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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 02 December 2019
SDG 15 requires the maintenance of life on land and endorses priorities already established through international conventions and agreements. The scale, and complexity, of tropical forest loss and biodiversity decline versus the limited resources for conservation and forestry pose many challenges. The main innovation of SDG 15 is that decision makers will see this goal as one to integrate with other SDGs; the risk is that short-term priorities and a ‘business as usual’ approach will undermine this. We examine these opportunities and challenges, the factors that impinge upon them and how they may play out over the next decade. There will be trade-offs between SDG 15 and other SDGs resulting from competition for land, but there are also synergies and opportunities that require recognition. We encourage conservation and development professionals to engage with those responsible for all the Agenda 2030 targets to ensure that SDG 15 is a priority in all SDG related processes.
There will be trade-offs between SDG 15 and other SDGs resulting from competition for land, but there are also synergies and opportunities.
The principal opportunity of SDG 15 is that it will be recognised and integrated, along with the other SDGs, in all developments.
The main risk is that short-term priorities and a ‘business as usual’ approach will undermine this opportunity for integration and synergy and SDG 15 will often be overlooked.
The scale, and complexity, of challenges for conserving life on land, versus the limited resources available, pose many challenges.
Greater cross-sectoral integration, not just sectoral policy reform, is essential to advancing SDG 15.
We encourage conservation and development professionals to engage with those responsible for all the Agenda 2030 targets to ensure that SDG 15 is a priority in all SDG related processes.
The claim that stewardship of terrestrial ecosystems, particularly forests and their rich biodiversity, is essential for sustainable development has achieved broad recognition. The conservation of life on land is recognised as Goal 15 of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). When the SDGs were adopted by the UN in 2015, all indicators showed that life on Earth was in decline (Schipper et al. Reference Schipper, Chanson and Chiozza 2008 , Tittensor et al. Reference Tittensor, Walpole and Hill 2014 ), eroding the ability to meet human needs (Pimm et al. Reference Pimm, Jenkins and Abell 2014 ). SDG 15 asks for the protection, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems along with the sustainable management of forests, combating desertification, halting and reversing land degradation and halting biodiversity loss. Clearly, the pressures of population growth, economic development and increased consumption will only intensify the challenges for the maintenance of life on land. In this chapter we examine the opportunities and challenges that merit particular attention if we are serious about SDG 15 and reversing the decline of life on Earth. In principle, SDG 15 (Life on Land) is recognised as having equal prominence alongside other SDGs. As there are widespread calls for integration and explicit attention to synergies and trade-offs among SDG outcomes (Le Blanc Reference Le Blanc 2015 , Stafford-Smith et al. Reference Stafford-Smith, Griggs and Gaffney 2017 ), the existence of SDG 15 should result in conservation concerns and issues having a raised profile within the wider decision-making community. Unfortunately, this appears far from assured. Many people, especially in the biodiverse tropics, view conservation as a concern of rich Western nations with little relevance to immediate local needs. Western conservation agencies that focus on charismatic species and the concerns and preferences of Western audiences do little to dispel these preconceptions (Meijaard and Sheil Reference Meijaard and Sheil 2008 ). At the same time, most people worldwide, including most politicians, policymakers and experts, now live in cities, where they are disconnected from nature and forests (Soga et al. Reference Soga, Gaston, Koyanagi, Kurisu and Hanaki 2016 ). A recent survey by Price Waterhouse Coopers found that in many countries SDG 15 and SDG 14 (Life below Water) are getting less attention than other SDGs (Scott and McGill Reference Scott and McGill 2018 ). Development and conservation are viewed as being in competition – and development is the more immediate priority.
This chapter summarises recent forest and biodiversity trends and the diverse contexts in which progress towards SDG 15 will play out. We focus on the factors and conditions likely to influence achievement of the goals and targets. We then examine three broad areas: (1) forest cover and management, (2) biodiversity and (3) financial and policy instruments. We examine the implementation of SDG 15 in Indonesia, where challenges over forest and natural resource stewardship will influence the attainment of all SDGs. We advocate a more inclusive, proactive and outcome-based approach to SDG 15, firmly rooted in realistic scenarios. We hope to see transformational change rather than business as usual. (See Table 15.1 for SDG 15 targets and indicators.)
Table 15.1 SDG 15 Goal, targets and indicators
SDG 15: Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss | |
15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements | 15.1.1 Forest area as a proportion of total land area |
15.1.2 Proportion of important sites for terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity that are covered by protected areas, by ecosystem type | |
15.2 By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally | 15.2.1 Progress towards sustainable forest management |
15.3 By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world | 15.3.1 Proportion of land that is degraded over total land area |
15.4 By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development | 15.4.1 Coverage by protected areas of important sites for mountain biodiversity |
15.4.2 Mountain Green Cover Index | |
15.5 Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species | 15.5.1 Red List Index |
15.6 Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed | 15.6.1 Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits |
15.7 Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products | 15.7.1 Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked |
15.8 By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species | 15.8.1 Proportion of countries adopting relevant national legislation and adequately resourcing the prevention or control of invasive alien species |
15.9 By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts | 15.9.1 Progress towards national targets established in accordance with Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 |
15.A Mobilise and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems | 15.A.1 Official development assistance and public expenditure on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems |
15.B Mobilise significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation | 15.B.1 Official development assistance and public expenditure on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems |
15.C Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities | 15.C.1 Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked |
SDG 15 endorses priorities already established through previous conventions and agreements, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and its Aichi Biodiversity Targets and Nagoya Protocol, the UN Convention to Combat Desertification and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species. Most SDG 15 indicators draw on existing data and measures. This is potentially both a strength and a weakness. Using existing metrics allows for long-term analysis but runs the danger of perpetuating business as usual and not encouraging attention to emerging needs (see Steffen et al. Reference Steffen, Broadgate, Deutsch, Gaffney and Ludwig 2015 ).
Forest cover and condition are influenced by various drivers – direct and indirect. A growing population, trending towards 9 billion, is increasing demand for food and other commodities and placing more pressure on land while also affecting livelihoods and health. Climate change may curtail food production in some locations and create new options in others (Lobell et al. Reference Lobell, Schlenker and Costa-Roberts 2011 ). Competing demands on land require the management of trade-offs, which will raise many challenges (Laurance et al. Reference Laurance, Sayer and Cassman 2013 ). Achieving SDG 15 will require addressing these drivers and trade-offs so as to bolster life on land and accommodate wider societal values.
Many studies document trends and changes in the extent and condition of the world’s forests and biodiversity (FAO 2010 , 2012 , Keenan et al. Reference Keenan, Reams and Achard 2015 , Sloan and Sayer Reference Sloan and Sayer 2015 ). For example, FAO’s Forest Resources Assessments have found that between 1990 and 2015, global forest cover decreased by 3.1 per cent, to 30.6 per cent of global land area. Total forest area declined from more than 4.1 billion ha to below 4 billion ha. The rate of loss has slowed since 2010, but there are significant regional variations. From 2010 to 2015, boreal and subtropical forests suffered virtually no net loss while temperate forests gained over 2 million ha per year. Deforestation remained higher in the tropics, with 5–6 million ha lost annually in the same period, a reduction from nearly 10 million ha per year in the 1990–2000 period (FAO 2015 ).
Using different definitions and methods, Global Forest Watch ( 2019 ) shows continued, if uneven, decline in tropical tree cover since 2001. Agriculture has been responsible for about 80 per cent of tropical and subtropical deforestation (Kissinger et al. Reference Kissinger, Herold and De Sy 2012 ). Over this same period, large-scale commercial agriculture has replaced subsistence agriculture as the most important driver of change across the tropics and subtropics. In recent years commercial agriculture has been responsible for 70 per cent of deforestation in Latin America, compared to 30–35 per cent in tropical Asia and Africa (Kissinger et al. Reference Kissinger, Herold and De Sy 2012 ). In recent years the FAO’s FRA studies have reported on changes in the condition, management and production of forests (FAO 2012 ). Though forest area has increased in many parts of the world, much of this is a result of expansion of industrial tree plantations. Planted forest area increased in all regions between 1990 and 2015, while natural forest area declined in all regions except Europe and Oceania (FAO 2015 ). Plantations constitute about 7 per cent of the world’s forests (FAO 2015 ) and will likely continue to expand beyond 2030.
Another trend concerns sources of wood and timber. The area of timber-production forest in low-income countries is declining, though it remains stable in higher-income countries. Meanwhile, the volume of wood harvested is increasing in every region except Europe and North America (FAO 2015 ). Addressing growing demand for wood in the tropics may ultimately require more intensive forest management or greater timber imports from temperate and boreal forests.
Current global species extinction rates are estimated to be about three orders of magnitude above those of the prehuman world (Pimm et al. Reference Pimm, Jenkins and Abell 2014 ). Habitat loss, unsustainable hunting, introduced invasive species and other factors have contributed to 322 recorded extinctions of terrestrial vertebrates since 1500. Meanwhile, the populations of most remaining species have declined (Dirzo et al. Reference Dirzo, Young and Galetti 2014 , Pimm et al. Reference Pimm, Jenkins and Abell 2014 ). Detailed assessments by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) have identified 24 307 species that are currently facing significant threat of extinction (IUCN 2019 ).
Forests, in particular tropical forests, harbour most of Earth’s species and most of the threatened species (Vira et al. Reference Vira, Agarwal, Jamnadass, Vira, Wildburger and Mansourian 2015 ). In IUCN’s most recent global assessment of mammal species, 25 per cent (1139) were judged ‘threatened with extinction’ while another 15 per cent (836) were ‘data deficient’ (Pimm et al. Reference Pimm, Jenkins and Abell 2014 , Schipper et al. Reference Schipper, Chanson and Chiozza 2008 ). These figures are underestimates, as we still know little about the overall diversity of many tropical taxa. New species are still being discovered in even the best-known groups; for example, 85 new primates were described between 2000 and 2016 (Estrada et al. Reference Estrada, Garber and Rylands 2017 ) and a new great ape (an orangutan, Pongo tapanuliensis ) was described in 2017 (Nater et al. Reference Nater, Mattle-Greminger and Nurcahyo 2017 ).
The risk of species loss reflects multiple factors – including habitat loss, modification and fragmentation, over-exploitation, interactions with other species and climate change – and combinations of all these factors (Selwood et al. Reference Selwood, Mcgeoch and Mac Nally 2015 ). When a species is lost from a forest, the ecological processes that depend upon that species are lost with it; this reduces community resilience and can provoke further species losses (Dirzo et al. Reference Dirzo, Young and Galetti 2014 , Redford Reference Redford 1992 ).
These threats and changes are ongoing worldwide. For example, terrestrial ecosystems are increasingly fragmented by infrastructure (Laurance et al. Reference Laurance, Clements and Sloan 2014 ), posing new challenges for those seeking to protect life on land. Climate change is a major emerging threat. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) shows that the Earth warmed by an estimated 0.74°C over the last century and is forecast to warm by another 1.5–4.5°C this century (IPCC Reference Stocker, Qin and Plattner 2013 ). Places where forest can grow, and in which species can persist, will change as climate changes. While the worst impacts likely lie beyond 2030, significant changes are now underway. Various local extinctions have already been attributed to changes in climate (Cahill et al. Reference Cahill, Aiello-Lammens and Fisher-Reid 2013 , Wiens Reference Wiens 2016 ,). Predicted changes mean that many species will not persist unless they move to more favourable locations, but many species face barriers to such movement or appear unable to move rapidly enough to find and track suitable climates (Corlett and Westcott Reference Corlett and Westcott 2013 ). Even common species appear at risk (Warren et al. Reference Warren, Vanderwal and Price 2013 ). While outcomes remain uncertain, many authoritative accounts based on IPCC scenarios anticipate numerous extinctions (Cahill et al. Reference Cahill, Aiello-Lammens and Fisher-Reid 2013 ). Even if forests persist, climate will influence their growth and productivity and intensify threats, such as drought and fire that impact their ecological and economic viability.
For several billion people, wild plants and animals remain essential elements of daily life. Forests and biodiversity underpin subsistence, providing goods and services important for health, fuel and income. Many farmers still depend on wild resources. Food security and nutrition are bolstered and sustained by wild species to a much greater extent than is often widely recognised (Colfer et al. Reference Colfer, Sheil, Kaimowitz and Kishi 2006 ). Many million people lack ready access to modern healthcare and depend on wild plants and animals for medicines. Forest-dependent people are among the world’s poorest and most marginalised. In many cases, wild resources provide a crucial safety net, allowing people to find food and manage after crises (Liswanti et al. Reference Liswanti, Sheil, Basuki, Padmanaba and Mulcahy 2011 ). As these dependent populations grow and access to wild resources declines, there will be major implications for people’s lives and livelihoods. If these wild resources are no longer available, difficult lives will be made even harder.
As challenges to development and sustainability become increasingly evident (climate change, water, food security, inequality etc.), bottom-up commitments may be stronger drivers of change than top-down discourses and policy. SDG 15 conveys a sense that central government is the predominant driver of moves to conserve life on land, but recent practice suggests that in many countries moves to achieve conservation through decentralised governance systems are gaining traction (Agrawal et al. Reference Agrawal, Chhatre and Hardin 2008 , Ribot et al. Reference Ribot, Agrawal and Larson 2006 ). Decentralised and community resource management are being pursued in many countries and in diverse contexts, but they are not always the panacea that their advocates claim (Agrawal and Gibson Reference Agrawal and Gibson 1999 , Boedhihartono Reference Boedhihartono 2017 , Robinson et al. Reference Robinson, Holland and Naughton-Treves 2014 ). Some communities that have maintained strong control over their lands and resources remain effective in achieving desirable conservation outcomes and are willing to see large tracts of land set aside in perpetuity: an example is the protection of Papua’s Foja Mountains and large areas of the Mamberamo Valley that are held to be sacred (Sheil et al. Reference Sheil, Boissière and Beaudoin 2015 ). Nonetheless, in many cases there is a tension between the management of resources for local goals and the need to conserve public goods values (Sayer et al. Reference Sayer, Margules and Boedhihartono 2017 ).
The growth of economies, a major target of many other SDGs, will have major impacts on terrestrial biodiversity. Human populations will move, cities will grow, agricultural technologies will allow for producing more on less land (Sayer and Cassman Reference Sayer and Cassman 2013 ). If these trends continue, the supply and demand of forest goods and services in 2030 and beyond will be primarily determined by indirect drivers outside the forest sector (Bruinsma Reference Bruinsma 2009 ). The planet as a whole may be advancing through a forest transition in which nations experience a period of protracted forest loss, followed by reaching a low point and then a stage of widespread reforestation and forest recovery (Rudel et al. Reference Rudel, Coomes and Moran 2005 ). Different regions are advancing at different speeds, with some areas still suffering dramatic forest loss, such as Southeast Asia, and others showing substantial gain, such as the tropical Andes. Those who seek to implement SDG 15 need to do so with these likely changes in mind. Maintaining forest-dependent biodiversity through the low point in the transition, and the rapid expansion of suitable habitat in the post-transition era, will be important (see Wright and Muller-Landau Reference Wright and Muller-Landau 2006 and subsequent discussions, e.g. Melo et al. Reference Melo, Arroyo-Rodríguez, Fahrig, Martínez-Ramos and Tabarelli 2013 , Rudel et al. Reference Rudel, Defries, Asner and Laurance 2009 ). Examples include the widespread protection even of young or degraded forests and control of damaging practices such as hunting, over-exploitation and fire that may reduce the conservation value of human impacted forests (Chazdon et al. Reference Chazdon, Peres and Dent 2009 ). The implication is that there are many domains where policymakers can make a major difference to the maintenance or loss of life on land. Those seeking to address SDG 15 should identify the right policy signals to ensure the best outcomes for biodiversity and for societies’ future needs. These are long-term objectives: 2030 should not be seen as an end point – the changes that are under way in 2030 will influence life on land for millennia.
Aside from the many sectoral challenges, those addressing SDG 15 will also confront long-standing issues of legal enforcement. Consider the challenges posed by the illegal trade in wildlife and timber – worth, respectively, an estimated USD 8–10 billion (Haken Reference Haken 2011 ) and USD 7 billion per year – with links to powerful organised crime systems and insurgencies (Milner-Gulland Reference Milner-Gulland 2018 ). In many regions military interests manage and protect these activities. Trends suggest that ‘regulatory approaches are being overwhelmed by rising prices and growing relative poverty between areas of supply and centers of demand. Aggressive enforcement of trade controls, in particular bans, can increase profits for traffickers and lead to the involvement of organized criminals with the capacity to operate even under increased enforcement effort’ (Challender and MacMillan Reference Challender and Macmillan 2014 : 484). Foresters, conservationists and enforcement agencies are ill-equipped to confront such forces. More light needs to be shed on these issues, which will prove challenging. According to Global Witness, in 2016 there were 200 confirmed murders of environmental activists, wildlife rangers and Indigenous leaders trying to protect their land (Watts and Vidal Reference Watts and Vidal 2017 ).
What challenges will forests and biodiversity face in the coming decade? How will the context of conservation and sustainable use change from that which existed in 2015? How will progress on the other SDGs impact the attainment of SDG 15? Several major trends are already apparent, all of which will impact on life on land. If economies continue to grow as they have in recent decades, then many more people will escape from extreme poverty – including many who currently depend upon forest resources for their livelihoods. The dependency of these people on forests will decrease. If economies stagnate, then the rural poor will suffer disproportionately and achieving conservation goals will be more difficult. Under optimistic scenarios, people in rural areas will have better health and education and, consequently, smaller families. The ability to provide services, peace and opportunities to those who survive in and around forests, rangelands and wetlands will be a major determinant of many of the SDGs, including SDG 15. A major unknown is the fate of the 2 billion-plus subsistence farmers in the tropics: will economies and education provide attractive alternative livelihoods on or off the lands? If progress is made on the other SDGs, then we see the following scenario unfolding between now and 2030:
People will move from rural areas to cities.
Agriculture will continue to intensify and move towards larger, more mechanised farms. Industrial agriculture, especially tree crops, will continue to expand into forested areas. Productivity gains may reduce demand for land, but in some regions expansion may displace farmers into other frontier areas (Laurance et al. Reference Laurance, Sayer and Cassman 2013 ).
A shift will occur in the demand for agricultural commodities – for example an increase in meat and dairy consumption – as peoples’ purchasing power increases.
Infrastructure will continue to expand into forest areas to access mineral resources and new land for agriculture.
Demand for near-natural forests for their biodiversity values and other ecosystem services will increase. Demand for forests for recreational use, especially in peri-urban areas, will also grow (Tyrväinen et al. Reference Tyrväinen, Pauleit, Seeland, de Vries, Konijnendijk, Nilsson, Randrup and Schipperijn 2005 ).
Processes of decentralisation of natural resources management to communities and local governments will continue. Integrated management practices may become more widely adopted.
Countries will move towards a green economy or bio-economy and increasing forest extent and health will be supported by this trend.
Timber harvesting from natural forests will continue to decline as more timber is produced at less cost from plantations, on farms and along roadsides.
Capacity to assess and monitor a wide range of forest attributes, particularly with improved remote sensing and application of the ‘internet of things’, will increase.
Attempts to address some of the world’s climate concerns through forest conservation and restoration will intensify.
Climate-related stresses on forests and the associated risks from fire and invasive species will intensify.
The SDGs are part of a greater process. The SDGs will not be entirely met by 2030, with inevitable disparity in the progress made in different countries. Conserving life on land will remain a work in progress and SDG 15 will play out in a variety of contexts. Contexts will strongly influence the approaches that would be appropriate to pursue SDG 15 targets. Those implementing the SDGs will need the awareness, flexibility and understanding to adapt to the nuances and opportunities of their specific situations.
15.3.1 targets for forest cover and management.
The measurement and interpretation of forest resource changes is challenging. Even measuring changes in forest area remains beyond the capacity of many countries – though increasingly easy access to satellite-based imagery is helping address this. For example, Terra-i Footnote 1 and Global Forest Watch Footnote 2 both provide access to land-cover data. FAO’s FRA already collects data applicable to SDG 15 – including forest area as a proportion of land area and country compliance with requirements to report on policies relevant to sustainable forest management. The FRA also reinforces concerns about SDG 15. Forest area change means different things to different countries. For many forest-rich tropical countries, economic growth is seen as requiring increased forest conversion to agriculture and other uses. A case in point is Bolivia, which in its submission to the FAO Forest Resources assessment for 2015 stated the intention to reduce forest area by some 75 per cent, presumably in order to spur economic growth. This demonstrates the conundrum governments face in planning forest area. Many governments will choose the path of economic growth over forest conservation, but they seldom make this de facto policy explicit.
Indicator 15.2.1 requires measurement of progress towards sustainable forest management. What defines and determines sustainable forest management remains unclear for many. The topic is contentious, and achievements are difficult to quantify. This is demonstrated in how the FRA has handled the topic since FRA 2010. In the 2010 reporting year, countries were simply asked how much forest area was under sustainable forest management. Guidelines were lacking and the reported values were not taken seriously outside the FAO process. In the most recent FRA (FAO 2015 ), countries were asked to report a range of values including areas under management plans – inclusive of those that had community inputs, monitoring of management plans and public forest resource reporting (MacDicken Reference MacDicken 2015 ). This approach allows users to select indicators that best fit their understanding of sustainable forest management. It is a pragmatic solution, but there are still concerns that the selected indicators neglect crucial factors such as the contributions of forests – and how they are managed – to people.
By focusing on forest cover and protected forest extent, SDG 15 may underestimate the complexity of forest land governance and the differing values of forest types. Forests where timber has been harvested often retain significant biodiversity values and protecting these values is important, especially when the other option is forest clearance (Edwards et al. Reference Edwards, Tobias, Sheil, Meijaard and Laurance 2014 ). For centuries, tropical foresters sought to protect and manage natural forests in a sustainable manner (Dawkins and Philip Reference Dawkins and Philip 1998 , Ghazoul and Sheil Reference Ghazoul and Sheil 2010 , Wiersum Reference Wiersum 1995 ). Forestry’s destructive image arose in the second half of the twentieth century when large-scale industrial timber harvesting was widely promoted without regard for sustainability. Nonetheless, though overshadowed, efforts to protect and sustainably harvest tropical forests have continued into the modern era. Two large tropic-wide meta-analyses found that selectively harvested production forests retain a species richness of animals, insects and plants similar to that found in undisturbed forests (Gibson et al. Reference Gibson, Lee and Koh 2011 , Putz et al. Reference Putz, Zuidema and Synnott 2012 ), and far higher species richness than competing non-forestland uses (Gibson et al. Reference Gibson, Lee and Koh 2011 ). Production forests also harbour an array of IUCN red-listed species (Edwards et al. Reference Edwards, Larsen and Docherty 2010 ), underscoring their potential to protect critical biodiversity. Managed timber concessions are often better protected than poorly staffed protected areas (Meijaard and Sheil Reference Meijaard and Sheil 2007 ). However, harvesting timber at higher intensities (Burivalova et al. Reference Burivalova, Şekercioğlu and Koh 2014 ), failing to retain patches of undisturbed forest within production landscapes (Edwards et al. Reference Edwards, Tobias, Sheil, Meijaard and Laurance 2014 ) or using more destructive conventional rather than reduced-impact logging techniques (Bicknell et al. Reference Bicknell, Struebig and Davies 2015 ) devalues the conservation potential of production forests. Intensively managed tropical forests tend to lose certain species and become more homogeneous (Alroy Reference Alroy 2017 ).
Production forests should be seen as an addition to rather than a replacement for more strictly protected areas. While there are many uncertainties and unknowns, when we look at the big picture we do largely know which practices improve conservation outcomes (Dale et al. Reference Dale, Brown and Haeuber 2000 , IUCN and ITTO 2019 , Meijaard et al. Reference Meijaard, Sheil and Nasi 2005 ). Achieving SDG 15 requires an open-minded approach that seeks opportunities to promote improved conservation outcomes not only through the protection of large-scale intact landscapes devoid of people, but also through the small-scale trade-offs that arise in more densely settled regions.
Achieving SDG 15 requires an intensification of efforts to implement the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and a range of other plans and strategies elaborated by intergovernmental processes. The Aichi targets encompass more ambitious goals than those originally agreed on by the CBD in 2002. Available data from the 55 different biodiversity indicators compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre suggest that the Aichi targets, set by the CBD in 2010, will not be achieved by the 2020 target date (Tittensor et al. Reference Tittensor, Walpole and Hill 2014 ). By 2010, 31 indicators had not been achieved and biodiversity was still declining with no substantial reductions in the rate of loss. Pressures on biodiversity were still increasing. There were some successes, including improvements in the nominal coverage of protected areas (Butchart et al. Reference Butchart, Walpole and Collen 2010 ), but most of the increase was in protected landscapes whose biodiversity values may not be high.
By 2016, some 14.7 per cent of the world’s terrestrial surface was officially protected (217 155 areas): coverage is generally higher in the tropics (Brooks et al. Reference Brooks, Wright and Sheil 2009 ). Yet, as protected area targets are often achieved at the cost of reduced management standards and abilities, this alone is not a sufficient proxy for improved biodiversity outcomes (Dudley et al. Reference Dudley, Phillips, Amend, Brown and Stolton 2016 , Watson et al. Reference Watson, Dudley, Segan and Hockings 2014 ,). Many species occur primarily, or exclusively, outside formal protected areas or require much larger habitat areas to ensure viability (Brooks et al. Reference Brooks, Wright and Sheil 2009 , Ricketts et al. Reference Ricketts, Dinerstein and Boucher 2005 , Rodrigues et al. Reference Rodrigues, Akcakaya and Andelman 2004 ). This reflects the tendency for governments to protect areas that are economically marginal and under only limited threat. Such approaches do not yield the best conservation outcomes. Protected areas are effective only if adequately resourced, yet this is often not the case (Brooks et al. Reference Brooks, Wright and Sheil 2009 , Bruner et al. Reference Bruner, Gullison, Rice and Da Fonseca 2001 , Inamdar et al. Reference Inamdar, De Jode, Lindsay and Cobb 1999 ). These shortfalls in funding tend to be most severe in the poorest countries – the places where investments in conservation can likely make the biggest direct contributions. A simple national-scale conservation-status index based on changes in the IUCN red-listing of birds and mammals can predict with remarkable accuracy the positive impacts of the financial investments made towards achieving conservation versus benefits from economic, agricultural and population growth (Waldron et al. Reference Waldron, Miller and Redding 2017 ). This model indicates that the relative benefits of conservation spending are greatest in the poorest, most biodiverse nations (Waldron et al. Reference Waldron, Miller and Redding 2017 ).
McCarthy et al. ( Reference McCarthy, Donald and Scharlemann 2012 ) examined global conservation needs and estimated that the conservation of terrestrial species would require an annual expenditure of USD 76.1 billion, equivalent to 0.1 per cent of global GDP, or less than 5 per cent of global defence spending (Sheil Reference Sheil, Sanz, Lewis, Mata and Connaughton 2017 ). Current expenditures average about half of these requirements in higher-income countries and less than one-third (31 per cent) in lower-income countries. While McCarthy et al. ( Reference McCarthy, Donald and Scharlemann 2012 ) are doubtless correct that conservation should obtain increased financial support, their approach neglects local costs and consequences (Sheil et al. Reference Sheil, Meijaard, Angelsen, Sayer and Vanclay 2013 ), including past injustices, widespread evictions and mistreatment of local populations (Agrawal and Redford Reference Agrawal and Redford 2009 , Dowie Reference Dowie 2011 ). These are not just a ‘colonial legacy’; many communities living near protected areas suffer from the presence of wild animals: crops are destroyed, domestic animals are killed and people are attacked (Hill Reference Hill 2015 , Naughton-Treves et al. Reference Naughton-Treves, Alix-Garcia and Chapman 2011 ). With current laws often not offering any provisions for direct compensation, victims bear the costs.
Such human costs of protected areas matter both as an ethical concern in their own right, not least because they can erode advances being made on other SDGs such as ending poverty (SDG 1), access to affordable energy (SDG 7) and justice (SDG 16), and because they undermine community support and escalate threats. They pose a challenge to local support for conservation (Sheil et al. Reference Sheil, Meijaard, Angelsen, Sayer and Vanclay 2013 ). Indeed, failure to satisfactorily address such costs and concerns has often turned communities against conservation (Baker et al. Reference Baker, Milner-Gulland and Leader-Williams 2012 , Boissière et al. Reference Boissière, Sheil, Basuki, Wan and Le 2009 , Sharpe Reference Sharpe 1998 , Temudo Reference Temudo 2012 ), with much conservation expenditure required to counter the ensuing conflicts (Roe Reference Roe 2008 ). We already see politicians speaking against conservation and promising that if they are elected, they will ensure that people will get their lands back (Sassen et al. Reference Sassen, Sheil, Giller and Ter Braak 2013 ). In a world in which conservation requires societal support, the manner in which local costs are dealt with appears crucial. While the biophysical measures of SDG 15 do not address these trends and their drivers, those looking to achieve these goals should.
The SDG 15 targets related to governance, particularly Targets 15.9–15.12, cover policy integration, resource mobilisation and capacity-building for the conservation, sustainable use and fair and equitable sharing of benefits from forests, biodiversity and landscapes. Of these, the call for policy integration is the most innovative. Indeed, the loss of terrestrial biodiversity is favoured by existing sectoral approaches that underlie land-use decisions and their hierarchical ordering. Mining and infrastructure are higher priorities than agriculture, which in turn is higher than forestry and conservation. Integrating biodiversity concerns into all land-use policies and decisions would be an advance. Thus, agriculture, infrastructure and forestry could become much more nature-inclusive, which might then substantially reduce their impacts on biodiversity. The absence of reference to natural resource issues in most of the SDGs is symptomatic of a fundamental trade-off among the priorities of the different sectors.
The advancement of nature-inclusive land-use policies will in many cases be opposed by vested interests. The decisions that drive the political economies of biodiversity loss and deforestation, including illegal practices and organised crime, are shaped by these economic-interests. Greater cross-sectoral integration, not just sectoral policy reform, is essential. Transformational change of political economies is surely essential, but such change appears unlikely. Along with policy changes, the behaviour of producers and consumers needs to be fundamentally changed. Working with the best integrative practices at the landscape level can be a first step forward (Sayer et al. Reference Sayer, Sunderland and Ghazoul 2013 ).
The other two institutional targets under SDG 15 are resource mobilisation and capacity-building. External forest finance has relatively little impact in most cases because the value of forest production or alternative land uses is typically much higher than development assistance funding. Simula ( Reference Simula 2008 ) provided an estimate of total official development assistance (ODA) to the forest sector at nearly USD 2 billion per year, of which about USD 1.3 billion is to forestry and some USD 700 million to forest conservation. In contrast, wood removals from tropical Africa, Asia, Oceania and South America were reported to be approximately 1803 x 10 9 cubic metres in 2011. Using a 2011 value of USD 150 per cubic metre this comes to about USD 270 billion, or more than 100 times the value of total official ODA flows to forests. Footnote 3 Simula’s estimate of USD 1.3 billion of ODA to forestry is less than 0.5 per cent of estimated value of wood production. This does not include the value of non-timber forest products, or the value of domestic public-sector expenditure. In addition to external ODA flows, Whiteman et al. ( Reference Whiteman, Wickramasinghe and Piña 2015 ) report some USD 7.3 billion in public-sector forest expenditure in tropical and subtropical countries in 2010. As another comparison, consider palm oil: in 2016, the value of Indonesian palm oil exports was USD 18.1 billion (GAPKI 2017 ). The financial drivers impacting forestlands are vastly larger than government allocations to the forest sector. ODA contributions to the forest sector remain important to support research and to provide examples of sustainable forestry, but many of the problems of unsustainable resource use will only be resolved with widespread changes in the behaviour of both producers and consumers and their governments.
Indonesia is a major player in the SDG process. President Susilo Bambang Yudhiono was co-chair of the UN committee that developed the SDGs. Indonesia is striving to be a leader in the pursuit of the SDG concept.
Indonesia officially classes 91 million ha (49.8 per cent of its land area) to forest. However, much of this land is no longer forested, and there are multiple overlapping claims on the land. Government figures state a net annual loss of forest of 0.7 per cent from 2010 to 2015 (684 000 ha) (FAO 2015 ). Relatively intact old-growth forests represent at most 50 per cent of total forest area and are stated to be declining by 800 000 ha per year. Much deforestation occurs in areas previously degraded by swidden agriculture or logging, in lowland areas, although recently some expansion of deforestation has occurred in the uplands (Margono et al. Reference Margono, Potapov, Turubanova, Stolle and Hansen 2014 ). Approximately 45 per cent of recent deforestation has occurred within industrial concessions, mainly for oil palm (Abood et al. Reference Abood, Ser Huay Lee, Burivalova, Garcia-Ulloa and Koh 2015 ).
Indonesia is home to 10 per cent of the world’s flowering plant species, of which 55 per cent are endemic; 12 per cent of mammal species; 17 per cent of bird species; 16 per cent of reptile species; and 35 per cent of primate species (CBD Secretariat 2018 ). Habitat loss, deforestation, fragmentation and degradation means that 1259 species are threatened. This is despite protected areas covering 15 per cent of total sea and land area (von Rintelen et al. Reference von Rintelen, Arida and Häuser 2017 ) and 41 per cent of forests (Abood et al. Reference Abood, Ser Huay Lee, Burivalova, Garcia-Ulloa and Koh 2015 ). Lowland forests contain the most biodiversity, but are the most threatened due to increasing pressure from population growth, infrastructure development, fires and conversion to industrial estate crops (CBD Secretariat 2018 ).
As an emerging economy, development in Indonesia is rapidly expanding into areas rich in terrestrial and marine biodiversity. About 10 per cent of Indonesians live below the national poverty line, a figure in annual decline. Population growth means that average farm size is becoming smaller (McCarthy and Robinson Reference McCarthy, Robinson, McCarthy and Robinson 2016 ). Human development in the eastern provinces lags behind the islands closer to the administrative centre. Government investments in infrastructure to improve the lives of the poorest provinces, such as West Papua and Maluku, will increase the pressure on forests as access becomes easier for extractive industries. Some 50–70 million Indonesians have self-identified as ‘Indigenous’, and many of these people rely on natural resources for their livelihoods (AMAN 2013 ). Many Indigenous Indonesians, particularly those living in forests without legal rights, are among those most affected by forest degradation and loss. Integration of forest policy decisions with local realities is increasing, and the government is working towards recognising the rights of Indonesia’s rural poor, particularly the Indigenous forest-dependent peoples.
Decisions on use of forestlands lie with the Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MoEF). Indonesia’s constitution acknowledges the concept of traditional ownership, but also declares that the state has responsibility for the nation’s natural resources (Wrangham Reference Wrangham, Colfer and Resosudarmo 2002 ). This ambiguity permitted post-independence governments to assert ever-greater control over forest areas, leading to a complex situation where different state institutions have overlapping, and seemingly incompatible, rights and responsibilities for the same lands. For decades, campaigners and others have urged the Indonesian government to return control of forests to local communities. Indonesia’s Constitutional Court finally agreed in its decision No. 35/PUU-X/2012. Consequently, President Jokowi pledged that local rights would be respected and that 12.7 million ha of forestland would be returned to communities by 2019. This transfer of rights is continuing, but progress has been slow, inhibited by legislative and political hurdles.
The pledged redistribution of 12.7 million ha of forestland to community and Indigenous groups could significantly contribute to conserving life on land in Indonesia. While most areas will be under community forestry schemes, an increasing proportion of forestland will now come under the private ownership of Indigenous groups. Considerable uncertainty remains as to how the behaviour of communities will change in response to these new land-tenure arrangements (Sayer et al. Reference Sayer, Margules and Boedhihartono 2017 ). More than 40 million ha of the forest estate is licenced to concessionaires: 21.49 million ha for timber exploitation and 19.4 million for oil palm plantations (McCarthy and Robinson Reference McCarthy, Robinson, McCarthy and Robinson 2016 ). These industries drive rural economies and contribute significantly to the national economy. Current investments in the service sector and tourism may reduce economic reliance on natural resource extraction and exports. Agricultural and forestry land-management standards will be critical to maintaining Indonesia’s life on land in a future period of economic transition. The tensions between drivers of the globalised economy and the rights of rural and Indigenous populations in Indonesia echo similar tensions in many developing tropical countries.
The SDGs in Indonesia are overseen by an SDG coordination team ( Figure 15.1 ) that integrates targets and indicators within the medium-term plans of central and provincial governments. The national SDG action plan is the template for all provincial action plans for the period up until 2020.
Figure 15.1 Organisational structure of SDG coordination in Indonesia.
The top-down nature of the SDGs presents challenges for the application of SDG 15 in many countries, including Indonesia. The SDGs prioritised in the national SDG action plan must pass through the national and subnational development plan and budgets before implementation at the local level. In this process, the Indonesian government identifies which goals align with national and regional priorities and allocates resources towards these priorities. As a result, some SDGs receive higher budget allocations, particularly SDG1 (No Poverty) and SDG2 (Zero Hunger). Targets 15.4, 15.A and 15.B are not identified in the national development plan, so we would expect to see no investment in, for instance, mountain conservation. Considering the trend for increased deforestation in upland areas, the omission of Target 15.4 is a concern for protection of biodiversity and preservation of forested land.
In Riau, the first province to complete its SDG action plan, SDG 15 receives little attention: just three targets – 15.1, 15.2 and 15.3 – are included. Unlike the national SDG action plan, Targets 15.5–15.9 are excluded. For a province that has extensive industrial forestry concessions, it is surprising to see that key biodiversity and invasive species targets are not addressed. An acknowledged value of the SDG process – to encourage integration and to make trade-offs more explicit – is not being addressed in the Riau Provincial Action Plan. Interestingly, some of the estate crop industries operating in Riau are using the SDGs as a framework for guiding their own activities in ways that promote environmental and social sustainability.
Indonesia is prioritising the SDG Target 15.2 for the restoration of degraded land. The MoEF aims to identify 500 000 ha of forest for restoration by 2019, and to have actually restored 100 000 ha by that date. The way this is done will have important consequences for other SDGs. In the past, degraded lands have often been allocated for estate crop development. There will still be pressure from local governments to convert degraded land to estate crops in order to drive local economic development. If MoEF restores natural forest, then a significant contribution to SDG 15 could be made. Further expansion of estate crops could lead local communities to lose their land and suffer economically (SDG 1) and culturally (SDG 2 Zero Hunger, SDG 10 Reduced Inequalities). People could be forced to move and could degrade forests in other areas. Estate crop development could provoke land conflicts and run counter to SDG 16 (Peace, Justice and Institutions).
A harmonised approach to the SDGs requires a full understanding of the social–ecological systems where change is happening. The danger is that SDG 15 is only used as a measuring and communication tool, unable to address the myriad of interconnected impacts that result from focusing only on achieving the headline indicator measurements.
Indonesia is taking a strong position on implementing the SDGs, but, like many other countries, is challenged to fully understand how the SDGs interact. The establishment of 12.7 million ha of forestlands under community management has implications for SDGs 1–3 and many more, but currently there is no framework for capturing this information and measuring the impacts of such policies on the other SDGs. Government policies tend to favour the pursuit of individual goals and may overlook trade-offs. As in many countries, SDG implementation is the responsibility of sectoral institutions. It is proving difficult to deal with the interconnected web of targets and indicators that Agenda 2030 envisages.
In many cases, the only options for Indonesia’s rural population to escape poverty require converting more forestland to agriculture or for people to move to cities. Local and provincial governments are understandably sympathetic to the needs of the rural poor. Reclassification of land as ‘other land use’ allows more land-clearing by smallholders but also by estate crop companies. Estate crops provide employment, drive local economies and are favoured by local government. The political economy of land-based investments in Indonesia has been widely debated (Barr and Sayer Reference Barr and Sayer 2012 ). Lessons learned from REDD+ demonstrate the difficulty of coordinating action against deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions on a national scale. Navigating synergies and trade-offs of SDGs will have to be context-based, recognising that forests in different parts of Indonesia are at different stages of transition. The diversity of Indonesia means SDGs cannot take a one-size-fits-all approach. As tenure arrangements continue to evolve, the challenge of conserving life on land will have to be met in a context of contested land claims and greatly increased pressures on forests. The dilemma facing the achievement of the SDGs in Indonesia is symptomatic of the situation found in many tropical countries under extreme development pressures.
The achievement of SDG 15 will have impacts on and be decided by the other SDGs. Context is everything, and the responsibility for each country to establish national priorities for implementation of the SDGs will determine the extent of synergies and trade-offs.
Life on land constitutes the essential environmental underpinning for human existence, and hence for all other SDGs. The degree to which other goals are given higher priority than SDG 15 will determine the extent of potentially large negative trade-offs. This is obvious when there are competing demands for land: for example, converting forests to agriculture could mean that SDG 2 competes with SDG 15. However, if SDG 2 is achieved through increased agricultural efficiency and more food is produced on less land, then there is potential for a positive synergy. A major potential synergy exists between attainment of SDG 15 and Target 16.6, the development of effective institutions. There is an urgent need in many countries to reform the institutions responsible for forests so that they can better deal with the multiple values of forests and the diverse stakeholders concerned by these values. Many other potential synergies with forests and forest biodiversity have an impact on people’s lives, such as the maintenance of pollinators required for various crops (IPBES Reference Potts, Imperatriz-Fonseca and Ngo 2016 ). We know from advances over the past decade that, in many regions, accessible groundwater (Ilstedt et al. Reference Ilstedt, Tobella and Bazié 2016 ) and the maintenance of reliable rainfall depends on forests and tree cover to a much greater degree than most policymakers and their advisors yet realise (Ellison et al. Reference Ellison, Morris and Locatelli 2017 , Sheil Reference Sheil 2018 ). A continuing dialogue around these potential synergies, both among experts and among the general population, would ensure more informed decision-making in which synergies leverage balanced sustainable development to achieve lasting benefits for life on land.
SDG 15 is welcome in directing high-level attention to the need for conservation; but without an emphasis on integration, wide political and public engagement and greater responsiveness to local needs, SDG 15 risks perpetuating a sectoral, top-down approach. Decision-makers are now seeking to break down sectoral barriers, develop new institutional arrangements for managing landscapes and focus attention on the underlying causes of ecological decline rather than the symptoms. Integrated approaches to managing life on Earth have been recognised as essential for several decades (Brundtland Reference Brundtland 1987 , IUCN et al. 1980 ). Many countries are experimenting with decentralised institutions for managing natural resources (Sayer et al. Reference Sayer, Maginnis and Laurie 2005 ). Experiences gained through these initiatives can create opportunities for further transformation. Integrated, landscape-scale governance arrangements are now being widely pursued (Sayer and Collins Reference Sayer and Collins 2012 ). Much of the success of the SDGs will depend on whether SDG 15 encourages or impedes these ongoing changes.
The future of life on Earth depends largely on actions taken in support of all the SDGs. One might expect numerous references to environmental constraints in the indicators for all SDGs, but such references are few: there is only one mention of the word ‘forests’ in the entire SDG text outside SDG 15, in Target 6.6. Conservation and development are interdependent. Life on land, and forests in particular, is in general being husbanded better in countries that score well on the development indicators included in the other SDGs. Forests continue to decline in poorer countries with weak institutions. The fate of life on land really depends upon progress on SDGs 1–14 and 16–17.
In the introduction to this chapter we noted that SDG 15 could raise the profile of conservation within the broader community. We also noted the tendency for SDG 15 to be viewed as a second-tier goal behind the others. We must combat this: it is not the intention of Agenda 2030 to select and privilege some SDGs over others. This points to the need for SDG 15 advocates to reach out to those responsible for the other SDGs to show how and where the greatest synergies and most modest trade-offs can be achieved. We need to show that conservation can work with development rather than against it.
Many questions advanced by the conservation and development community over recent years and decades remain contentious. Many of these are central to the advancement of SDG 15. For example, are intensified (land-sparing) farming approaches preferable to low intensity (land-sharing) systems (Kremen Reference Kremen 2015 , Phalan et al. Reference Phalan, Onial, Balmford and Green 2011 )? We now know the answers depend on circumstances, and the fate of any ‘spared land’ is key. Continuation of such debates and further technical advances remain necessary to ensure better informed decisions.
If global economies continue to grow and people become more prosperous, then attitudes to forests and biodiversity will change. People may be more receptive to conservation, and moves towards green growth and bio-based economies will alleviate pressures on life on land. If economies stagnate between now and 2030, then the opposite may occur: people will be more concerned about their short-term well-being and may resist conservation measures. These trends may manifest themselves differently in poorer and richer countries. The degree to which SDG 15 and all the other SDGs are attained will be highly dependent on economic, social and political trends from now until 2030.
The targets and goals indicate what Agenda 2030 aspires to achieve, but they do not tell us how to get there. Since progress will be needed in highly divergent local contexts, there is need for the SDG process to be based upon locally learned lessons so that these can feed into SDG and forest policies at higher levels. Many decisions will be taken at the landscape level through a continued process of experimentation and adaptation. Progress in any of the SDG targets may involve fits and starts, setbacks and failures; learning must be an integral part of the agenda. Navigating an optimal path for development in both the short term and the longer term is a major challenge. Integrating SDG 15 into all the processes guided by the other SDGs will be essential to support life on land to 2030 and beyond.
* Lead author.
1 www.terra-i.org
2 www.globalforestwatch.org/
3 Calculated based on ITTO Market Report December 2011 prices with an unweighted approximation of USD 100 per cubic metre of domestic logs and USD 200 per cubic metre of export logs.
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Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Forest — Roles of Forests
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American broadleaf forests, tree dominance, works cited.
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A forest is an important part of our ecosystem that needs to be protected. Trees take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere through photosynthesis and release oxygen into the air. The density of trees in a forest is an indicator of the health of an ecosystem. It can also serve as a source of food, shelter and energy for all living things. BYJU’S forest essay teaches kids its importance to our planet and the significance of preserving them.
The forest is a source of life for the plants and animals that live in it. Animals, insects, reptiles, birds, amphibians, and many other creatures find homes in the forest.
The forest is a big part of the ecosystem in this world. They can be found all over the world, and they help create habitats for wildlife and protect water sources from pollution.
Importance of forests, significance of conserving forests, frequently asked questions.
Forest essay in English helps children understand the significance of conserving the precious forests that help balance the ecosystem. The forest is an integral part of the ecosystem by providing oxygen and cleaning our air.
Forests are necessary for a healthy planet. They are vital to our society because they provide many essential resources. Besides, people rely on forests for paper, wood, and other products. Forested land also provides essential habitat for animals and plants and many species of microorganisms.
Moreover, forests have an enormous impact on the environment. They filter air and water and regulate the weather and climate changes.
Some people might not realise the significance of conserving forests. Besides providing habitat for living organisms, they also help prevent flooding when they absorb excess water from rainstorms and prevent erosion from moving soil across the land. With a decrease in forested areas, the existence of flora and fauna is threatened, as they depend on each other for food and shelter. If a much more significant portion of the world’s forests is destroyed, it could have irreversible consequences for our planet.
Conserving forests is beneficial to the world; it provides cleaner air and keeps the climate moderate. The trees are also important for biodiversity and to combat climate change.
Once the little ones have learned the importance of the forests by referring to BYJU’S describing a forest essay, you can ask them to write an essay on forest, explaining the significance of conserving the forests.
Forests must be preserved because they work to regulate the climate change caused by greenhouse gas emissions and keep the planet safe. Forests are the lungs of our planet, and we must preserve them. Scientists believe that if we were to lose the forests, we would experience a five-degree rise in temperature.
Children learn the importance and significance of the conservation of forests by referring to BYJU’S essay on forest.
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July 17, 2024
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by USDA Forest Service
Despite facing regional threats like deforestation and wildfires, the world's forests continue to be a powerful weapon in the fight against climate change. A new study reveals these vital ecosystems have consistently absorbed carbon dioxide for the past three decades, even as disruptions chip away at their capacity.
The study, based on long-term ground measurements combined with remote sensing data, found that forests take up an average of 3.5 ± 0.4 billion metric tons of carbon per year, which is nearly half of the carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels between 1990 and 2019.
The study titled "The enduring world forest carbon sink", published in the 18 July 2024 issue of the journal Nature , highlights the critical role of forests in mitigating climate change . The study further shows that deforestation and disturbances like wildfires are threatening this vital carbon sink.
The research is co-led by USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station Senior Research Scientist Yude Pan and Senior Scientist Richard Birdsey from Woodwell Climate Research Center, and includes 15 additional co-authors from 11 countries.
"Our research team analyzed data from millions of forest plots around the globe," Dr. Pan explained. "What sets this study apart is its foundation in extensive ground measurements—essentially, a tree-by-tree assessment of size, species, and biomass.
"While the study also incorporates remote sensing data , a common tool in national forest inventories and land surveys, our unique strength lies in the detailed on-the-ground data collection."
"The persistence of the global forest carbon sink was a surprise given global increases in wildfire, drought, logging, and other stressors," according to Dr. Birdsey. "But it turns out that increasing emissions in some regions were balanced by increasing accumulation in other regions, mainly re-growing tropical forests and reforestation of temperate forests. These findings support the potential for improving protection and management of forests as effective natural climate solutions."
The study describes how certain land management policies and practices can help preserve this global carbon sink. Findings support a focus on curtailing deforestation across all forest biomes, for example, promoting forest restoration on lands that may be unsuitable for agriculture, and improving timber harvesting practices to minimize emissions from logging and related activities.
The research also highlights the limitations in data collection, particularly in tropical regions . The study calls for increased research and establishment of more ground sampling plots in these areas to reduce uncertainties in carbon estimates and improve understanding of the global carbon budget.
Forests play a critical role in combating climate change. Protecting and restoring these ecosystems is essential to mitigate climate impacts and achieve greenhouse gas reduction targets.
Journal information: Nature
Provided by USDA Forest Service
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This essay about ATP explores its critical role as the energy currency of the cell. It compares ATP to a rechargeable battery that powers various cellular processes, from muscle contraction to nerve impulses. By breaking down high-energy phosphate bonds, ATP releases the energy needed for life’s activities. The essay highlights ATP’s dual role in energy supply and metabolic regulation, likening it to a master conductor orchestrating cellular reactions. It also underscores ATP’s efficiency, sustainability, and evolutionary significance. In essence, ATP is depicted as the vital spark that fuels the continuous dance of energy within living organisms.
How it works
Imagine a bustling city at dawn, the air vibrating with anticipation as the first light pierces through the skyline. The city comes alive, every street and alley animated with the hum of activity. Now, shrink this city down to the microscopic level and envision each cell in our body as a similar metropolis. At the heart of this cellular city is ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, the molecule that powers the continuous hustle and bustle of life.
ATP is often referred to as the “energy currency” of the cell, but this description, though apt, barely scratches the surface of its significance.
Picture ATP as a rechargeable battery, the kind that fuels our ever-demanding modern gadgets. In every moment of our lives, these tiny batteries are being spent and recharged in a ceaseless cycle that keeps us alive and functioning.
The magic of ATP lies in its ability to store and transfer energy. When cells need energy to perform tasks such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, or chemical synthesis, they tap into the energy stored in the high-energy phosphate bonds of ATP. This process is akin to drawing cash from an ATM to pay for goods and services, ensuring that every cellular process has the necessary funds to proceed.
Consider the marathon runner, every muscle fiber and nerve firing in perfect synchrony, propelling them forward. Each step, each surge of effort is powered by the breakdown of ATP, releasing energy that fuels their movement. Without ATP, even the simplest actions—blinking, breathing, thinking—would be impossible. It’s the silent driver behind the scenes, ensuring that every cog in the biological machine turns smoothly.
Yet, ATP’s role is not limited to mere energy supply. It’s also a pivotal player in metabolic regulation. Enzymes, the catalysts of life’s biochemical reactions, are often activated or deactivated by ATP. This regulation is crucial for maintaining the delicate balance of metabolic pathways that sustain life. Imagine ATP as a master conductor, orchestrating the symphony of reactions that keep our cells in harmony.
The story of ATP is also a tale of efficiency. Unlike fossil fuels that burn out and pollute, ATP is a model of sustainability. It is continuously recycled through cellular processes such as cellular respiration and photosynthesis. In the mitochondria, often dubbed the powerhouses of the cell, ATP is generated through oxidative phosphorylation, a process that extracts energy from nutrients. This efficiency is nothing short of a marvel, ensuring that life can sustain itself with minimal waste.
To truly appreciate ATP, one must delve into its chemistry. It is composed of adenine, ribose (a sugar), and three phosphate groups. The bonds between these phosphate groups are where the magic happens. When ATP is hydrolyzed, it loses one of its phosphate groups, becoming ADP (adenosine diphosphate) or AMP (adenosine monophosphate), and releasing energy in the process. This released energy is harnessed by the cell to perform work. It’s a cycle of energy flow that is as elegant as it is vital.
Let’s not forget the evolutionary perspective. ATP’s role as an energy carrier is ancient, dating back to the earliest forms of life. This universality across all domains of life—bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes—speaks to its fundamental importance. It’s a shared heritage, a molecular testament to the common thread that binds all living organisms.
In our daily lives, we rarely pause to consider the molecular marvels that keep us ticking. Yet, the importance of ATP is a reminder of the intricate and wondrous nature of life. It’s a molecule that embodies the principle of energy transformation, a principle that is at the heart of all biological processes. So, next time you take a breath, move a muscle, or simply exist, remember the tiny powerhouses working tirelessly within you, fueled by the remarkable molecule that is ATP.
In the grand tapestry of life, ATP is the vital spark, the unseen force driving the ceaseless dance of energy and life. It’s a testament to the elegance of biological systems, where even the smallest molecules play roles of monumental importance.
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Students are often asked to write an essay on Forest Resources in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.
Let’s take a look…
Introduction.
Forests are a treasure trove of resources. They provide us with wood, medicinal plants, fruits, and much more. They are also home to various species of animals and birds.
Forest resources can be broadly divided into two types: tangible and intangible. Tangible resources include timber, fruits, and medicinal plants, while intangible resources include clean air and climate regulation.
Forest resources are vital for our survival. They provide us with oxygen, help in maintaining the climate, and preserve biodiversity.
Conservation of forest resources is crucial to sustain life on Earth. It involves using resources wisely and protecting forests from deforestation and forest fires.
Ecological importance.
Forests play a crucial role in balancing the Earth’s ecosystem. They act as carbon sinks, absorbing large amounts of carbon dioxide, thereby mitigating the effects of climate change. Moreover, they regulate water cycles, prevent soil erosion, and maintain soil fertility.
Economically, forests are a source of timber, non-timber products, and various medicinal plants. They also contribute to the livelihood of many indigenous communities and play a pivotal role in the tourism industry.
Despite their importance, forests face numerous threats, primarily from deforestation and climate change. Unregulated logging, conversion to agriculture, and urbanization are leading causes of forest loss. To conserve these precious ecosystems, sustainable forest management practices are essential. These include reforestation, afforestation, and the promotion of sustainable logging.
In conclusion, forests are invaluable resources that require concerted conservation efforts. They not only offer economic benefits but also play a critical role in maintaining the Earth’s ecological balance. Through sustainable practices, we can ensure the preservation of these resources for future generations.
Introduction to forest resources.
Forests, the green lungs of our planet, are rich reservoirs of biodiversity and natural resources. They are the cradle of life, offering a myriad of services, from providing habitat to millions of species to maintaining the balance of our global climate.
The intangible resources of forests are their ecosystem services, which are often overlooked but are essential for human survival. These include carbon sequestration, water purification, soil conservation, and climate regulation, among others. Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing CO2 from the atmosphere and helping mitigate climate change. They also regulate water cycles, purify air, and prevent soil erosion, contributing to overall ecosystem stability.
Forests play a pivotal role in the socio-economic fabric of many societies. They provide livelihoods to millions of people worldwide, particularly in developing countries where communities rely heavily on forest resources for their sustenance and income. Additionally, forests have cultural and spiritual significance in many societies, underlining their importance beyond just the economic perspective.
Illegal logging and overexploitation of NTFPs also pose severe threats to forest resources. These activities not only deplete the resources but also disrupt the balance of forest ecosystems, leading to long-term ecological consequences.
Given the criticality of forest resources, their conservation and sustainable management are of paramount importance. This involves implementing sustainable forestry practices, promoting responsible consumption and production of forest products, and strengthening legal frameworks to combat illegal activities.
In conclusion, forest resources are the lifeblood of our planet, providing invaluable services and products. However, they are under increasing threat from human activities, making their conservation and sustainable management more critical than ever. As we move forward, it is essential to recognize the value of these resources and take collective action to protect and sustainably manage them, for the benefit of current and future generations.
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Exploring purpose-driven leadership: theoretical foundations, mechanisms, and impacts in organizational context.
2. theoretical perspectives on leadership: an evolutionary analysis, 3. purpose-driven leadership: a new perspective on leadership, 4. methodology.
5.1. purpose-driven leadership research landscape, 5.2. purpose, organizational purpose, and purpose-driven leadership.
5.2.2. purpose-driven leadership construct conceptualization, 5.3. theoretical foundations of purpose-driven leadership, 5.4. mechanisms and impacts of purpose-driven leadership, 5.4.1. potential antecedents, 5.4.2. potential outcomes, 5.4.3. potential mediators, 5.4.4. potential moderatos, 5.5. purpose-driven leadership as a guiding light, 5.6. measurement approaches for purpose-driven leadership, 6. discussion, 7. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
Click here to enlarge figure
Journal | Publications per Journal | Journal | Citations per Journal |
---|---|---|---|
Strategy Science | 4 | Frontiers in Psychology | 143 |
Frontiers in Psychology | 3 | Journal of Change Management | 49 |
Journal of Change Management | 2 | Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management | 44 |
New directions for student leadership | 2 | Organizational Psychology Review | 24 |
Purushartha | 2 | Service Industries Journal | 24 |
Aspect | Individual Purpose | Organizational Purpose |
---|---|---|
A consistent and generalized intention to do something that is simultaneously personally meaningful and holds relevance to the world ( ; ). It acts as a foundational and central self-organizing life aim, guiding and stimulating goals and behaviors ( ; ), and providing a sense of meaning ( ; ). | The foundational reason why the organization exists ( ; ; ) that guides all the activities ( ; ), provides direction ( ; ) and unification ( ; ), and drives meaning ( ; ). It is rooted rooted in the deepest level of an organization’s identity ( ; ). | |
1. : Enduring nature ( ; ; ), and resilience against changes ( ; ). 2. : Comprehensive scope, applicable in many contexts ( ; ; ). 3. : Manifestation in daily activities and decisions ( ; ). | 1. : Genuine reflection of organizational values ( ; ). 2. : Global scope and potential ( ; ). 3. : Impact on internal and external stakeholders ( ; ; ). 4. : Ambition for significant future objectives ( ; ; ). 5. : Providing a path or route ( ; ). 6. : Connecting individuals around a shared purpose ( ; ). 7. : Capacity to bring change or innovation ( ; ). 8. : Energizing actions and behaviors ( ; ; ). | |
: Individuals’ intrinsic motivations ( ; ). : Impact on the external context ( ; ; ; ). | : Intrinsic motivations and values that drive an organization ( ; ). : External demands, societal needs, environmental considerations ( ; ; ). | |
Found in everyday actions, decisions, and goals ( ; ). | Embodied in the organization’s identity, activities, and stakeholder interactions ( ; ). |
Outcomes | Sources | Outcomes | Sources |
---|---|---|---|
Adaptability/Agility | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Organizational commitment | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Alignment to change management | ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Organizational culture | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Competitive advantage | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Organizational learning | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Creativity/Innovation | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Organizational performance | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Employee organizational trust | ( ) | Organizational reputation | ( ) and ( ) |
Employee performance | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Positive effects on individuals outside the organization | ( ), and ( ) |
Employee turnover reducing | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Resilience | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Employer attractiveness | ( ), and ( ) | Self-efficacy | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Financial value | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Self-realization | ( ), and ( ) |
Fulfillment of human needs | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Sense of oneness | ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Guidance/Direction | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Shared identity | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Job satisfaction | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Significance | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
License to operate | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Stakeholder trust and legitimacy | ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Marketing | ( ), ( ), ( ) | Stakeholders’ wellbeing | |
Meaning | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Trust | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Mitigate the risk of suicide | ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Wellbeing | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Motivation | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Work effectiveness | ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Organizational cohesion | ( ), ( ), and ( ) | Work engagement | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Mediator | Outcomes | Sources |
---|---|---|
Stakeholder trust and legitimacy | License to operate | ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Stakeholders’ wellbeing | ||
Organizational reputation | ||
Employee organizational trust | ||
Organizational performance | ||
Employee performance | Organizational performance | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) |
Financial value | ||
Work effectiveness | ||
Wellbeing | Employee performance | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Fulfillment of human needs | ||
Mitigate the risk of suicide | ||
Work engagement | ||
Meaning/Significance | Self-realization | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Fulfillment of human needs | ||
Shared identity | ||
Organizational cohesion | ||
Shared identity | Organizational cohesion | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Sense of oneness | ||
Employee organizational trust | ||
Job satisfaction | Employee performance | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ) |
Work engagement | ||
Employee organizational trust | ||
Employee turnover reducing | ||
Motivation | Job satisfaction | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Work engagement | ||
Employee performance | ||
Guidance/Direction | Organizational commitment | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Alignment to change management | ||
Organizational learning | ||
Work effectiveness | ||
Organizational commitment | Employee performance | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Work engagement | ||
Organizational performance | ||
Alignment to change management | ||
Employee turnover reducing | ||
Trust | Organizational cohesion | ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Stakeholder trust and legitimacy | ||
Employee organizational trust | ||
Sense of oneness | Shared identity | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Meaning | ||
Trust | ||
Organizational cohesion | ||
Mitigate the risk of suicide | ||
Self-realization | Self-efficacy | ( ), and ( ) |
Meaning | ||
Significance | ||
Resilience | ||
Self-efficacy | Self-realization | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Adaptability/Agility | ||
Resilience | ||
Work effectiveness | ||
Employee performance | ||
Adaptability/Agility | Organizational performance | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Resilience | ||
Competitive advantage | ||
Alignment to change management | ||
Resilience | Self-realization | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Adaptability/Agility | ||
Organizational performance | ||
Creativity/Innovation | Work engagement | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Organizational learning | ||
Organizational performance | ||
Work engagement | Employee performance | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Job satisfaction | ||
Motivation | ||
Work effectiveness | Employee performance | ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Financial value | ||
Organizational performance | ||
Employee organizational trust | Organizational commitment | ( ), and ( ) |
Stakeholder trust and legitimacy | ||
Shared identity | ||
Employee turnover reducing | ||
Alignment to change management | Organizational learning | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Organizational commitment | ||
Adaptability/Agility | ||
Organizational performance | ||
Organizational learning | Creativity/Innovation | ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Organizational performance | ||
Alignment to change management | ||
Organizational culture | ||
Positive effects on individuals outside the organization | Stakeholders’ wellbeing | ( ) |
Organizational reputation | ||
Employer attractiveness | ||
Organizational culture | Organizational learning | ( ); ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Employer attractiveness | ||
Organizational performance | ||
Employee organizational trust | ||
Marketing | Employer attractiveness | ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Organizational reputation | ||
Financial value | ||
Organizational reputation | Stakeholder trust and legitimacy | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
License to operate | ||
Marketing | ||
Employer attractiveness | ||
Competitive advantage | Financial value | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Organizational performance | ||
Creativity/Innovation | ||
Organizational cohesion | Sense of oneness | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Significance |
Moderator | Outcomes | Sources |
---|---|---|
Perception of impact | Meaning | ( ) |
Motivation | ||
Job satisfaction | ||
Resilience | ||
Employee performance | ||
Employer attractiveness | ||
Autonomy | Wellbeing | ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Motivation | ||
Sense of oneness | ||
Creativity/Innovation | ||
Authenticity | Meaning | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Trust | ||
Motivation | ||
Balance (Work-life balance) | Employee performance | ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Meaning/Significance | ||
Work engagement | ||
Positive effects on individuals outside the organization | ||
Communication | Organizational performance | ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ) |
Shared identity | ||
Organizational commitment | ||
Adaptability/agility | ||
Work effectiveness | ||
Organizational culture | ||
Organizational cohesion |
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Ribeiro, M.F.; Costa, C.G.d.; Ramos, F.R. Exploring Purpose-Driven Leadership: Theoretical Foundations, Mechanisms, and Impacts in Organizational Context. Adm. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14070148
Ribeiro MF, Costa CGd, Ramos FR. Exploring Purpose-Driven Leadership: Theoretical Foundations, Mechanisms, and Impacts in Organizational Context. Administrative Sciences . 2024; 14(7):148. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14070148
Ribeiro, Marco Ferreira, Carla Gomes da Costa, and Filipe R. Ramos. 2024. "Exploring Purpose-Driven Leadership: Theoretical Foundations, Mechanisms, and Impacts in Organizational Context" Administrative Sciences 14, no. 7: 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14070148
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BUTLER, Pa. – Donald Trump and would-be assassin Thomas Crooks started on their violent collision course long before the former president's political rally ended in gunshots and death.
Crooks, 20, was a one-time registered Republican, a nursing home worker with no criminal record, shy in school, and living in a decent middle-class neighborhood in suburban Pennsylvania with his parents. Trump, 78, was eyeing Crooks' state as a key battleground – but not in the way that anyone envisioned on Saturday.
Riding high on polls showing that he's got a strong chance of toppling President Joe Biden, the former president had been campaigning for reelection in swing states, and Pennsylvania is a key prize. Trump won the state in 2016 but lost it four years later.
And on July 3, Trump's campaign announced he would hold a rally at the Butler Farm Show grounds, about 30 miles north of Pittsburgh.
"Pennsylvania has been ravaged by monumental surges in violent crime as a direct result of Biden’s and Democrats’ pro-criminal policies," Trump's campaign said in announcing the event, noting that when he's elected, he'll "re-establish law and order in Pennsylvania!"
The Saturday attack on Trump turned the heated rhetoric of the 2024 presidential campaign freshly violent. Authorities said bullets fired from Crooks' AR-15 style rifle about 150 yards away grazed Trump's ear, killed a rally attendee as he dove to protect his family, and critically wounded two others. Secret Service agents killed Crooks moments later.
Investigators are still seeking Crooks' motive – despite his Republican leanings, he had donated recently to a progressive voter-turnout campaign in 2021 – but indicated he'd planned the attack well in advance.
The shooting marks the first assassination attempt against a former or current U.S. president since President Ronald Reagan was injured in a March 1981 shooting at a Washington, D.C., hotel.
There are many questions about why Crooks turned into a would-be presidential assassin, firing indiscriminately into hordes of political supporters.
FBI special agent Kevin Rojek said on a call with media that law enforcement located "a suspicious device" when they searched Crooks' vehicle and that it's being analyzed at the FBI crime lab.
"As far as the actions of the shooter immediately prior to the event and any interaction that he may have had with law enforcement, we're still trying to flesh out those details now," Rojek said.
None of Crooks' shocked neighbors or high school classmates described him as violent or that he in any way signaled he was intent on harming Trump. Sunday morning, reporters and curious locals swarmed the leafy streets of the home where Crooks lived with his parents in Bethel Park, about 50 miles from the shooting scene.
Those who knew him described a quiet young man who often walked to work at a nearby nursing home. One classmate said he was bullied and often ate alone in high school.
Sunday morning, neighbor Cathy Caplan, 45, extended her morning walk about a quarter mile to glimpse what was happening outside Crooks’ home.“It came on the morning news and I was like ‘I know that street,’” said Caplan, who works for the local school district. "It feels like something out of a movie.”
Authorities say they are examining Crooks' phone, social media and online activity for motivation. They said he carried no identification and his body had to be identified via DNA and biometric confirmation.
Although no possible motive has yet been released, Crooks nevertheless embodies the achingly familiar profile of an American mass shooter: a young white man, isolated from peers and armed with a high-powered rifle. His attack was one of at least 59 shootings in the United States on Saturday, according to the Gun Violence Archive.
According to records and online posts of the ceremony, Crooks graduated from Bethel Park High School, about 42 miles from Butler County, on June 3, 2022. That same day, Trump met briefly with investigators at his Mar-a-Lago club in Florida as they examined whether he improperly took classified documents with him when he left the White House.
A classmate remembered Crooks as a frequent target of bullies. Kids picked on him for wearing camouflage to class and his quiet demeanor, Jason Kohler, 21, said. Crooks usually ate lunch alone, Kohler said.
Crooks worked as a dietary aide at the Bethel Park Skilled Nursing and Rehabilitation, less than a mile from his home. In a statement provided to USA TODAY on Sunday, Marcie Grimm, the facility's administrator, said she was "shocked and saddened to learn of his involvement."
Neighbor Dean Sierka, 52, has known Crooks and his parents for years. The families live a few doors apart on a winding suburban street, and Sierka’s daughter, who attended elementary, middle and high school with Crooks, remembers him as quiet and shy. Sierka said they saw Crooks at least once a week, often when he was walking to the nursing home from his parents' three-bedroom brick house.
"You wouldn’t have expected this," Sierka said. "The parents and the family are all really nice people."
"It's crazy," he added.
Founded in 1865, the Secret Service is supposed to stop this kind of attack, and dozens of agents were present Saturday. As the former president and presumptive Republican presidential nominee, Trump's public appearances are managed by the Secret Service, which works with local law enforcement to develop security plans and crowd-management protocols.
In the days before the event, the agency's experts would have scouted the location, identified security vulnerabilities, and designed a perimeter to keep Trump and rally attendees safe. Congress and the Secret Service are now investigating how Crooks was able to get so close to the former president, and several witnesses reported seeing him in the area with the gun before Trump took the stage.
As the event doors opened at 1 p.m., the temperature was already pushing close to 90, and ticketed attendees oozed through metal detectors run by members of the Secret Service's uniformed division. Similar to airport security screenings, rallygoers emptied their pockets to prove they weren't carrying guns or other weapons.
Media reports indicate the Secret Service had in place, as usual, a counter-sniper team scanning the surrounding area for threats.
In an exclusive interview, former Secret Service Director Julia Pierson told USA TODAY that maintaining such a sniper security perimeter is part of the agency's responsibility for safeguarding protectees like Trump from harm. She said agents typically consider 1,000 yards to be the minimum safe distance for sniper attacks.
The Secret Service has confirmed that it is investigating how Crooks got so close to Trump, who took the stage shortly after 6 p.m. Officials say Crooks' rifle was legally obtained but have not yet released specifics.
Outside the venue at that time, Greg Smith says he tried desperately to get the attention of police. He told the BBC that he and his friends saw a man crawling along a roof overlooking the rally. Other witnesses said they also saw a man atop the American Glass Research building outside the official event security perimeter, well within the range of a 5.56 rifle bullet.
"We noticed the guy bear-crawling up the roof of the building beside us, 50 feet away from us," Smith told the BBC. "He had a rifle, we could clearly see him with a rifle."
Smith told the BBC that the Secret Service eventually saw him and his friends pointing at the man on the roof.
"I'm thinking to myself, why is Trump still speaking, why have they not pulled him off the stage?" Smith said. "Next thing you know, five shots rang out."
From his nearby deck, Trump supporter Pat English watched as the former president took the stage to Lee Greenwood's "God Bless the U.S.A.," and attendees raised their cell phones to record.
English had taken his grandson to see the rally earlier but left when it got too hot. From his deck, they listened as Trump began speaking at 6:05 p.m., backed by a crown of red-hatted MAGA supporters waving "fire Joe Biden" signs.
And then gunfire began.
"I heard a 'boom, boom, boom' and then screams,” English said Sunday. "I could see people running and the police run in."
Trump was saying the word "happened" as the first pop rang out. He reached up to grab his ear as two more shots echoed, and the crowd behind him – and Trump himself – ducked. Plainclothes Secret Service agents piled atop the president as a fusillade of shots rang out, apparently the Secret Service killing Crooks.
The crowd screamed, and the venue's sound system picked up the agents atop Trump planning to move the former president to safety. One yelled, "shooter's down. Let's move, let's move."
The agents then helped Trump back to his feet as they shielded him on all sides.
The sound system then picked up Trump's voice: "Wait, wait," he said, before turning to the audience and triumphantly raising his fist to yell "fight, fight" as the crowd cheered, blood streaming down his face.
By 6:14 p.m. Trump's motorcade was racing from the scene, and in a later statement, Trump's campaign said he was checked out at a local medical facility.
"I was shot with a bullet that pierced the upper part of my right ear," Trump said in a statement. "I knew immediately that something was wrong in that I heard a whizzing sound, shots, and immediately felt the bullet ripping through the skin. Much bleeding took place, so I realized then what was happening."
Outside of the Butler Township Administration Office Sunday afternoon, Pennsylvania Gov. Josh Shapiro identified the rally attendee killed by Crooks as Corey Comperatore, a firefighter, father of two and longtime Trump supporter.
“Corey died a hero,” Shapiro said. “Corey dove on his family to protect them last night at this rally. Corey was the very best of us. May his memory be a blessing.”
Two other Pennsylvanians are still undergoing treatment for their injuries, Shapiro said.
Pennsylvania State Police identified two wounded attendees David Dutch, 57, of New Kensington, and James Copenhaver, 74, of Moon Township. Both are hospitalized and listed in stable condition. Shapiro said he spoke with the family of one victim and received a message from the other.
Biden spoke briefly with Trump on Saturday night, and the president condemned the assassination attempt as “sick.” He said there’s no place for political violence in the U.S. and called on Americans to unite together to condemn it.
But earlier in the week, Biden told campaign donors in a private phone call it was time to stop talking about his own disastrous presidential debate performance and start targeting Trump instead.
"I have one job and that's to beat Donald Trump," Biden said. "We're done talking about the (June 27) debate. It's time to put Trump in the bullseye."
Republicans across the country have used similar language to attack their opponents over the years, and political scientists say violent rhetoric used worldwide almost invariably leads to physical violence.
On Sunday, someone parked a truck-mounted electronic billboard at the gates to the Butler Farm Show grounds reading "Democrats attempted assassination," along with a picture of Trump clutching an American flag, his face overlaid with a bullseye crosshairs.
Authorities say they have not yet determined a motive for Crooks' attack. But in a statement, Trump declared the shooting an act of evil and thanked God for preventing the unthinkable.
"We will fear not, but instead remain resilient in our faith and defiant in the face of wickedness," Trump said.
And he said he'd be back on the campaign trail for the Republican National Convention in Milwaukee, which starts Monday.
"Based on yesterday’s terrible events, I was going to delay my trip to Wisconsin, and the Republican National Convention, by two days," Trump said on his Truth Social account Sunday, "but have just decided that I cannot allow a 'shooter,' or potential assassin, to force change to scheduling, or anything else."
Contributing: David Jackson, Aysha Bagchi, Christopher Cann, Bryce Buyakie, Emily Le Coz, Josh Meyer, USA TODAY Network
How the assassination attempt unfolded : Graphics, maps, audio analysis show what happened
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