history and geography assignment help

History & Geography

History & geography, ckhg grades k–2.

Core Knowledge is delighted to offer twenty-four engaging and highly informative History and Geography units for Grades K−2, available now for free download.

Video Block

The Student Book features a larger format for little hands, colorful, illustrative pages, and informative, exciting text that teachers will read aloud.

The Teacher Guide provides detailed lesson plans, activity page masters, additional activities, and assessments.

My Passport is a feature that allows young students to remember their “travels” through history, and provides passport “stamps” for them to attach to its pages.

Each unit contains links to Online Resources, which include additional support materials and a range of activities.

The Big Idea in Grade 1 Lessons in Civics is that everyone is part of at least one community. Students will explore the ideas of community, rules, and citizenship as an introduction to civic principles and participation.

The Big Idea in Grade 2 Lessons in Economics is that every day we use goods and services. Students will learn the basics of economics, including goods and services, consumers and producers, resources, choices, and trade.

CKHG Grades 3–6

Core Knowledge is pleased to provide its popular CKHG series, Grades 3−6, for free download.

Student Readers feature colorful, illustrative pages, appealing maps, and informative, exciting text.

The Teacher Guides provide detailed lesson plans, activity page masters, additional activities, and assessments.

Timeline Cards serve as visual aids to reinforce big ideas, clarify the chronology and context of historical events, and prompt discussion

Question Cards depict significant themes and ideas related to civics and American government. In addition to an image, each card contains a chapter number and a driving question that outlines the focus of the chapter, discussion, or activity.

Online Resources support the lessons and activities within the teacher guides.

The Big Idea in Grade 4 Understanding Civics is that an understanding of civics and government is an essential part of being an informed and engaged member of society.

The Big Idea in Grade 5 Understanding Economics is that different societies answer economic questions in different ways.

Core Knowledge is pleased to bring its popular CKHG curriculum to grades 7–8!

: Student Readers feature colorful, illustrative pages, appealing maps, and informative, exciting text.

Teacher Guides provide detailed lesson plans, activity page masters, additional activities, and assessments.

Online Resources support lessons and activities within the Teacher Guides.

The Big Idea in Civics and Economics in U.S. History is: Civics and economics help shape our daily lives and helped shape U.S. history.

The Big Idea in Civics and Economics in World History is: Decisions about civics and economics help give societies their identities.

Implementation Options text

Civics and CKHG

How do the core knowledge history and geography materials address civics.

A critical goal of the Core Knowledge History and GeographyTM (CKHG) curriculum materials is to ensure that students acquire the foundational knowledge needed to become literate citizens who can contribute to a democratic society.

The Pathway to Citizenship

To that end, for all CKHG American History titles, every Teacher Guide includes a feature called The Pathway to Citizenship . An American flag icon denotes specific topics, questions, and activities that focus on the rights and duties of citizenship, including key historical events, ideas, documents, laws, and the structure of American government.

In choosing to designate specific content as part of The Pathway to Citizenship , we have been guided by a test developed by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS). Immigrants seeking to become naturalized American citizens are required to answer correctly a selection of questions from the test. During an interview, candidates for citizenship are asked up to 10 questions from the 100 items in the USCIS Civics Test.

Additional Resources

The Core Knowledge Foundation has partnered with the Civics Renewal Network , “a consortium of nonpartisan, nonprofit organizations committed to strengthening civic life in the U.S. by increasing the quality of civics education in our nation’s schools and by improving accessibility to high-quality, no-cost learning materials. On the Civics Renewal Network site, teachers can find the best resources of these organizations, searchable by subject, grade, resource type, standards, and teaching strategy.”

USCIS Resources

Teachers may also be interested in additional resources available to prepare for the USCIS Civics Test , such as flash cards and study materials in Spanish and Chinese, as well as English.

Of particular interest:

An introductory video from U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, A Promise of Freedom: An Introduction US History and Civics for Immigrants
The online civics practice test presented as a multiple choice test
A 16-minute video on the US Naturalization interview, with simulations
An interactive site for preparing for the oath of citizenship.

Check Your Students’ Civics Knowledge

Students who master the goals of The Pathway to Citizenship in the CKHG American History resources for grades 3-5 will have a strong sense of the historical context of ideas, ideals, and arguments central to the shaping of American government and civic institutions. They will also have the knowledge assessed by the USCIS Civics Test.

At the end of Grade 5, we encourage teachers using CKHG to challenge students to demonstrate that they have acquired the knowledge fundamental to becoming informed American citizens.

From the 100 items in the USCIS Civics Test, the Core Knowledge Foundation has prepared four quizzes with ten questions each. Click the tabs to open each quiz. (You can download each quiz and answer key.)

Download Civics Quiz A with Answer Key

The following questions are from the 100 items in the civics test developed by the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS). Immigrants seeking to become naturalized American citizens are required to answer correctly a selection of questions from the test.

Answer the following questions to check your civics knowledge.

What document is the supreme law of the land?
Who is in charge of the executive branch?
What are the two parts of the U.S. Congress?
How many U.S. Senators are there?
What are two rights of everyone living in the United States?
Who lived in America before the Europeans arrived?
Name the U.S. war between the North and the South.
What movement tried to end racial discrimination?
What ocean is on the West Coast of the United States?
What is the name of the national anthem?

Download Civics Quiz B with Answer Key

What is an amendment?
Name one branch or part of the government.
Who makes federal laws?
We elect a U.S. Senator for how many years?
What is one responsibility that is only for United States citizens?
What group of people was taken to America and sold as slaves?
Name one war fought by the United States in the 1800s.
Who did the United States fight in World War II?
Name one U.S. territory.
Why does the flag have 50 stars?

Download Civics Quiz C with Answer Key

What do we call the first ten amendments to the Constitution?
Who does a U.S. Senator represent?
How many justices are on the Supreme Court?
Why do some states have more Representatives than other states?
There are four amendments to the Constitution about who can vote. Describe one of them.
There were 13 original states. Name three.
What did Susan B. Anthony do?
What major event happened on September 11, 2001, in the United States?
Name one state that borders Canada.
When do we celebrate Independence Day?

Download Civics Quiz D with Answer Key

What did the Declaration of Independence do?
What stops one branch of government from becoming too powerful?
Who signs bills to become laws?
What are the two major political parties in the United States?
What are two ways that Americans can participate in their democracy?
Who wrote the Declaration of Independence?
What did the Emancipation Proclamation do?
Name one war fought by the United States in the 1900s.
Name one of the two longest rivers in the United States.
Name two national U.S. holidays.

CKHG Online Resources

The Teacher Guides for Core Knowledge History and Geography titles reference various online resources that support the teaching materials.

NOTE: If you downloaded a CKHG Teacher Guide prior to March 1, 2017, please download again to receive files with updated links to the CKHG Online Resources.

Unit 1: Let’s Explore Our World!
Unit 2: Native Americans
Unit 3: Exploring and Moving to America
Unit 4: The Mount Rushmore Presidents
Unit 1: Continents, Countries, and Maps
Unit 2: Mesopotamia
Unit 3: Ancient Egypt
Unit 4: Three World Religions
Unit 5: Early Civilizations of the Americas
Unit 6: The Culture of Mexico
Unit 7: Early Explorers and Settlers
Unit 8: From Colonies to Independence
Unit 9: Exploring the West
Unit 10: Lessons in Civics
Unit 1: Ancient India
Unit 2: Ancient China
Unit 3: The Culture of Japan
Unit 4: Ancient Greece
Unit 5: Geography of the Americas
Unit 6: Making the Constitution
Unit 7: The War of 1812
Unit 8: Americans Move West
Unit 9: The Civil War
Unit 10: Immigration and Citizenship
Unit 11: Civil Rights Leaders
Unit 12: Lessons in Economics
Unit 1: World Rivers
Unit 2: Ancient Rome
Unit 3: The Vikings
Unit 4: The Earliest Americans
Unit 5: Canada
Unit 6: Exploration of North America
Unit 7: The Thirteen Colonies
Unit 1: Using Maps
Unit 2: World Mountains
Unit 3: Medieval Europe
Unit 4: Medieval Islamic Empires
Unit 5: Early and Medieval African Kingdoms
Unit 6: Dynasties of China
Unit 7: The American Revolution
Unit 8: The United States Constitution
Unit 9: Early Presidents
Unit 10: American Reformers
Unit 11: Understanding Civics
Unit 1: World Lakes
Unit 2: Maya, Aztec, and Inca Civilizations
Unit 3: The Age of Exploration
Unit 4: The Renaissance
Unit 5: The Reformation
Unit 6: England and the Golden Age
Unit 7: Early Russia
Unit 8: Feudal Japan
Unit 9: The Geography of the United States
Unit 10: Westward Expansion Before the Civil War
Unit 11: The Civil War
Unit 12: Westward Expansion After the Civil War
Unit 13: Native Americans: Cultures and Conflicts
Unit 14: Understanding Economics
Unit 1: World Deserts
Unit 2: Ancient Greece and Rome
Unit 3: The Enlightenment
Unit 4: The French Revolution and Romanticism
Unit 5: The Industrial Revolution: Changes and Challenges
Unit 6: Independence of Latin America
Unit 7: Immigration
Unit 8: Industrialization and Urbanization in America
Unit 9: Reform in Industrial America

A History of the United States: Volume 1, Precolonial to the 1800s

A History of the United States: Volume 2, Late 1800s to the 2000s

Civics and Economics in U.S. History

World History: Volume 1, The Ancient World to the Medieval Era

World History: Volume 2, Renaissance to Modern Day

Civics and Economics in World History

Related Curriculum

CKHG follows our approach to knowledge-based schooling, outlined in the Core Knowledge Sequence . It allows students to build and deepen their knowledge grade by grade and to make cross-curricular connections across subjects.

CKHG and Civics

The history and geography curriculum materials aim to prepare students to actively participate in a democratic society. Within all CKHG American History titles, every Teacher Guide includes a feature called The Pathway to Citizenship .

CKHG for Social Studies

Used in their recommended sequence, CKHG materials can form the basis of an engaging Social Studies program that builds historical and geographical knowledge and skills grade by grade.

CKHG and Language Arts

You can also use CKHG to integrate content-rich nonfiction into your Reading or Language Arts lessons. CKHG objectives are correlated to the Common Core English Language Arts standards, which call for increased reading of nonfiction informational texts. With CKHG, you can take an interdisciplinary approach to reading that provides rich, meaningful, and sustained engagement with informational texts organized in a coherent sequence.

Biography Series

Voices in History is a Core Knowledge Biography Series that encourages young readers to learn about real Superheroes in history. As a result of acts of extraordinary bravery, ingenuity, strength, and determination, these people made a difference, and changed the world. Perhaps their remarkable stories will inspire young readers to become the Superheroes of the future.

Terms of Use

The Core Knowledge History and Geography curriculum materials made available for download are freely available for anyone to use, adapt, and share (with attribution). No one is permitted to extract any images included in our PDF materials for use in any other way; to do so would be a violation of the agreements under which the images were licensed. No one is permitted to sell either the original program, an adaptation of it, or lesson plans that reproduce any part of it. For more information, see the Guidelines to Core Knowledge and the Creative Commons License.

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Geography Worksheets, Lesson Plans, Printables

Foster global awareness in your class with U.S. and world geography printables, lessons, and references. Teach students about oceans and landforms with science activities and mapping resources. There are plenty of crossword puzzles and quizzes to test your students' knowledge of the earth's surface. Map and geography skills may be used in many subject areas including language arts, math, and history. These social studies resources can enhance any curriculum for kindergarten through twelfth grade.

Most Popular
Most Recent

Printables for Grades K-5

Build your students map reading and identification skills with these various activities that cover maps of the entire world. These visual representations of parts of the world will help your students discover without having to leave the classroom! These resources are geared toward grades K-5.

U.S. Map with State Capitals
Find the Continents and Oceans
United States Map (Outline)
Outline Map of Asia
World Map (Black and White)
Africa Mapping Activity
Map of Southeast United States
More Popular Geography Printables

Printables for Grades 6-8

Go deeper with your study with these printable maps of different parts of the world. Whether you are completing a comprehensive study of the United States or another country, or you just want to focus on a particular subsection, these worksheets will help students in the moment during your lessons as well as a resource to study for their quizzes as well.

Geography Quiz: State Capitals
Map of Midwest United States
Map of Northeast United States

Printables for Grades 9-12

Use these resources for a general study of different countries or modify them to target a specific historical period or political movement that you want to focus on with your students. These maps can be a useful resource or study guide as students move toward learning more higher order concepts and retaining more historical information throughout the upper grades.

Map of North America
Political Map of Europe
Geography Quiz: True or False

Lesson Plans

Use these comprehensive lesson plans to fully develop an individual, geographical concepts, or historical periods of time that you want to focus on with your students. Within each lesson, you will be guided on how to complete the lesson with students as well as provided different questions, discussions, or activities to help students deeply understand the topic under study.

PowerPoint Postcards Presentation
Latitude and Longitude
Chart Columbus's Voyages
Australia Poster
Pilgrim Unit (7 lessons)
What Are the Modern Olympic Games?
Map Making, Floor Plans & Map Reading
More Popular Geography Lesson Plans

Printable Geography Quizzes

Tired of making your own geography quizzes? Who says you have to? Review the different quizzes in this section to use as the perfect complement to your lessons and activities. You can use these quizzes as is or can modify them to better meet your teaching style or the needs of your classroom.

Quiz: Southeast United States
Quiz: Southwest U.S. State Capitals
Quiz: The United States: West Region
Quiz: Western U.S. State Capitals
More Printable Geography Quizzes

Maps and Globes Resources

Use these printable map outlines or review the Practicing Map Skills activity to help your students learn about the different geographic features of various places around the world. These maps can be used again and again and are great resources to help student keep track of the constantly changing world.

Practicing Map Skills
Map of U.S. Regions
Map Library
More Popular Maps and Globes Resources

Geography Games & Puzzles

Need an interactive game to help reinforce your students' understanding of a geographical unit? This section is the one for you. Whether you want to teach students initial map skills by creating your own map of your classroom, or help them remember the different features that can be used when viewing a map, these printable games will make learning fun for your students.

Find the State
A Geography Wordsearch
Magnificent Maps: Neighborhood Map
Globe Wordsearch
Name That Country
Magnificent Maps: Classroom Map
Magnificent Maps: Community Map
More Geography Games & Puzzles

Technology Resources for Geography

Build your students inquiry, research, and discussion skills with these geographical technology resources. In this section, students will be responsible for investigating the world's wonders and reporting on their findings.

Wonders of the World Questions
Wonders of the World
Researching Our National Parks
Fantasy Vacation
How Far Is It?
More Technology Resources for Geography

U.S. Geography Resources

Use these printable maps to teach a comprehensive study of the geographical makeup of the United States. Students can keep these maps as study tools when looking back on a full year's study of the U.S. or just as a quick reference during a topic or concept.

Map of Western United States
Map of Southwest United States
United States Maps Gallery
Map Library of the United States
More Popular U.S. Geography Resources

World Geography Resources

Use these printable maps to teach a comprehensive study of the geographical makeup of the the world. Students can keep these maps as study tools when looking back on a full year's study of the world. or just as a quick reference during a topic or concept.

World Geography Glossary
Longest Street in the World
World Maps Gallery
Sailing Around the World
Mountains of the World Quiz
More Popular World Geography Resources

Political Geography Resources

Help your students keep track of all the political affiliations during different historical periods with these resources. In this section, you can use printable maps, interactive books and slideshows, or just reinforce their understanding of geographical topic with various quizzes.

Map Library of the World
Maps & Activities Printables Slideshow
Maps & Activities Printable Book (Grades 4-12)
Continents of the World
Capitals of the World Quiz
Major Cities and Rivers in Russia
Mason and Dixon's Line
More Political Geography Resources

Looking to build your geographical resource library? This section can provide you a wealth of resources ranging from lesson plans, various charts and maps, or just some fun information or facts on the different parts of the world.

Origin of U.S. State Names
Oceans and Seas
Just Where Was Columbus?
Languages by Country
Columbus's Voyages
Fifty Fun Facts About the Fifty U.S. States
State Capitals and Largest Cities for Each State
More Popular Geography References

Geography Skill Builders

Uses these Skill Builder guides to help students learn research skills and discover fun facts about geography. Each guide divides into different activities according to your individual classrooms grade level so it can be a resource that you use for any classroom. It also is completed weekly so this be a great compliment to your daily lessons, review sessions, or even as homework activities for your students.

Skill Builders: Geography Challenge Questions, Week 1
Skill Builders: Geography Challenge Questions, Week 2
Skill Builders: Geography Challenge Questions, Week 3
Skill Builders: Geography Challenge Questions, Week 4
Skill Builders: Geography Challenge Questions, Week 9
Skill Builders: Geography Challenge Questions, Week 20
Skill Builders: Geography Challenge Questions, Week 28
More Geography Skill Builders

Geography Resources for History Class

Use these resources to help students learn about the geography from different historical periods or important events. In this section, you have access to different lesson plans, printable maps, interactive activities, and classroom guides for discussions. These resources can be kept as is or can be modified to be better for your individual teaching style or classroom needs.

Mapping the War: World War II
German Nazi Takeover: 1933-1944
Countries Quiz
Triangular Trade in the Atlantic Ocean
More Popular Geography Resources for History Class

Earth Science & Geography Connected

Planning a cross-curricular study with your fellow teachers? Or just trying to help students understand how geography is formed? This section will provide you for a little bit of both! In this section, you have access to different comprehension resources that outline the causes and effects of natural disasters and how that has developed the geography from the past to today.

Ocean Pollution
What's the Solution to Ocean Pollution?
Chart of the Water Cycle
Time Zones Around the World
Weather Words
Plate Tectonics Test
More Popular Geography Activities for Earth Science Class

Math & Geography Connected

Planning a cross-curricular study with the other teachers in various content areas? Or just trying to help students understand map reading and geography skills? This section will help you prepare for any objective or goal you have for your students. Use the different printable maps, lesson plans, or graphic organizers to build students comprehension and map-reading skills by focusing on topics such as time zones and latitude and longitude.

Coordinate Grids (Gr. 3)
Time Zones in the U.S.
Making Choices: Decision Making (Gr. 6)
Reading a Map
Colorful World Map
Map of the United States
More Popular Geography Activities for Math Class

Language Arts & Geography Connected

Build your students reading comprehension and map reading skills with these different activities. In this section, students connect their understanding of different geographic features with their own previous knowledge and experiences. Each resource is a perfect complement to any part of your lesson, as a resource for students to use to remember key concepts, or as supplemental work to assess student understanding.

Read the Map
Geography Reading Warm-Up: Rainforests
State Scavenger Hunt
The Oceans of the World
Matching Animal Habitats
Mount Everest Timeline
More Popular Language Arts Activities for Geography

Art Activities for Geography

Use these activities to add an artistic spin to learning geography. Students can create their own geographical tools, create cultural artifacts of individuals from a different country, or design different geographic maps of countries around the world. These activities can be used as is or modified to better suit the needs of students in your classroom.

Compass Rose
Maps and Globes Book
Kente Cloth
Dora the Explorer Map (English)
A Bedroom Map
More Art Activities for Geography

Earth Day Activities

Build your students understanding of this important day with different resources that highlights the importance of taking care of our Earth. In this section, students can review the different economic resources that are pivotal to human survival, the different ways we take care of resources, and much more!

Geographical Highs, Lows, and Boundaries of the U.S.
Science, Technology, and Society: Clean Machine
National Park System of the United States
Rivers of the United States
Glaciers: Ice That Flows
Economic Resources
National Scenic Trails
More Earth Day Teacher Resources

Wildlife Week Resources

Use these literature/teacher guides to review with students the different types of wildlife that live in various places around the world. These guides can compliment any content area and will help your students improve their reading comprehension and geography skills. Use them as is or adapt them to best fit your classroom.

On the Far Side of the Mountain
Kingfisher Knowledge Guide: Dangerous Creatures Teacher's Guide
Columbus Day Activities

Use these lessons or activities in this section to help students learn about Christopher Columbus's voyage and exploration of America. These activities can be kept as is or modified to fit your individual teaching style or the needs of your students.

More Columbus Day Teacher Resources

Native American Resources

Help students understand that studying geography means studying the individuals that live in those different regions as well. By reviewing the lives and culture of Native Americans, students can connect their geographical skills to deeper higher order thinking ones

Native American Life on the Great Plains
Native American Tribes of the Great Plains
More American Indians & Native Americans - Teacher Resources

Voyages & Travels Resources

Use these different resources with your students to discuss the concepts of voyages and traveling. In this section are different visual maps, lesson plans, reading comprehension activities, and much more! These activities can be used in their current form or modified to better serve the needs of your classroom.

First Hot-Air Balloon Flight
Planning for the Voyage - Pilgrim Study Unit (Lesson 1 of 7)
Historical Fiction Reading Warm-Up: The Christmas Gift
Seeing the World Sub Kit (Grades 7-8)
Peary, Henson, and the North Pole
More Popular Voyages & Travel Resources

Ocean Resources

Need some inspiration for teaching your students about the Earth's oceans? Well look no further! Whether it's full comprehensive lesson plans, printable map activities, game worksheets, or resource guides for geographical features, this is the section for you. These activities are great as they are or can be adapted to the characteristics of your classroom.

Earth's Oceans
An Ocean Adventure Sub Kit (Grades 3-4)
What Are Ocean Currents?
Modeling Climates
Length of the U.S. Coastline by State
Word Search: The World's Oceans
Crossing the Atlantic by Rowboat
More Oceans Teacher Resources

Study Guides
Homework Questions

Assignment 5

Question1730

Station Model Lab (1)

3AB653AB-B5FF-4503-9E29-C46B73966975

APWH Chapter 13 HW

NUR ANIS ATHIRAH2021801004D1BA1115A

Food Deserts - AP Human Geography Analysis Portfolio

Handwritten notes

Kami Export - changingofstatesinthewatercycle0000094013 (2)

Lesson0605worksheet (1)

Test Review ENERGY

Earth Science Discussion Thread

WeatherMapsGizmo

FinalProject

Screenshot 2024-04-23 at 9.35.53 AM

3Self-test for Lectures 12 to 18 - BIOL2903W Natural History of Ontario (LEC) Winter 2024

Carbon Cycling Lab Bouey

Copy of Copy of Human Impacts on Ecosystems

TG-17984-final draft

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Physical Geography
Research Skills
Research skills
Sustainable Development Goals
World History
Writing Skills
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Alternative Final Project Assignment

Annotated bibliography assignment, annotated bibliography student sample, country proposal assignment, country proposal student sample, course grid, final project assignment, final project student sample 1, final project student sample 2, research log check 1 assignment, research log check 2 assignment, research reflections prompts, research workbook, research workbook - google, unit 10.1 slides, unit 10.2 slides, unit 11.1 slides, unit 11.2 slides, unit 1.1 slides, unit 12.1 slides, unit 1.2 slides, unit 2.1 slides, unit 2.2 slides, unit 3.1 slides, unit 3.2 slides, unit 4.1 slides, unit 4.2 slides, unit 5.1 slides, unit 5.2 slides, unit 6.1 slides, unit 6.2 slides, unit 7.1 slides, unit 7.2 slides, unit 8.1 slides, unit 8.2 slides, unit 9.1 slides, unit 9.2 slides, history and geography for our interconnected world.

History and Geography for our Interconnected World

This course introduces students to modern world history and geography. It provides an opportunity for students to learn and further develop foundational research and writing skills by incorporating practice into every class session. Early in the course, students select a country to study, then all research and writing activities are focused on that country. It also utilizes the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals to help students explore their country.

The course utilizes openly licensed textbooks and publicly available materials as course materials.

This survey course is intended for freshmen and sophomore-level students who are interested in exploring historical, political and social contexts beyond their own. Students will have ample opportunities to practice foundational skills including writing, research, source citation, critical thinking and public speaking.

It was originally taught over 13 weeks as part of a Fulbright US Scholar grant in the International College at Tunghai University in Taichung Taiwan. It was developed with support from the Open Education for a Better World Program.

Instructor Resources

Thank you for adopting this course! I hope that these materials help in your teaching.

I always welcome feedback on the course and associated materials. Please leave comments in OER Commons or email me at [email protected].

This section contains additional resources that will be helpful for instructors adopting all or part of this course.

Course Learning Outcomes (updated 10/7/21):

Upon completion of the course, students will be able to:

Hypothesize about your chosen country's ability to achive the SDG using historical and geographic events, terminology and concepts.
Analyze the modern development of a country in relation to the significant events and eras in its history.
Analyze the geographic situation of a country and its region using terminology and concepts from physical and human geography.
Compile and evaluate different kinds of sources related to your chosen country and SDG.
Communicate written and verbal arguments and statements that are complete and properly cited, using discipline-appropriate terminology.
Reflect on your research progress and understanding of history and seek out additional resources as necessary.

Additional Materials

Attached to this module you'll find:

Course Grid - this spreadsheet shows the breakdown of topics, readings and assignments throughout the course. It was designed for a 13 week term, but can be adapted a different length term.
Student assignment samples - samples of successful student work for each of the three primary assignments. Each student sample contains its own attribution.

Course Home Page

This page was designed to be the Learning Management System home page for the course. It contains important information that students will need to quickly access. It is suggested that you link to the individual assignments from the table.

Don't forget to add your own contact information under "Faculty" and a link to your syllabus.

Welcome to Our Course!

This survey course will introduce students to foundational concepts in world history and human geography. Using the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals as a model, students will examine the historical and geographic contexts of the goals in various countries and regions. This course, intended for freshman and sophomore-level students, will strengthen students’ ability to understand, appreciate, and critically analyze the global contexts in which they will live and work. Students will practice foundational skills including writing, research, source citation, critical thinking and public speaking.

Modern World History ; Allosso, D. and Williford, T.; Minnesota Libraries Publishing Project, 2021
History of International Relations: A Non-European Perspective ; Ringmar, E.; Open Book Publishers (Cambridge, UK, 2019).
Introduction to Human Geography ; Dorrell, D. and Henderson, J.P, eds.; University System of Georgia (2018).
World Regional Geography: Peoples, Places and Globalization ; Minnesota Libraries Publishing Project, 2016.
Writing for Success ; University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing (2015).

Major Course Assignments

[INSERT YOUR INFORMATION HERE]

( Added 12/6/21)

This workbook was created to help students better organize their research and assignments in the course. It contains sections for history notes, class research activities and all three major assignments. Students can add pages as needed and you can more frequently and easily check their progress on research.

The workbook is not an essential element of the course, you can still assign all activities and assignments without using the workbook.

To use this workbook with your students:

PowerPoint - attached above
Google Slides - click on the link, make a copy and download to your own Google Drive
You can also print it and have students complete in hard copy
Make a unique document for each student (or ask them to do this and share rights with you)

It is often easier for the instructor to create a Google Drive folder and keep all student workbooks in that folder. This will faciliate any peer review activities you might choose to do and your periodic reviews of all the workbooks. You can also create unique Google Drive folders for each student if you don't want them to see each other's work.

You'll be using this workbook to record your research, reflect on various aspects of your country and participate in class activities. Use this notebook regularly throughout the course to organize your research and thoughts about your country and SDG. Regular use should make writing your final paper significantly easier and more successful. You will also complete all milestone and final assignments in the notebook.

Course Assignments

This section was created to share all pertinent assignment information in a single location. Each assignment has a rubric included that can be modified to fit your needs.

In it's original format in the LMS, each assignment had the description in HTML as well as an attached PDF with the full description and the grading rubric. This version includes all course assignment descriptions as Word files.

There are two different versions of the final project included in this OER course. The final project with student presentation was originally intended for use in the course. However, class size and logistics made it impossible to hold presentations. The alternative final project contains a paper and visual element, such as a poster or infographic.

(New content added 10/7/21)

Here is the alignment of summative assessments to course level learning outcomes (CLLO):

In this section you'll find descriptions and grading rubrics for all the assignments you'll be completing this semester.

Research Reflections

This section was used to collect the weekly research reflection prompts into a single location for students to access. The course was designed with 8 prompts spaced around other assignment due dates in the 13 week course. No reflections were assigned the week prior to other assignment due dates, or after the week 11 check of research logs. In a 16 or 18 week semester, the number of prompts could be increased and an additional research log check could be added.

Students were given the HTML list of prompts as well as Google Doc and Word templates. This way, students can save the template of their choice and fill it in as they go through the course. To include a peer review element or more continuous monitoring of the student logs, consider having them use a blogging or wiki platform or the LMS discussion boards instead.

Here is a complete list of the research reflections you'll be completing during this course. See the Research Log Check assignments for complete details about formatting and information to include.

These reflections are designed to provide you with structured help exploring your chosen country in preparation for the final report and presentation. Take time each week to explore the topic, find resources and think critically about your country.

It is okay to use bullet points instead of full paragraphs. Be sure you are linking to (or perferably providing full citations for) the resources you find and use. You can also use the reflections to pose questions or problems you are encountering in your research.

Country Geography - Unit 2

What is the physical geography of my country? Consider:

Significant physical features (mountains, rivers, etc.)

Major climate(s)

Agriculture - significant products, limitations

Potential physical limitations (for example: is your country landlocked? Prone to extreme droughts or flooding?

Regional Geography - Unit 3

What is the physical geography of my country’s region? Consider:

How many other countries make up the region? How am I going to determine the region (continent, popular grouping - like Middle East or Central America)?

Are there any regional tensions caused by, or made worse by geography?

Country History - Unit 4

What are some important historical milestones for my country? Consider:

Significant world events that have been influential in my country’s development

Significant Internal historical events that have impacted development (such as a civil war)

Find a country history timeline from a reputable source

Who have been some of the most influential figures in my country’s history?

Has my country had a relatively peaceful history? Or a more turbulent history? (explain your reasoning)

Country Government - Unit 5

What type of government does my country have? Consider:

How do top officials come to power (royalty, popular election, appointment)

How many branches does the central (or federal) government have?

Who has the most power (who is in charge - president, prime minister, king, etc)

What types of responsibilities and rights do the people have? This could include mandatory military service, voting rights, freedom of the press, free speech

How would my country’s government rank on a site like the World Justice Project’s Open Government: http://data.worldjusticeproject.org/opengov/# or the Cato Institute’s Human Freedom Index: https://www.cato.org/human-freedom-index/2020 ?

Current Research on the SDGs - Unit 8

What research and work is currently being done on the SDGs in my country? Consider:

Can I find published articles describing projects related to the SDGs

Has the government made any promises related the SDGs (is there a government website or information from the government)

Based on the information I am finding, which SDGs does my country seem to be focusing on?

How do my findings impact my final project ? (will it lead you to change SDGs? Or help you to conceive of a potential project that you can pitch?)

Economy and Major Urban Centers in my Country - Unit 9

What are the major population centers in my country? Consider:

What is the capital? Is it the biggest city? Where is it in relation to the rest of the country?

Where does most of the population live (rural, suburban, urban)

Has there been a historical trend towards urbanization in my country?

What are other significant cities?

What type of economy does my country have?

Is it growing? Stagnating? Dominated by a particular commodity?

What portion of the population lives in poverty?

Where would my country rank in a listing of world GDPs (such as this one from the World Bank: https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/gdp-ranking ) and in relation to other countries in my region?

My Country in the 21st Century - Unit 10

What is the current state of my country? Consider:

Consider political, economic and social state of the country

Current social issues or tensions

Stability of the current government

Predict what the biggest issues will be for the country in the next few years

Based on everything that I’ve learned, realistically how successful can my country be at achieving my chosen SDG?

Unit 1: Introduction to the Course and World History Themes

Overview of this week.

Welcome to the course! This week we are going to introduce you to the course, projects you'll complete and help you develop a foundation for studying world history.

Upcoming Assignments

Readings for this week.

For Tuesday: None

For Thursday:

Why Study World History by Jerry H. Bentley, University of Hawai'i

Five Reasons to Think Twice about the UN Sustainable Development Goals by Jason Hickel, London School of Economics

Supplemental Materials

We will return to these sources in future weeks for specific time periods and events, but you can spend a little time this week becoming familiar with them.

World History Timeline - Essential Humanities

World Digital Library - US Library of Congress

Timelines: Sources from History - British Library

Unit 2: Introduction to World Geography

Last week we began our discussion of world history by considering the themes that we are going to encounter. This week we are going to look at physical and human geography. We will explore major themes and terminology that we will use to discuss geography throughout the course.

Tuesday we will focus on physical geography and Thursday we will discuss human geography and take a closer look at the role that migration has played in history.

Research activities this week will include staying organized as a researcher and finding maps and GIS data.

Readings this Week

For Tuesday:

Introduction to Human Geography – Chapter 1 - Introduction to Geography

Introduction to Human Geography – Chapter 3 - Migration

Supplemental Resources:

Resources to Start Examining Countries

Country Studies - Short overviews of selected countries from the U.S. Library of Congress.

The World Factbook - Country information from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency.

World Statistics Pocketbook - Over 50 indicators for 216 countries. Published by the United Nations.

Resources for Finding Maps and GIS Data

David Rumsey Map Collection - Stanford University - lots of historical maps

Old Maps Online - gateway to map collections from libraries all over the world

World Map - Harvard University - mapping tool

AidData - William and Mary University - reports, datasets and more related to aid

World Resources Institute - Data sets, reports and more

Africa Map - Harvard University - part of World Map, allows you to create layered maps of Africa

Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection - strong collection of historical maps

Unit 3: History to 1600: Setting the Stage

Now that we have set the stage with shared terminology around the themes of world history and geography, we are going to start exploring history. We are going to discuss the political and cultural make-up of several empires.

Tuesday we will focus on China and the Mongol empires. Thursday, we are going to explore what was happening in the Americas, Europe and Africa before 1600.

Research activities: Tuesday we will discuss scholarly articles and finding scholarly sources. Thursday, a college mentor will lead a writing workshop.

For Tuesday:

Modern World History - Chapter 1: Modern World History Begins with Asia

Modern World History - Chapter 2: Europe and Africa

Supplemental Materials:

The Political Power Of The Harem - Timeline World History Documentaries (Ottoman Empire)

Yongle Encyclopedia - World Digital Library (US LOC) click through other documents using the < and > arrows.

Illuminated Manuscripts of Europe (up to the 1500s) - World Digital Library (US LOC)

World History Timeline (US LOC) - start with "Empire of Mali is founded" to see documents from the era we are studying this week.

Imperial Russia - Interactive Map - World History Timeline (US LOC)

Arabic and Islamic Science and Its Influence on the Western Scientific Tradition - World History Timeline (US LOC)

Explore the 1500s - British Library (you can explore documents from other centuries as well)

Map of the Mongol Empires - HyperHistory

Khamseen: Islamic Art History Online - University of Michigan

The Silk Road (Esri Story Map) - University of Minnesota

The Renaissance in Astronomy (digital exhibit) - History of Science Museum

Unit 4: History of International Relations: Asia

Now that we have a better idea of what was happening around the world up to 1600 or so, we can start to explore countries, empires and their interactions on deeper levels. This week we'll be focusing on Asia, specifically in relation to China and India. Next week, we'll turn towards the Americas. Tuesday we will focus once again on China and their relationship with surrounding groups and empires. Thursday, we are going to look at India and the concept of Indianization.

Research activities: Tuesday we will discuss citations and paraphrasing. Thursday, we are going to talk about how to evaluate the sources you are finding and using.

History of International Relations: A Non-European Perspective - Chapter 2: China and East Asia

History of International Relations: A Non-European Perspective - Chapter 3: India and Indianization

Resources on Paraphrasing and Citation:

Writing in Your Own Words - Open University

Paraphrasing Tutorials - RMIT University

APA Citing Examples - US Naval Postgraduate School

MLA Citation Style Examples - Purdue OWL

Check in Unit 3 for resources on historical China!

Shadow Puppetry in Asia:

Indian Shadow Puppets - Brighton Museum

An Introduction to Indian Puppetry - Sahapedia

Hinduism and Buddhism

Buddhism - World History Encyclopedia

Buddhism - History Channel

What is Buddhism? - The Buddhist Centre

Hinduism - World History Encyclopedia

Hinduism - History Channel

Evaluating Sources

Anatomy of a Scholarly Article - North Carolina State University Library

Popular vs Scholarly Sources - Colorado School of Mines

Evaluating Web Sources - Colorado School of Mines

Using Authoritative Sources - Colorado School of Mines

Unit 5: Colonialism, The Americas and the Age of Revolution

This week we are going to focus on the Americas, specifically colonization by the Spanish, British and French. This era, 1500-1825 (approximately), saw significant change. Many of the countries we think of in the Americas gained their independence during this time.

Tuesday, we will focus on the era of exploration and conquistadors first contact with indigenous peoples. Thursday, we will look at colonialism and the revolutions that marked the end of the era.

Research activities: Tuesday we will focus on finding scholarly articles and Thursday we are going to talk about how to find reliable news stories.

Readings this Week:

Modern World History - Chapter 3: The Americas and Columbus

Modern World History - Chapter 4: Early Globalization and Revolutions

True Story Behind Thanksgiving - Hit History Live

US Constitution - National Archives

Monroe Doctrine - Library of Congress Our Documents

US History Timeline - World Digital Library (US LOC)

I'm Just a Bill - Schoolhouse Rock

The Preamble - Schoolhouse Rock

Slavery in the Americas

Slavery in the Caribbean - National Museums Liverpool

An Introduction to Caribbean, Empire and Slavery - British Library

Slavery in America - Jim Crow Museum (Ferris State Univ)

Slavery - British Library

Spanish Colonization

Casta Painting in the Spanish Americas - SmartHistory

Spanish Empire - New World Encyclopedia

Francis Drake: Heroic Explorer or Notorious Pirate - Hit History Live

The Bourbons and the French Revolution

Discover the Estate - Chateau de Versailles

Rise and Fall of Napoleon Bonaparte - Hit History Live

The French Revolution - Oversimplified

The French Revolution - New World Encyclopedia

The French Revolution - The Louvre

Week 6: Long 19th Century and Industrial Revolution

This week we are going to focus on the 1800s, particularly the year of revolutions in Europe (1848), the Industrial Revolution and Britain's new dominance in the world economy.

Tuesday, we will focus on the political and social history of the early to mid-1800s. Thursday, we look more closely at the Industrial Revolution and industrial geography.

Research activities: Tuesday we will practice reading and using scholarly articles and Thursday we are going to talk about how to write annotated bibliographies.

Modern World History - Chapter 5: Troubled 19th Century

Introduction to Human Geography - Chapter 11: Industry

Remember the Guano Wars - Breakthrough

Rise of Industrial America - US Library of Congress

Immigration to the United States - US Library of Congress

Revolutions of 1848 - Crash Course European History #26

East India Company and Its Role in Ruling India - Historic UK

How the East India Company became the World's Most Powerful Business - National Geographic

History of Containerization - World Shipping Council

Country Research Resources:

Government Resources: International Information - University of Louisville (Worldwide - each country has a page)

Countries - World Health Organization (Worldwide - each country has a page)

Africa: South of the Sahara - Stanford Libraries (Africa - each country has a page)

Countries - Africa Development Bank (Africa - each country has a page)

Southeast Asian Countries - Northern Illinois University (Asia - each country has a page)

Member Countries - The Commonwealth (British Commonwealth - if your country was colonized by Britain at any point, it's probably on this list)

Unit 7: Imperialism

When originally taught - Week 7 was Spring Break. If you are matching course content to the assignment due dates throughout the course - this is the unit that was taught in Week 8.

This week we are going to explore post-industrial imperialism in depth. The Industrial revolution pushed European powers to seek new markets and new sources of raw materials - leading to a second wave of colonialism, largely in Africa and Asia.

Tuesday, we are going to start the discussion by looking at the decline of land-based Empires like the Ottomans and Russians in favor of overseas empires like Britain. We'll also look at US expansion and the American Civil War. Thursday, continue the discuss with the Scramble for Africa, the rise of Britain as a global power and the decline of China.

Research activities: Tuesday we will practice finding research on the SDGs and Thursday we will have an annotated bibliography working day.

Modern World History - Chapter 6: Imperialism (Only the first half - pages 222-247)

Modern World History - Chapter 6: Imperialism (The second half - pages 248 - 275)

Timeline of the Crimean War - Historic UK

Crimean War - UK National Army Museum

Crimean War - History Matters

Brief History of the Scramble for Africa - VC3 Productions

Slavery and the Scramble for Africa - BBC

The Dutch and South Africa - Dutch Review

The Dutch Settlement - South African History Online

South Africa in the 1900s - South African History Online

The Settler Colonies: South Africa - UK Parliament

Other Resources:

Manifest Destiny - History

Dominion of Canada - The Canadian Encyclopedia

Social Darwinism - American Museum of Natural History

History of Oil - EKT Interactive

Submarine Cable Map - Telegeography

China and Japan:

The Boxer Rebellion - Project Revolution

Treaty of Portsmouth and Russo-Japanese War - US Department of State

How did Russia lose the Russo-Japanese War? - Animated History

Unit 8: World War I and Interwar Period

Prior to this week - the final project was revised to accomodate large class size and class time limitations when the course was originally. The assignment grid and slides for this week and following reflect the revised final assignment.

This week we are going to study World War I and the period before World War II. We are going to see the causes of war, technological changes that made it more devastating and how the war changed society. We'll see a rise of the "isms" in Communism, fascism and Nazism and how the world dealt with the Great Depression.

Tuesday, we are going to focus on World War I. Thursday, the aftermath of the war, the Great Depression and the development of the Soviet Union, fascist Italy and Nazi Germany will be discussed.

Research activities: Tuesday we will practice finding local perspective and Thursday we will practice finding and evaluating economic information.

Modern World History - Chapter 7: World War I

Modern World History - Chapter 8: Modern Crisis

Economics Data

UN Conference on Trade and Development Statistics

Corruption Perception Index - Transparency International

World Bank Data (by country)

International Monetary Fund

World War I

How World War I Started - Crash Course in World History (VIDEO - check out others on the war)

America in World War I - Crash Course in US History (VIDEO)

10 Significant Battles of the First World War - Imperial War Museum

World War I - US National Archives

Long Legacy of World War I - Origins

World War I - British Library

Timeline (1914-1921) - US Library of Congress

What is Shell Shock - Open Learn from Open University (VIDEO)

Interwar Period

How did Hitler Happen? - US National WWII Museum

The Nazi Party: Nazi Regime in Germany - Jewish Virtual Library

The Great Depression - Crash Course in US History (VIDEO)

Dorothea Lange - Museum of Modern Art

Franklin - FDR Presidential Library Digitized Collections

President Roosevelt and the New Deal - US Library of Congress

The New Deal - Crash Course in US History (VIDEO)

Unit 9: World War II

This week we are going to study World War II. We are going to see the causes of war, technological changes that made it more devastating and how the war changed society. World War II and it's devastation created the conditions for decolonization and Neo-globalism that we'll see in the last couple weeks of class.

Tuesday, we are going to focus on the lead up to war and the first couple years of the war. Thursday, the aftermath of the war, the Holocaust, life on the home front and the development of the United Nations will be discussed.

Research activities: Tuesday we will revisit how to cite scholarly articles and Thursday we discuss some of the frustrations you mentioned in your annotated bibliography.

Modern World History - Chapter 9: World War II ( beginning to "The Conclusion")

Modern World History - Chapter 9: World War II ("The Conclusion" to the end)

Meet the French Resistance - The Archive

Voices of the Holocaust - British Library

The Holocaust: An Introductory History - Jewish Virtual Library

8 things to know about the Battle of Britain - Imperial War Museum

Battle of Britain - Royal Air Force (UK)

Madame Chiang Kai-shek - Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity

Shared Sacrifices: US Chinese Cooperation in WWII - US Chinese Embassy

The Pacific Strategy - National World War II Museum (US)

Major Pacific Battles - American Experience (PBS)

United States

World War II Situation Maps - Library of Congress

Women Came to the Front: Accredited Women Correspondents During WWII - Library of Congress

Ernie Pyle - National World War II Museum

Life and Work of Edward R. Murrow - Tufts University

The Manhattan Project - Atomic Heritage Foundation

Unit 10: Cold War

This week we are going to study the Cold War. We are going to see the results of the fall of Nazism and fascism. We'll learn about proxy wars fought between the United States and Soviet Union for control of their spheres of influence.

Tuesday, we are going to focus on the Cold War in Asia and the Middle East. Thursday, we'll discuss populist governments in Latin America, the space race and the end of the Cold War.

Research activities: Tuesday we will focus on finding good quality research from think tanks and NGOs and Thursday we will have research log working time.

Modern World History - Chapter 11: Cold War (beginning to "Latin America and the Cold War")

Modern World History - Chapter 11: Cold War ( "Latin America and the Cold War" to the end)

The Cold War in Berlin - John F. Kennedy Presidential Library

Berlin Airlift - Extra History (VIDEO)

Economy of the Soviet Union - Economics Explained (VIDEO)

Soviet Union Timeline - BBC

Vietnam War - National Archives (US)

Vietnam War from the North Vietnamese Perspective - Armchair Historian (VIDEO)

Vietnam War - Australian War Memorial

Short History of the Korean War - Imperial War Museum

Banana Republics - Visualizing America

Controversial History of United Fruit - Harvard Business Review

Iran-Iraq War - Armchair Historian (VIDEO)

How the Iran-Iraq War will shape the region for decades to come - Brookings Institution

Unit 11: Decolonization and Post Cold War

This week we are going to wrap up our discussion of world history by examining decolonization and some of the events of the past 30 years.

Tuesday, we are going to focus on decolonization. Thursday, we'll look at our post-Cold War world and discuss the concepts of neoliberal globalism.

Research activities: Tuesday we will discuss paper writing tips and Thursday we will discuss tips for designing your poster and using visual elements in your work.

Modern World History - Chapter 10: Decolonization

World Regional Geography: Peoples, Places and Globalization - look at the section that discusses your country

India Independence and Partition, 1947 - National Army Museum (UK)

The Road to Partition - 1939-1947 - National Archives (UK)

India Pakistan Partition Explained - TRT World (VIDEO)

Israel Government and Politics: Establishment of the State - Jewish Virtual Library

Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel - Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Partition of Palestine: An Arab Perspective - Palestine Israel Journal

France Still Struggles with the Shadow of the "War without a Name" - Foreign Policy (about Algeria)

The Falklands War (1982) - Simple History (VIDEO)

A Short History of the Falklands War - Imperial War Museum (UK)

The Gas Disaster - The Bhopal Medical Appeal

Chernobyl Accident (1986) - World Nuclear Association

Break up of Yugoslavia - Wonder Why (VIDEO)

Former Yugoslavia 101: the Balkans Breakup - National Public Radio (US)

Unit 12: Lessons Learned from History

This is our final week of the course. We will be considering the lessons learned and themes we have explored throughout the course. Tuesday we will discuss lessons learned and take final questions on the final paper. Thursday will be a working day to complete the final paper.

Version History

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Beyond the Globe: 8 Awesome Geography Classroom Projects

Geography lessons today are more important than ever. As our world becomes more globalized, it’s crucial for kids to understand the places on Earth and their relationship with each other. It provides context about where we live and how we relate to people around us. It sparks curiosity about other cultures. And, ultimately, teaches that we are all connected.

So don’t let your geography lessons fall flat. Here are some inspired projects that go above and beyond your classroom’s globe.

Build a new way to view the world with Google Earth . A virtual globe, Google Earth’s ability to display a world map without distortion can shed light on why Greenland has always looked so big! Introduce your students to the amazing tools and features of Google Earth while comparing cartographer renditions of the world to a virtual version. Explore the world and its structures and ask 20 questions.

Combine geography and self-exploration with autobiographical island maps . After completing an autobiographical survey, students choose symbols and use their map studies to create an artistic representation of their life in the form of an island.

Use a compass to find your way . Before there was an app for that, travelers used a compass to find their way. Introduce your students to orienteering with this awesome activity. With a short video, reading activity, and discussion questions, you can teach your students how to find their way the old-fashioned way.

Learn how the world’s first metro system was built . Railroads united the world like nothing before it. Now able to travel longer distances more quickly and safely, industry and culture exploded in the early 19th century. Video and discussion resources can be customized to fit your classroom needs.

Make a contour map . Topography is often a difficult topic for students to understand. Contour lines, meant to represent the highs and lows of an area on the map, don’t always translate to young students’ minds. By creating their own 3D version with drawing paper, clay, different colored markers, fishing line, and a pencil, students can kinesthetically create a topographical map that makes sense!

Geography Bingo! This activity from the New York Times challenges students to find examples of how geography relates to our world every day using national geography standards. A great online scavenger hunt for one class — or a semester-long project — add a little competition to learning more about the world.

Teach the 5 themes of geography using the newspaper . Full of class, group, and individual activities, this unit of study can be used as a whole, or as individual lessons to supplement your current curriculum. Requiring students to gather examples beyond the textbook will help them connect everyday life with the study of the world.

Understand Environmentalism: Then and now . Give students a better understanding of the history of the conservation movement with this activity. Developed for high school, students will document the development of conservation over time through research and a culminating essay.

Help your students conquer the world by giving them the learning experiences that will truly engage their interests and solidify their sense of interconnectedness!

A brief introduction to US history

Unit 1: worlds collide (1491-1607), unit 2: colonial america (1607-1754), unit 3: the road to revolution (1754-1800), unit 4: the early republic (1800-1848), unit 5: the civil war era (1844-1877), unit 6: the gilded age (1865-1898), unit 7: rise to world power (1890-1945), unit 8: the postwar era (1945-1980), unit 9: the modern era (1980-present), unit 10: surveys of history, unit 11: primary documents.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

1.1 Geography Basics

Learning objectives.

Understand the focus of geography and the two main branches of the discipline.
Learn about the tools geographers use to study the earth’s surface.
Summarize the grid system of latitude and longitude and how it relates to seasons and time zones.
Distinguish between the different types of regional distinctions recognized in geography.
Understand the spatial nature of geography and how each place or region is examined, analyzed, and compared with other places or regions.
Determine the basic geographic realms and their locations.

What Is Geography?

Geography is the spatial study of the earth’s surface (from the Greek geo , which means “Earth,” and graphein , which means “to write”). Geographers study the earth’s physical characteristics, its inhabitants and cultures, phenomena such as climate, and the earth’s place within the universe. Geography examines the spatial relationships between all physical and cultural phenomena in the world. Geographers also look at how the earth, its climate, and its landscapes are changing due to cultural intervention.

The first known use of the word geography was by Eratosthenes of Cyrene (modern-day Libya in North Africa), an early Greek scholar who lived between 276 and 194 BCE. He devised one of the first systems of longitude and latitude and calculated the earth’s circumference. Additionally, he created one of the first maps of the world based on the available knowledge of the time. Around the same time, many ancient cultures in China, southern Asia, Polynesia, and the Arabian Peninsula also developed maps and navigation systems used in geography and cartography.

The discipline of geography can be broken down into two main areas of focus: physical geography and human geography . These two main areas are similar in that they both use a spatial perspective, and they both include the study of place and the comparison of one place with another.

Physical geography is the spatial study of natural phenomena that make up the environment, such as rivers, mountains, landforms, weather, climate, soils, plants, and any other physical aspects of the earth’s surface. Physical geography focuses on geography as a form of earth science. It tends to emphasize the main physical parts of the earth—the lithosphere (surface layer), the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), and the biosphere (living organisms)—and the relationships between these parts.

The major forms of study within physical geography include the following:

Geomorphology (the study of the earth’s surface features)
Glaciology (the study of glaciers)
Coastal geography (the study of the coastal regions)
Climatology (the study of climates and climate change)
Biogeography (the study of the geographic patterns of species distribution)

Some physical geographers study the earth’s place in the solar system. Others are environmental geographers, part of an emerging field that studies the spatial aspects and cultural perceptions of the natural environment. Environmental geography requires an understanding of both physical and human geography, as well as an understanding of how humans conceptualize their environment and the physical landscape.

Physical landscape is the term used to describe the natural terrain at any one place on the planet. The natural forces of erosion, weather, tectonic plate action, and water have formed the earth’s physical features. Many US state and national parks attempt to preserve unique physical landscapes for the public to enjoy, such as Yellowstone, Yosemite, and the Grand Canyon.

Human geography is the study of human activity and its relationship to the earth’s surface. Human geographers examine the spatial distribution of human populations, religions, languages, ethnicities, political systems, economics, urban dynamics, and other components of human activity. They study patterns of interaction between human cultures and various environments and focus on the causes and consequences of human settlement and distribution over the landscape. While the economic and cultural aspects of humanity are primary focuses of human geography, these aspects cannot be understood without describing the landscape on which economic and cultural activities take place.

The cultural landscape is the term used to describe those parts of the earth’s surface that have been altered or created by humans. For example, the urban cultural landscape of a city may include buildings, streets, signs, parking lots, or vehicles, while the rural cultural landscape may include fields, orchards, fences, barns, or farmsteads. Cultural forces unique to a given place—such as religion, language, ethnicity, customs, or heritage—influence the cultural landscape of that place at a given time. The colors, sizes, and shapes of the cultural landscape usually symbolize some level of significance regarding societal norms. Spatial dynamics assist in identifying and evaluating cultural differences between places.

Traditionally, the field of cartography , or map making, has been a vital discipline for geographers. While cartography continues to be an extremely important part of geography, geographers also look at spatial (space) and temporal (time) relationships between many types of data, including physical landscape types, economies, and human activity. Geography also examines the relationships between and the processes of humans and their physical and cultural environments. Because maps are powerful graphic tools that allow us to illustrate relationships and processes at work in the world, cartography and geographic information systems have become important in modern sciences. Maps are the most common method of illustrating different spatial qualities, and geographers create and use maps to communicate spatial data about the earth’s surface.

Geospatial techniques are tools used by geographers to illustrate, manage, and manipulate spatial data. Cartography is the art and science of making maps, which illustrate data in a spatial form and are invaluable in understanding what is going on at a given place at a given time.

Making maps and verifying a location have become more exact with the development of the global positioning system (GPS) . A GPS unit can receive signals from orbiting satellites and calculate an exact location in latitude and longitude, which is helpful for determining where one is located on the earth or for verifying a point on a map. GPS units are standard equipment for many transportation systems and have found their way into products such as cell phones, handheld computers, fish finders, and other mobile equipment. GPS technology is widely implemented in the transport of people, goods, and services around the world.

Remote sensing technology acquires data about the earth’s surface through aerial photographs taken from airplanes or images created from satellites orbiting the earth. Remotely sensed images allow geographers to identify, understand, or explain a particular landscape or determine the land use of a place. These images can serve as important components in the cartographic (map-making) process. These technologies provide the means to examine and analyze changes on the earth’s surface caused by natural or human forces. Google Earth is an excellent example of a computer tool that illustrates remotely sensed images of locations on the earth.

Figure 1.1 Low Elevation Air Photo of Cultural Landscape in Morehead, Kentucky

Photo by R. Berglee – CC BY-NC-SA.

Geographic information science (GIS) , often referred to as geographic information systems, uses a computer program to assimilate and manage many layers of map data, which then provide specific information about a given place. GIS data are usually in digital form and arranged in layers. The GIS computer program can sort or analyze layers of data to illustrate a specific feature or activity. GIS programs are used in a wide range of applications, from determining the habitat range of a particular species of bird to mapping the hometowns of university students.

Figure 1.2 Illustration of Layers in a GIS Process

GIS specialists often create and analyze geographical information for government agencies or private businesses. They use computer programs to take raw data to develop the information these organizations need for making vital decisions. For example, in business applications, GIS can be used to determine a favorable location for a retail store based on the analysis of spatial data layers such as population distribution, highway or street arrangements, and the locations of similar stores or competitive establishments. GIS can integrate a number of maps into one to help analysts understand a place in relation to their own specific needs.

GIS also focuses on storing information about the earth (both cultural and natural) in computer databases that can be retrieved and displayed in the form of specialized maps for specific purposes or analyses. GIS specialists require knowledge about computer and database systems. Over the last two decades, GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography: nearly all cartography is now done with the assistance of GIS software. Additionally, analysis of various cultural and natural phenomena through the use of GIS software and specialized maps is an important part of urban planning and other social and physical sciences. GIS can also refer to techniques used to represent, analyze, and predict spatial relationships between different phenomena.

Geography is a much broader field than many people realize. Most people think of area studies as the whole of geography. In reality, geography is the study of the earth, including how human activity has changed it. Geography involves studies that are much broader than simply understanding the shape of the earth’s landforms. Physical geography involves all the planet’s physical systems. Human geography incorporates studies of human culture, spatial relationships, interactions between humans and the environment, and many other areas of research that involve the different subspecialties of geography. Students interested in a career in geography would be well served to learn geospatial techniques and gain skills and experience in GIS and remote sensing, as they are the areas within geography where employment opportunities have grown the most over the past few decades.

The Earth and Graticule Location

When identifying a region or location on the earth, the first step is to understand its relative and absolute locations. Relative location is the location on the earth’s surface with reference to other places, taking into consideration features such as transportation access or terrain. Relative location helps one compare the advantages of one location with those of another. Absolute location , on the other hand, refers to an exact point on the earth’s surface without regard to how that point is related to any other place. Absolute location is vital to the cartographic process and to human activities that require an agreed-upon method of identifying a place or point.

Just as you were taught in geometry that there are 360 degrees in a circle or a sphere, the earth also has 360 degrees, and they are measured using a grid pattern called the graticule . Lines of latitude and longitude allow any absolute location on the earth to have an identifiable address of degrees north or south and east or west, which allows geographers to accurately locate, measure, and study spatial activity.

Geographers and cartographers organize locations on the earth using a series of imaginary lines that encircle the globe. The two primary lines are the equator and the prime meridian. From these lines, the systems of longitude and latitude are formed, allowing you to locate yourself anywhere on the planet. The line is the longest when you travel along in an east-west direction. At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon on the two equinoxes, which occur in March and September.

Figure 1.3 Basic Lines of Longitude and Latitude

Parallels or Lines of Latitude

Figure 1.4 Noted Lines of Latitude

The equator is the largest circle of latitude on Earth. The equator divides the earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and is called 0 degrees latitude. The other lines of latitude are numbered from 0 to 90 degrees going toward each of the poles. The lines north of the equator toward the North Pole are north latitude, and each of the numbers is followed by the letter “N.” The lines south of the equator toward the South Pole are south latitude, and each of the numbers is followed by the letter “S.” The equator (0 latitude) is the only line of latitude without any letter following the number. Notice that all lines of latitude are parallel to the equator (they are often called parallels) and that the North Pole equals 90 degrees N and the South Pole equals 90 degrees S. Noted parallels include both the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, which are 23.5 degrees from the equator. At 66.5 degrees from the equator are the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic Circle near the North and South Pole, respectively.

Meridians or Lines of Longitude

The prime meridian sits at 0 degrees longitude and divides the earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The prime meridian is defined as an imaginary line that runs through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England, a suburb of London. The Eastern Hemisphere includes the continents of Europe, Asia, and Australia, while the Western Hemisphere includes North and South America. All meridians (lines of longitude) east of the prime meridian (0 and 180) are numbered from 1 to 180 degrees east (E); the lines west of the prime meridian (0 and 180) are numbered from 1 to 180 degrees west (W). The 0 and 180 lines do not have a letter attached to them. The meridian at 180 degrees is called the International Date Line . The International Date Line (180 degrees longitude) is opposite the prime meridian and indicates the start of each day (Monday, Tuesday, etc.). Each day officially starts at 12:01 a.m., at the International Date Line. Do not confuse the International Date Line with the prime meridian (0 longitude). The actual International Date Line does not follow the 180-degree meridian exactly. A number of alterations have been made to the International Date Line to accommodate political agreements to include an island or country on one side of the line or another.

Climate and Latitude

The earth is tilted on its axis 23.5 degrees. As it rotates around the sun, the tilt of the earth’s axis provides different climatic seasons because of the variations in the angle of direct sunlight on the planet. Places receiving more direct sunlight experience a warmer climate. Elsewhere, the increased angle of incoming solar radiation near the earth’s poles results in more reflected sunlight and thus a cooler climate. The Northern Hemisphere experiences winter when sunlight is reflected off the earth’s surface and less of the sun’s energy is absorbed because of a sharper angle from the sun.

The Tropic of Cancer is the parallel at 23.5 degrees north of the equator, which is the most northerly place on Earth, receiving direct sunlight during the Northern Hemisphere’s summer. Remember that the earth is tilted 23.5 degrees, which accounts for seasonal variations in climate. The Tropic of Capricorn is the parallel at 23.5 degrees south of the equator and is the most southerly location on Earth, receiving direct sunlight during the Southern Hemisphere’s summer.

The tropics (Cancer and Capricorn) are the two imaginary lines directly above which the sun shines on the two solstices , which occur on or near June 20 or 21 (summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere) and December 21 or 22 (winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere). The sun is directly above the Tropic of Cancer at noon on June 20 or 21, marking the beginning of summer in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of winter in the Southern Hemisphere. The sun is directly above the Tropic of Capricorn at noon on December 21 or 22, marking the beginning of winter in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning of summer in the Southern Hemisphere. Solstices are the extreme ends of the seasons, when the line of direct sunlight is either the farthest north or the farthest south that it ever goes. The region between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn is known as the tropics. This area does not experience dramatic seasonal changes because the amount of direct sunlight received does not vary widely. The higher latitudes (north of the Tropic of Cancer and south of the Tropic of Capricorn) experience significant seasonal variation in climate.

Figure 1.5 Road Sign South of Dakhla, Western Sahara (Claimed by Morocco), Marking the Tropic of Cancer

This sign was placed in this desert location by the Budapest-Bamako rally participants. The non-English portion is in Hungarian because of the European participants in the race.

Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

The Arctic Circle is a line of latitude at 66.5 degrees north. It is the farthest point north that receives sunlight during its winter season (90 N − 23.5 = 66.5 N). During winter, the North Pole is away from the sun and does not receive much sunlight. At times, it is dark for most of the twenty-four-hour day. During the Northern Hemisphere’s summer, the North Pole faces more toward the sun and may receive sunlight for longer portions of the twenty-four-hour day. The Antarctic Circle is the corresponding line of latitude at 66.5 degrees south. It is the farthest location south that receives sunlight during the winter season in the Southern Hemisphere (90 S − 23.5 = 66.5 S). When it is winter in the north, it is summer in the south.

The Arctic and Antarctic Circles mark the extremities (southern and northern, respectively) of the polar day (twenty-four-hour sunlit day) and the polar night (twenty-four-hour sunless night). North of the Arctic Circle, the sun is above the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year and below the horizon for twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year. This is true also near the Antarctic Circle, but it occurs south of the Antarctic Circle, toward the South Pole. Equinoxes , when the line of direct sunlight hits the equator and days and nights are of equal length, occur in the spring and fall on or around March 20 or 21 and September 22 or 23.

Figure 1.6 Graphic of the Four Seasons

Universal Time (UT), Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), or Zulu Time (Z): all four terms can be defined as local time at 0 degrees longitude, which is the prime meridian (location of Greenwich, England). This is the same time under which many military operations, international radio broadcasts, and air traffic control systems operate worldwide. UTC is set in zero- to twenty-four-hour time periods, as opposed to two twelve-hour time periods (a.m. and p.m.). The designations of a.m. and p.m. are relative to the central meridian: a.m. refers to ante meridiem , or “before noon,” and p.m. refers to post meridiem , or “after noon.” UT, UTC, GMT, and Z all refer to the same twenty-four-hour time system that assists in unifying a common time in regard to global operations. For example, all air flights use the twenty-four-hour time system so the pilots can coordinate flights across time zones and around the world.

The earth rotates on its axis once every twenty-four hours at the rate of 15 degrees per hour (15 × 24 = 360). Time zones are established roughly every 15 degrees longitude so that local times correspond to similar hours of day and night. With this system, the sun is generally overhead at noon in every time zone that follows the 15-degree-wide system. The continental United States has four main time zones (see Table 1.1 “Four Main Time Zones in the Continental United States and Their Central Meridians” and Figure 1.7 “Major Time Zones of the World” ).

Table 1.1 Four Main Time Zones in the Continental United States and Their Central Meridians

Figure 1.7 Major Time Zones of the World

The twenty-four times zones are based on the prime meridian in regard to Universal Coordinated Time (UTC), Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), or Zulu Time (Z), which all operate on the twenty-four-hour time clock. Local time zones are either plus or minus determined by the distance from the prime meridian.

Figure 1.8 Diagram Illustrating the Width of a Time Zone

In this diagram, 75 W is the central meridian for the eastern standard time zone in the United States.

The eastern standard time zone is five hours earlier than the time at the prime meridian (UTC) because it is about 75 degrees west of 0 degrees (5 × 15 = 75). For example, if it is noon in London, then it is 7 a.m. in New York. If it is 1 p.m. in New York, it is 10 a.m. in San Francisco, which is three times zones to the west. Since there are twenty-four hours in a day, there are twenty-four time zones on Earth. Each time zone is 15 degrees wide.

A problem with the 15-degree time zones is that the zones do not necessarily follow state, regional, or local boundaries. The result is that time zones are seldom exactly 15 degrees wide and usually have varied boundary lines. In the United States, the boundaries between the different time zones are inconsistent with the lines of longitude; in some cases, time zones zigzag to follow state lines or to keep cities within a single time zone. Other countries address the problem differently. China, for example, is as large in land area as the United States yet operates on only one time zone for the entire country.

Regions in Geography

A region is a basic unit of study in geography—a unit of space characterized by a feature such as a common government, language, political situation, or landform. A region can be a formal country governed by political boundaries, such as France or Canada; a region can be defined by a landform, such as the drainage basin of all the water that flows into the Mississippi River; and a region can even be defined by the area served by a shopping mall. Cultural regions can be defined by similarities in human activities, traditions, or cultural attributes. Geographers use the regional unit to map features of particular interest, and data can be compared between regions to help understand trends, identify patterns, or assist in explaining a particular phenomenon.

Regions are traditionally defined by internal characteristics that provide a sense of place. Their boundaries vary with the type of region, whether it is formal, functional, or vernacular; each type has its own meaning and defined purpose. A formal region has a governmental, administrative, or political boundary and can have political as well as geographic boundaries that are not open to dispute or debate. Formal boundaries can separate states, provinces, or countries from one another. Physical regions can be included within formal boundaries, such as the Rocky Mountains or New England. An official boundary, such as the boundary of a national park, can be considered a formal boundary. School districts, cities, and county governments have formal boundaries.

Natural physical geographic features have a huge influence on where political boundaries of formal regions are set. If you look at a world map, you will recognize that many political boundaries are natural features, such as rivers, mountain ranges, and large lakes. For example, between the United States and Mexico, the Rio Grande makes up a portion of the border. Likewise, between Canada and the United States, a major part of the eastern border is along the Saint Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes. Alpine mountain ranges in Europe create borders, such as the boundary between Switzerland and Italy.

While geographic features can serve as convenient formal borders, political disputes will often flare up in adjacent areas, particularly if valuable natural or cultural resources are found within the geographic features. Oil drilling near the coast of a sovereign country, for example, can cause a dispute between countries about which one has dominion over the oil resources. The exploitation of offshore fisheries can also be disputed. A Neolithic mummy of a man who died in 3300 BCE caused tension between Italy and Switzerland: the body was originally taken to Innsbruck, Switzerland, but when it was determined that the body was found about 90 meters (180 feet) inside the border of Italy, Italian officials laid claim to the body.

Functional regions have boundaries related to a practical function within a given area. When the function of an area ends, the functional region ends and its boundaries cease to exist. For example, a functional region can be defined by a newspaper service or delivery area. If the newspaper goes bankrupt, the functional region no longer exists. Church parishes, shopping malls, and business service areas are other examples of functional regions. They function to serve a region and may have established boundaries for limits of the area to which they will provide service. An example of a common service area—that is, a functional region—is the region to which a local pizza shop will deliver.

Vernacular regions have loosely defined boundaries based on people’s perceptions or thoughts. Vernacular regions can be fluid—that is, different people may have different opinions about the limits of the regions. Vernacular regions include concepts such as the region called the “Middle East.” Many people have a rough idea of the Middle East’s location but do not know precisely which countries make up the Middle East. Also, in the United States, the terms Midwest or South have many variations. Each individual might have a different idea about the location of the boundaries of the South or the Midwest. Whether the state of Kentucky belongs in the Midwest or in the South might be a matter of individual perception. Similarly, various regions of the United States have been referred to as the Rust Belt, Sun Belt, or Bible Belt without a clear definition of their boundaries. The limit of a vernacular area is more a matter of perception than of any formally agreed-upon criteria. Nevertheless, most people would recognize the general area being discussed when using one of the vernacular terms in a conversation.

Using a State as a Comparison Guide

In comparing one formal political region with another, it is often helpful to use a familiar country, state, province, or political unit as a reference or guide. Wherever you are located, you can research the statistical data for a formal region familiar to you to provide a common reference. The US state of Kentucky is one example that can be used to compare formal political regions. Kentucky ranks close to the middle range of the fifty US states in terms of its population of 4.3 million people. Kentucky is also within the median range of the fifty states in overall physical area. The state’s 40,409-square-mile physical area ranks it thirty-seventh in size in the United States. Kentucky is not as large in physical area as the western states but is larger in physical area than many of the eastern states. Kentucky includes part of the rural peripheral region of Appalachia, but the state also has cosmopolitan core urban centers such as Lexington and Louisville. Kentucky also borders the metropolitan city of Cincinnati. The rural peripheral regions of the state are home to agriculture and mining. The urban core areas are home to industry and service centers. Other US states could also be used as examples. Identifying a state’s geographical attributes provides readers both in and outside the United States with a comparison indicator for geographic purposes.

The state of Kentucky can be used as a comparison guide for understanding other formal political regions around the world.

World Regional Geography

World regional geography studies various world regions as they compare with the rest of the world. Factors for comparison include both the physical and the cultural landscape. The main questions are, Who lives there? What are their lives like? What do they do for a living? Physical factors of significance can include location, climate type, and terrain. Human factors include cultural traditions, ethnicity, language, religion, economics, and politics.

World regional geography focuses on regions of various sizes across the earth’s landscape and aspires to understand the unique character of regions in terms of their natural and cultural attributes. Spatial studies can play an important role in regional geography. The scientific approach can focus on the distribution of cultural and natural phenomena within regions as delimited by various natural and cultural factors. The focus is on the spatial relationships within any field of study, such as regional economics, resource management, regional planning, and landscape ecology.

Again, this textbook takes a regional approach with a focus on themes that illustrate the globalization process, which in turn helps us better understand our global community. The regions studied in world regional geography can be combined into larger portions called realms . Realms are large areas of the planet, usually with multiple regions, that share the same general geographic location. Regions are cohesive areas within each realm. The following eleven realms are outlined in this text:

Europe (Eastern Europe and Western Europe)
The Russian Realm (Russian republic of the former Soviet Union)
North America (United States and Canada)
Middle America (Caribbean, Mexico, Central America)
South America
North Africa, the Middle East and central Asia
Subsaharan Africa (Africa south of the Sahara Desert)
Southern Asia (India and its neighbors)
Eastern Asia (China, Mongolia, Japan, and the Koreas)
Southeast Asia (mainland region and the islands region)
Australia and the Pacific (including New Zealand)

Figure 1.10 Major World Realms

Key Takeaways

Geography is the spatial study of the earth’s surface. The discipline of geography bridges the social sciences with the physical sciences. The two main branches of geography include physical geography and human geography. GIS, GPS, and remote sensing are tools that geographers use to study the spatial nature of physical and human landscapes.
A grid system called the graticule divides the earth by lines of latitude and longitude that allow for the identification of absolute location on the earth’s surface through geometric coordinates measured in degrees. There are twenty-four time zones that are set at 15-degree intervals each and organize time intervals around the world.
The tilt of the earth’s axis at 23.5 degrees helps create the earth’s seasonal transitions by either absorbing or reflecting the sun’s energy. The line of direct sunlight always hits the earth between 23.5 degrees north (Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5 degrees south (Tropic of Capricorn), depending on the time of year.
A region is the basic unit of study in geography. Three main types of boundaries define a region: formal, functional, and vernacular. World regional geography is the study of a particular group of world regions or realms as each compares with the rest of the world.

Discussion and Study Questions

How does the discipline of geography provide a bridge between the social sciences and the physical sciences?
How does the cultural landscape assist in indicating the differences between a wealthy neighborhood and a poverty-stricken neighborhood?
How can remote sensing technology assist in determining what people do for a living?
What is the significance of the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn?
What occupations depend on knowledge of the seasons for their success?
If it is 4 p.m. in San Francisco, what time is it in London, England?
How would GIS, GPS, or remote sensing technology be used to evaluate the destruction caused by a tornado in Oklahoma?
How is the cultural landscape influenced by the physical landscape?
Can you list a formal region, a functional region, and a vernacular region that would include where you live?
What methods, topics, or procedures would be helpful to include in the study of world geography?

Geography Exercise

Identify the following key places on a map:

Arctic Circle
Antarctic Circle
International Date Line
Prime meridian
Tropic of Cancer
Tropic of Capricorn
Use Google Earth to locate your current school or residence.
Draw a map of your home state or province and include lines of latitude and longitude.
Compile the statistical data on your home state, province, or territory to use in comparing formal political regions.

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India's Water Problems
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