of race and racism in education. Educational Researcher 33(5). https://doi.org/10.1108/ETPC-05-2017-0083

Delgado Bernal, D. (2002). Critical race theory, Latino critical theory, and critical raced-gendered epistemologies: Recognizing students of color as holders and creators of knowledge. Qualitative Inquiry

Delgado, R. (1989). Storytelling for oppositionists and others: A plea for narrative. Michigan Law Review, 87(8), pp.2411-2441. https://doi.org/10.2307/1289308

Delgado, R. and Stefancic, J. (2017). Critical race theory. In Critical Race Theory (Third Edition). New York University Press.

Delgado, Richard and Stefancic, Jean, "Critical race theory: the cutting edge" (2013). Books. 14. https://scholarship.law.ua.edu/fac_books/14

Divan, A., Ludwig, L.O., Matthews, K.E., Motley, P.M. and Tomljenovic-Berube, A.M. (2017). Survey of research approaches utilised in the scholarship of teaching and learning publications. Teaching and Learning Inquiry, 5(2), pp.16-29. https://doi.org/10.20343/teachlearninqu.5.2.3

Doane, A., (2017). Beyond color-blindness:(Re) theorizing racial ideology. Sociological Perspectives, 60(5), pp.975-991.

Tate, S. A., & Page, D. (2018). Whiteliness and institutional racism: Hiding behind (un) conscious bias. Ethics and Education, 13(1), 141-155.

Fanghanel, J. (2013). Going public with pedagogical inquiries: SoTL as a methodology for faculty professional development. Teaching and Learning Inquiry, 1(1), pp.59-70. doi:10.2979/teachlearninqu.1.1.59

Felton, Peter. (2013). "Principles of Good Practice in SoTL" in Teaching and Learning Inquiry. 1(1) 121-125. https://doi.org/10.2979/teachlearninqu.1.1.121

Ford, K.A. (2012). Shifting White ideological scripts: The educational benefits of inter-and intraracial curricular dialogues on the experiences of White college students. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 5(3), p.138. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028917

Foster, K.M. (2005). Diet of disparagement: The racial experiences of Black students in a

predominantly White university. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 18(4), pp.489-505. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518390500137659

Gallagher, C.A., (2003). Color-blind privilege: The social and political functions of erasing the color line in post race America. Race, Gender & Class, pp.22-37.

Gillborn, D. (2006). Critical race theory and education: Racism and anti-racism in educational

theory and praxis. Discourse: studies in the cultural politics of education, 27(1), pp.11-32. https://doi.org/10.1080/01596300500510229

Gillborn*, D., (2005). Education policy as an act of White supremacy: Whiteness, critical race theory and education reform. Journal of education policy, 20(4), pp.485-505.

Gillborn, D. and Ladson-Billings, G., 2010. Critical race theory. International encyclopedia of education, 6, pp.341-347.

Gillespie, D., Ashbaugh, L. & DeFiore, J. (2002). White women teaching White women about White

privilege, race cognizance and social action: Toward a pedagogical pragmatics. Race Ethnicity and Education, 5(3), pp.237-253. https://doi.org/10.1080/1361332022000004841

Gilmore, R.W. (2008). Forgotten places and the seeds of grassroots planning. In C. Hale (ed). Engaging contradictions:Theory, politics, and methods of activist scholarship, pp.31-61.

Gilroy, P. (1993). The black Atlantic: Modernity and double consciousness. Harvard University Press.

Gordon, J. (2005). Inadvertent complicity: Colorblindness in teacher education. Educational Studies, 38(2), pp.135-153. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326993es3802_5

Guillen, L. and Zeichner, K. (2018). A university-community partnership in teacher education from the

perspectives of community-based teacher educators. Journal of Teacher Education, 69(2), pp.140-153. doi:10.1177/0022487117751133

Grinage, J., (2020). Singing and dancing for diversity: Neoliberal multiculturalism and White epistemological ignorance in teacher professional development. Curriculum Inquiry, 50(1), pp.7-27.

Hall , S. (1980). “Race, Articulation and Societies Structured in Dominance.” In Black British Cultural Studies: A Reader H. A. Baker , M. Diawara & R. H. Lindeborg (eds). Chicago, IL , University of Chicago Press.

Hanasono, L.K. (2022). Teaching students about intersecting identities, privilege, and communication during and after the COVID-19 crisis. Communication Teacher, 36(2), pp.83-87.

Hendricks, L., Edwards, W., Tietjen-Smith, T. and Reysen, S. (2021). College students’ awareness and familiarity with modern activism: Prosocial involvement in Black Lives Matter. Journal of

Human Behavior in the Social Environment, pp.1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2021.1924914

Hiraldo, P. (2010). The Role of Critical Race Theory in Higher Education. The Vermont Connection, 31(1). https://scholarworks.uvm.edu/tvc/vol31/iss1/7

Holmes, A.G. (2020). Researcher Positionality: A Consideration of its Influence and Place in Qualitative Research. A New Researcher Guide. Shanlax International Journal of Education 8(4) 1-10.

Hudson, N.J., (2020). An In-Depth Look at a Comprehensive Diversity Training Program for Faculty. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 14(1), p.3.

Hubball, H., & Clarke, A. (2010). Diverse Methodological Approaches and Considerations for SoTL in Higher Education. The Canadian Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 1 (1). http://dx.doi.org/10.5206/cjsotl-rcacea.2010.1.2

James-Gallaway, C.D. and James-Gallaway, A.D., (2022). Why Opportunity Isn't Enough: Restrictive v. Expansive Views of Equality, Texas Top Ten Percent Policy, and Race Liberalism. The Professional Educator, 45(1), pp.1-12.

Jay, M., (2003). Critical race theory, multicultural education, and the hidden curriculum of hegemony. Multicultural Perspectives: An Official Journal of the National Association for Multicultural Education, 5(4), pp.3-9.

Kernahan, C. and Davis, T. (2007). Changing perspective: How learning about racism influences student awareness and emotion. Teaching of Psychology, 34(1), pp.49-52. https://doi.org/10.1080/00986280709336651

Kim, R. (2021). Under the Law: ‘Anti-critical race theory’ laws and the assault on pedagogy. Phi Delta Kappan, 103(1), pp.64-65. doi:10.1177/00317217211043637

Kumasi, K. (2017). Teaching about Race in Cyberspace: Lessons from the “Virtual Privilege Walk”

Exercise. In Cooke, N. & Sweeney, M. (Eds). Teaching for Justice: Implementing Social Justice n the LIS Classroom. (195-216). Library Juice Press.

https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/slisfrp/150

Ladson-Billings, G. and Tate, W.F., (1995). Toward a critical race theory of education. Teachers college record, 97(1), pp.47-68.

Lawrence III, C.R., (2001). Two View of the River: A Critique of the Liberal Defense of Affirmative Action. Colum. L. Rev., 101, p.928.

Lawrence, K. and Keleher, T., (2004), November. Structural racism. In Race and Public Policy Conference.

Leach, C. W., Iyer, A., Pedersen, A. (2006). “Anger and guilt about ingroup advantage explain the

willingness for political action.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 1232–1245. doi:10.1177/0146167206289729 Lensmire, T., McManimon, S., Tierney, J.D., Lee-Nichols, M., Casey, Z., Lensmire, A. and Davis, B.,

(2013). McIntosh as synecdoche: How teacher education's focus on White privilege undermines antiracism. Harvard Educational Review, 83(3), pp.410-431

Leonardo, Z. (2004). “The color of supremacy: beyond the discourse of ‘White privilege.’” Educational Philosophy and Theory 36(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2004.00057.x

Liu, A. (2011). Unraveling the myth of meritocracy within the context of US higher education. Higher Education. 62:383-397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-010-9394-7

Lynn, M. and Dixson, A.D. eds., (2013). Handbook of critical race theory in education (pp. 181-194). New York, NY: Routledge.

Martinez, M.A. (2015). Engaging aspiring educational leaders in self-reflection regarding race and privilege. Reflective Practice, 16(6), pp.765-776. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2015.1095727

Matias, C.E. and Boucher, C. (2021). From critical Whiteness studies to a critical study of Whiteness: restoring criticality in critical Whiteness studies. Whiteness and Education, pp.1-18. doi: 10.1080/23793406.2021.1993751

Manning, A, D Hartmann, J Gerteis. (2015). Colorblindness in Black and White: An analysis of core tenets, configurations, and complexities. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity. 2015;1(4):532-546. doi:10.1177/2332649215584828

Magana, GJ. (2017). Reactions to the privilege walk: An exploratory study. Electronic Theses, Projects, and Dissertations. 581 https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd/581

Margolin, L. (2015). Unpacking the invisible knapsack: The invention of White privilege pedagogy Cogent Social Sciences 1(1). doi: 10.1080/23311886.2015.1053183

Matsuda, M.J., (2018). Public response to racist speech: Considering the victim’s story. In Words that wound (pp. 17-51). Routledge.

McBride, D.A., (2004). can the queen speak? Racial Essentialism, Sexuality, and the Problem of Authority: Racial Essentialism, Sexuality, and the Problem. In The Black studies reader (pp. 355-370). Routledge.

McGee, E.O. (2020). Interrogating structural racism in STEM higher education. Educational

Researcher, 49(9), pp.633-644. doi:10.3102/0013189X20972718

McIntosh, P., (1988)a. White privilege and male privilege: A personal account of coming to see

correspondences through work in women's studies (Vol. 189). Wellesley, MA: Wellesley College, Center for Research on Women.

McIntosh, P., (1988)b. White privilege: Unpacking the invisible knapsack.

McNamee, S.J. and Miller, R.K. (2009). The meritocracy myth. Rowman & Littlefield.

Melamed, J., (2006). The spirit of neoliberalism: From racial liberalism to neoliberal multiculturalism. Social text, 24(4), pp.1-24. https://doi.org/10.1215/01642472-2006-009

Melamed, J., (2011). Represent and destroy: Rationalizing violence in the new racial capitalism. U of Minnesota Press.

Mills, C W. (1997). The Racial Contract. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Mills, C.W., (2008). Racial liberalism. Pmla, 123(5), pp.1380-1397. https://doi.org/10.1632/pmla.2008.123.5.1380

Mills, C W. (2012 [2007]). “White Ignorance” in Tuana, N (ed) Race and Epistemologies of Ignorance. Albany: SUNY Press

Mills, C.W.,(2017). Black rights/White wrongs: The critique of racial liberalism. Oxford University Press.

Mijs, J.J.B. (2016). The Unfulfillable Promise of Meritocracy: Three Lessons and Their Implications forJustice in Education. Soc Just Res 29, 14–34. 10.1007/s11211-014-0228-0

Mijs, J.J. and Savage, M., (2020). Meritocracy, elitism and inequality. The Political Quarterly, 91(2), pp.397-404. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12828

Mitcham C., Newberry B. eds. (2015). International Perspectives on Engineering Education. Philosophy of Engineering and Technology, vol 20. Springer Cham.

Mowat, R. (2021). Making Monsters: The Myths in Teaching About White Supremacy. The Journal of Scholarship of Teaching and Learning. 21(4). https://doi.org/10.14434/josotl.v21i4.32691

National Association of School Psychologists. (2016). Understanding Race and Privilege [handout]. Bethesda, MD: Author.

https://www.nasponline.org/resources-and-publications/resources-and-podcasts/diversity-and-social-justice/social-justice/understanding-race-and-privilege

Nelson, C.E. (2010). Dysfunctional Illusions of Rigor: Lessons from the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning. To Improve the Academy, 28(1), pp.177-192. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2334-4822.2010.tb00602.x

Neville, H.A., Gallardo, M.E. and Sue, D.W. eds. (2016). The myth of racial color blindness:

Manifestations, dynamics, and impact. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Nunes, L. (2021). New directions for diversity, equity, and inclusion in higher education. Observer, Association for Psychological Science - APS. https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/words-to-action

Omi, M., and H Winant. (2015). Racial Formation in the United States. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge.

Oropeza Fujimoto, M. & Fujimoto, E. (2016). CSU Fullerton, U.S.A.; I-Chen Huang -- Wenzao Uruline College of Languages, Taiwan. (Responding to Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack by McIntosh, P. 1988 and extending the work of Yosso, T. 2005.) (REVISED JULY 2016).

https://profteacher.files.wordpress.com/2016/11/community-cultural-wealth-walk-revised-july-2016-by-oropeza-fujimoto-huangin-progress.pdf

Parker, L., (1998). 'Race is race ain't': An exploration of the utility of critical race theory in qualitative research in education. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 11(1), pp.43-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/095183998236881

Parker, M., Jason T. Black, Helen H. Hu, Colleen M. Lewis. (2019). “Exploring our Privilege: Activities and Discussions” SIGCSE '19: Proceedings of the 50th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education February 2019 Pages 651–652. https://doi.org/10.1145/3287324.3287512

Parker, L. and Stovall, D.O., (2004). Actions following words: Critical race theory connects to critical pedagogy. Educational philosophy and theory, 36(2), pp.167-182. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2004.00059.x

Patton, L D. (2016). Disrupting postsecondary prose: Toward a critical race theory of higher education.Urban Education. 51(3):315-342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085915602542

Pennington, J L, C H Brock, E Ndura. (2012). Unraveling the threads of White teachers’ conceptions ofcaring: Repositioning privilege. Urban Education 47(4):743-775. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085912441186

Phillips, A., (2002). Multiculturalism, universalism, and the claims of democracy. Gender, justice, development, and rights, 7, pp.115-140.

Rosa, J. and Díaz, V., (2020). Raciontologies: rethinking anthropological accounts of institutional racism and enactments of White supremacy in the United States. American Anthropologist, 122(1), pp.120-132. https://doi.org/10.1111/aman.13353

Rothman, T., Malott, K.M. and Paone, T.R., (2012). Experiences of a course on the culture of Whiteness in counselor education. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 40(1), pp.37-48. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2161-1912.2012.00004.x

Sarigianides, S T and A Banack. (2021). A call to critically reconsider popular antiracist activities. English Journal, High School Edition; Urbana 110(4):18-20

Sassi, K and E E Thomas. (2008). Walking the talk: Examining privilege and race in a ninth-grade classroom. National Council of Teachers of English 97 (6): 25-31

Siliman, S and K Kearns. (2020). Intersecting approaches to teaching about privileges Radical Teacher 116:47-54. https://doi.org/10.5195/rt.2020.695

Silverman, K., (2013). Lessons in injustice: privilege walks. The Intellectual Standard, 2(2), p.3.

Slaton, A E. (2015). Meritocracy, technocracy, democracy: Understandings of racial and gender equity inAmerican engineering education. In: Byron Newberry, Carl Mitcham, Martin Meganck, Andrew Jamison, Christelle Didier & Steen Hyldgaard Christensen (eds.), International Perspectives on Engineering Education. Springer Verlag.

Stein, S., (2020). ‘Truth before reconciliation’: the difficulties of transforming higher education in settler colonial contexts. Higher Education Research & Development, 39(1), pp.156-170. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2019.1666255

Sullivan, Shannon and Nancy Tuana. (2007). Race and Epistemologies of Ignorance. New York: SUNY Press.

Solomona, R.P., Portelli, J.P., Daniel, B.J. and Campbell, A., (2005). The discourse of denial: How White teacher candidates construct race, racism and ‘White privilege’. Race ethnicity and education, 8(2), pp.147-169. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613320500110519

Swan, E., (2010). States of White ignorance, and audit masculinity in English higher education. Social Politics, 17(4), pp.477-506. doi:10.1093/sp/jxq016

Sweat, J. Jones, G. Han, S., Wolfgram, S. (2013) "How Does High Impact Practice Predict Student Engagement? A Comparison of White and Minority Students," International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning: Vol. 7: No. 2, Article 17. https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2013.070217

Tate IV, W.F., (1997). Chapter 4: Critical race theory and education: History, theory, and implications. Review of research in education, 22(1), pp.195-247. doi:10.2307/1167376

Tate, S.A. and Page, D., 2018. Whiteliness and institutional racism: Hiding behind (un) conscious bias. Ethics and Education, 13(1), pp.141-155.

Taylor, E., Gillborn, D. and Ladson-Billings, G., (2009). Foundations of critical race theory in education.

Tevis, T.L., Martinez, J.G. and Lozano, Y.E., (2022). Disrupting White hegemony: A necessary shifttoward adopting critical approaches within the teaching and learning environment.International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, pp.1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/09518398.2022.2035453

Vaught, S.E. and Castagno, A.E., (2008). “I don't think I'm a racist”: Critical Race Theory, teacherattitudes, and structural racism. Race Ethnicity and education, 11(2), pp.95-113. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613320802110217

Villalpando, O. (2004). Practical considerations of critical race theory and Latino critical race theory forLatino college students. New Directions for Student Services 2004(105):41-50. https://doi.org/10.1002/ss.115

Wang, K.T., Castro, A.J. and Cunningham, Y.L., (2014). Are perfectionism, individualism, and racial

color-blindness associated with less cultural sensitivity? Exploring diversity awareness in White prospective teachers. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 7(3), p.211. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037337

Williams, P.J., (1991). The alchemy of race and rights. Harvard University Press.

Wilton, L.S., Apfelbaum, E.P. and Good, J.J., (2019). Valuing differences and reinforcing them: Multiculturalism increases race essentialism. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10(5), pp.681-689. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550618780728

Yosso*, T.J., (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth. Race ethnicity and education, 8(1), pp.69-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/1361332052000341006