current research on cognitive development indicates that

Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

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Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development in children conceptualizes the process of children’s intellectual growth (learning) from a biological perspective.

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Piaget’s theory is founded on genetic epistemology. His theory is the result of intense investigation, specifically focusing on the nature and timing of events in life, by observing children engaging in specific tasks developed by Piaget. From his qualitative research Piaget proposed a framework of cognitive development in four specific stages. The four stages are: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete, and formal. Each stage is associated to specific years in a child’s life and identifies elements that occur within the framework of these years.

Sensorimotor

Sensorimotor stage (birth–2 years) is the period of a child’s life when learning occurs through interaction, specifically senses and motor skills, with the physical environment. Piaget called these interactions “circular reactions,” providing three...

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Piaget, J. (1977). The essential Piaget (H. E. Gruber & J. J. Voneche Gruber, Eds.). New York: Basic Books.

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Piaget, J. (1983). Piaget’s theory. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (4th ed., Vol. 1). New York: Wiley.

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Department of Psychology MS 2C6, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA

Jack A. Naglieri Ph.D. ( Professor of Psychology ) ( Professor of Psychology )

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Jansen, J. (2011). Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory. In: Goldstein, S., Naglieri, J.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_2164

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Advance in jean piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development: stage 5..

Posted July 26, 2019

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The developmental psychologist and genetic epistemologist, Jean Piaget, investigated the cognitive development of children. He identified four stages from the sensorimotor period, culminating at 2 years of age, to the period of formal operations, accomplished at the age of 16 or older. Each stage builds on the intellectual attainment of the earlier ones and reflects a further advance in logical thinking.

Piaget devised a variety of tests for assessing the child's intellectual stage. For example, he calls one of his experiments "conservation of matter." The young child is shown two clay balls, each containing the same amount of clay. The child agrees they are equal in mass.

The experimenter then shapes one ball into a long, thin spaghetti, or a flat dish. If the child says the spaghetti shape has more clay than the ball, then the child is in the pre-operational stage of development. Direct perception takes precedence over undeveloped abstract thinking. The final, 4th stage of "formal operations" was viewed as the culmination of cognitive development.

Although not labeled as a specific stage of intellectual development, Albert Ellis's Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) identifies a 5th stage, a further advanced stage. I call it "Conservation of Self," or thinking abstractly about one's self.

Depressed , anxious , and insecure people tend to devalue and put themselves down when they've done poorly or been criticized (or they imagine they have been). They often view themselves as lesser humans, worthless failures, pathetic losers, ciphers, or worse. They have redefined themselves, overgeneralizing from their perception of their poor behavior or unpopular social standing to their total personhood.

They fail to appreciate that the evaluation of their behavior does not change their essence or being. They don't yet recognize under all circumstances, positive or negative, they always remain the same fallible humans—the same individuals they were before they failed or were rejected, no more, no less—who, at worse, act poorly, but never magically turn into sub-humans or hopeless worms as a consequence.

This analogy may help clarify the fundamental difference between one's essence and one's traits: if I get down on all fours, bark, and eat dog food from a dog bowl, these behaviors can't transform me from a human to a dog. I'm still the same Michael I was before I acted dog-like.

Similarly, the evaluation of my actions can never define me as all good or all bad in toto . No matter how much I mimic the behavior of a dog, I am now, and always will be, just an imperfect human acting like a dog. Similarly, if I act poorly, this behavior—or pattern of behaviors—cannot change my humanity. I don't get transformed into a poor or bad person.

Conclusion: Many depressed individuals have not yet attained the final stage of cognitive development. Once they deeply feel and believe they are the same person, no more, no less, no matter how poorly they behave and despite rejection by others, they have attained the 5th and final stage of cognitive development, "Conservation of Self." The attainment at this stage allows the adolescent or adult to critically reflect on emotionally loaded, abstract concepts, and transcend them.

Update: After writing this blog, I was contacted by Michael E. Bernard informing me he had written about Conservation of Self in his book, The Strength of Self-Acceptance: Theory, Practice and Research (ed.). Springer, 2013.

Rational Emotive Behavioral Approaches to Childhood Disorders: Theory, Practice, and Research. Editors: Ellis, Albert, Bernard, Michael E. (Eds.). NY: Springer, 2006. Chapter 1.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development (2nd edition) . Wadsworth, NY: Barry J. Longman, Inc., 1979.

Three Minute Therapy . Edelstein, Michael R., Steele, David Ramsay. NY: Gallatin House, 2019.

Michael R. Edelstein, Ph.D., is a clinical psychologist and the author of Three Minute Therapy and Stage Fright .

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• Published: 19 October 2023

Assessing cognitive decline in the aging brain: lessons from rodent and human studies

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• Cognitive ageing
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As life expectancy continues to increase worldwide, age-related dysfunction will largely impact our societies in the future. Aging is well established to promote the deterioration of cognitive function and is the primary risk factor for the development of prevalent neurological disorders. Even in the absence of dementia, age-related cognitive decline impacts specific types of memories and brain structures in humans and animal models. Despite this, preclinical and clinical studies that investigate age-related changes in brain physiology often use largely different methods, which hinders the translational potential of findings. This review seeks to integrate what is known about age-related changes in the brain with analogue cognitive tests used in humans and rodent studies, ranging from “pen and paper” tests to virtual-reality-based paradigms. Finally, we draw parallels between the behavior paradigms used in research compared to the enrollment into clinical trials that aim to study age-related cognitive decline.

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Introduction.

One of the prime accomplishments of modern societies is the steady increase in longevity. In one century alone, we have evolved from almost no countries with life expectancies over 50 years, to currently having over 40 countries with life expectancies that exceed 80 years of age 1 . The steady increase in life expectancy was projected to globally slowdown in the latter half of this century, compared to the increase observed from 1990 to 2017 2 . This deceleration is predicted to be more pronounced in countries that already show high life expectancies, than in developing countries. Therefore, estimations towards the end of the century point to an overall global convergence of life expectancies 2 .

The increase of chronological age is generally accompanied by several factors that impair the health quality during the final years of life. Older populations show a higher risk and prevalence of age-associated disorders such as cancer, arthritis, heart, and neurodegenerative disorders 3 . Accordingly, it is well established that cognitive function is affected during aging, as about 40% of individuals aged 65 years or above suffer from some form of memory loss 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 . While it is widely acknowledged that aging is the primary risk factor for the development of progressive neurodegenerative disorders like Alzheimer’s disease (AD), it is important to note that the neurobiological changes that occur during aging which result in cognitive deficits are vastly distinct from those observed in AD. For instance, while both aging and AD are associated with brain volume loss, research conducted on humans and animals suggests that the atrophy observed during normal aging primarily results from synaptic loss, rather than cell loss. In contrast, AD is characterized by significant neuronal and synaptic loss 8 . Several studies have shown that mild cognitive impairment (MCI) affects approximately 16% of individuals over the age of 70, while around 14% of people in the same age group experience dementia 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 . Furthermore, it is estimated that about 15–20% of patients with MCI may eventually develop dementia 15 , 16 . Importantly, aged individuals encounter difficulties in performing daily activities and show deterioration as they age, in a gender-specific pattern, even in the absence of disease 17 , 18 . Notably, the severity of cognitive impairment is strongly linked to hospital admissions 18 . Elderly patients without MCI, but with cognitive impairment, are more prone to frequent hospitalizations compared to those with intact cognitive function 18 . These individuals also face an increased risk of adverse outcomes during their hospital stay 19 , 20 .

In conclusion, understanding the prevalence and characterizing cognitive impairment spared of disease in the elderly population is crucial to identify and address the healthcare needs of individuals experiencing cognitive decline, as well as for implementing appropriate strategies to mitigate the risk of adverse outcomes during hospitalization 15 .

However, human aging studies are challenging to design and to complete. For example, selection bias in recruiting participants that already display advanced age-related comorbidities can easily result in reduced enrolment in the study. The opposite can also occur, as healthy, active subjects might decline participation in studies due to lack of time 21 . Limited social and/or financial support might also hinder the enrollment to studies and introduce recruitment bias. Lastly, the intrinsic design of aging longitudinal studies may take several decades to complete. The prolonged duration of these studies can lead to many participants opting out before the study concludes, for numerous reasons. These include the inability to participate due to new arising incapacities, geographical relocation or changes in life-style that make them inadequate for the inclusion criteria of the study. These limitations underlie the need for complementary research options to study age-related cognitive decline and associated brain alterations. Animal models show several advantages as they largely decrease variability and allow a more detailed and cost-effective evaluation of the underlying changes associated with age-related cognitive decline. These preclinical studies are also useful to trim down candidate changes and mechanisms to be later evaluated in human studies.

In the past decades, it has become clear that mechanisms leading to cognitive dysfunction associated with aging are largely conserved in a wide range of animal models, such as primates and rodents 22 , 23 . Therefore, animal models of cognitive aging are highly relevant to complement human aging studies.

Animal models of aging, such as rodents, canines, and nonhuman primates, exhibit a decline in cognitive function similar to that observed in humans as they age (Fig. 1 ). This decline is particularly evident in regions such as the hippocampus, where age-associated memory impairment is observed 24 , 25 , 26 . Interestingly, this decline in memory function in animals is not accompanied by significant neuronal loss, much like in humans. Instead, it appears to be primarily linked to synaptic changes, including the loss of synapses and alterations in synaptic efficacy 27 . An example of this can be seen in the hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP), a process that mirrors synaptic learning, which becomes more challenging to induce and decays faster in aged animals 28 , 29 . These changes in animal models during normal aging reflect the translatability of impairments in cognitive performance to observations seen in humans.

Ages depicted are based on the progression of age-related cognitive decline in mouse 28 , 122 , 136 , 137 , 138 , rats 46 , 114 , 139 , 140 and human 31 , 117 , 141 , 142 studies.

The use of an array of animal models is important to investigate the complexity of brain alterations during aging. In particular, rodents share significant genetic and physiological similarities with humans and have a relatively short lifespan compared to larger model organisms. This enables the study of age-related changes and cognitive decline over a shorter time span. Mice and rats also exhibit cognitive abilities and behaviors that are, to some extent, comparable to humans, making them suitable for assessing learning and memory. Moreover, rodents are highly amenable to genetic manipulations, allowing researchers to explore the effects of specific gene modifications or interventions on cognitive aging. Finally, rodent animal models do not spontaneously develop AD-like histopathological hallmarks, which potentially allows the study of age-related cognitive decline without interference from AD-like phenotype 30 .

The use of robust animal models to study cognitive aging remains crucial for understanding the implications of research findings. While human research is undoubtedly the most directly applicable, it faces ethical limitations in terms of manipulation and comprehending the temporal progression of events that could contribute to cognitive impairments during aging. Consequently, translational research aimed at enhancing human health during advanced stages of life relies heavily on the utilization of animal models, specifically rodents and nonhuman primates, to model age-related cognitive decline.

In this review, we will outline the current understanding of cognitive dysfunction in human and rodent models as an effort to facilitate knowledge interchange. This review will focus on specific modifications that occur at a cognitive level, without disease, and behavior analysis conducted in preclinical and clinical settings. We will not focus on molecular and synaptic plasticity modifications that have been described to also occur during the aging process. First, we will discuss the main memory types that are known to be affected during aging, as well as the brain regions that show altered function. Next, we will debate on the methods commonly used to test cognitive performance in humans and animal models, and how they can potentially be compared to better understand the aged brain. Lastly, we will discuss the main methodologies used in age-related clinical trials.

Cognitive dysfunction throughout aging

Modifications in cognitive performance during aging are well documented in the scientific literature 31 , 32 . Cognitive abilities are differentially impacted by age, as some are resistant to modifications, while others tend to decrease or even further develop. For example, vocabulary function is particularly unaffected by aging and tends to improves over time 33 . On the other hand, conceptual reasoning, processing speed and memory decline progressively as age advances 34 , 35 , 36 . Cognitive changes are inherent to the aging process, although individuals experience different rates of cognitive decline. However, the acceleration and consequent deterioration of cognitive abilities is linked to the inability to continue daily routines and the development of age-related disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia, the two most common forms of dementia that affect the aged population 37 . Moreover, individual levels of cognitive decline are present not only in humans, but also in animal models. This heterogeneity results in good and poor aged performers, which stresses the importance of sensitive cognitive tasks that can accurately distinguish both populations.

Main types of memory affected throughout aging

Early psychological research in the 1960s proposed a classification between different types of intelligence, in an attempt to develop scales to evaluate cognitive function 38 . This effort resulted into two types of classification which are still largely used: crystalized intelligence and fluid intelligence 39 . Crystalized intelligence comprises skills that are learned over time. Noteworthy examples include acquisition of vocabulary and general knowledge, that become stable or even increase during aging 31 . Older adults outperform younger adults in tasks that directedly rely on this type of intelligence. Moreover, procedural memories (i.e., how to play an instrument) are largely spared with age. On the contrary, fluid intelligence encompasses abilities of problem-solving and reasoning applied to the processing of novel information, which is less dependent on familiar experiences. Abilities such as processing speed, memory formation and retention peak during early adult age and tend to decrease during aging 40 (Fig. 2 ). Interestingly, the formation of new memories declines with age, while autobiographical memories that were acquired in the past tend to be stable, although accuracy for details decline. Divided attention, the ability to learn tasks while simultaneously performing other tasks, a skill that largely affects productivity, is also decreased in the elderly 41 , 42 .

Major age-associated modifications in cognitive abilities and brain functioning are depicted in the top part of the table. Bottom part highlights “pen and paper” questionaries, routinely performed in the clinic, associative learning and spatial navigation-based tests that can be used to access age-related cognitive decline.

Although some of these types of memory dysfunction are challenging to evaluate in animal models, such as crystalized intelligence it has become clear that age-related memory impairments are largely conserved across species. Here, we focus mostly on rodent studies, as they are the most commonly used model in neuroscience research. Aged rodents display robust deficits in several types of spatial memories (Fig. 1 ). Importantly different strains of mice and rats display unique trajectories of age-related cognitive decline onset and progression, which are also gender-specific 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 . The formation and consolidation of spatial memories are crucial for navigation abilities and recollection of spatial cues for daily activities 47 , 48 . Older human adults display impairments on allocentric navigation, which relies on the creation of spatial maps based on the position of each component (e.g., objects) in the environment relative to each other (Fig. 2 ). As a possible way to cope with these differences, older adults tend to use egocentric strategies for spatial navigation, which rely on creating a spatial representation based on the position of one’s self in relation to the environment. This shift in spatial navigation strategies is likely due to different brain regions that are differently impacted during aging 49 . It is currently thought that these strategies rely on different brain circuitry, particularly allocentric navigation is largely hippocampus dependent, while egocentric navigation is mostly striatal-dependent 50 , 51 , 52 . Alike aged humans, rodents also show this age-related shift in allocentric to egocentric strategies, which provide a model for understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying this change 53 .

Spatial memories can be classified due to their persistence after initial learning and recall. Memories that only persist for short periods of time are called short-term memories (STM). In human studies, this classification is attributed to temporary formation of memories required for task performance in the range of seconds to minutes, while working memory refers to the manipulation of short-term memories 54 . In rodent studies, this classification is particularly different, as working memory refers to temporary memory formation required for task performance in the scale of seconds to minutes, and STM refer to storage of information that endure for minutes to several hours. This distinction is relevant when comparing clinical studies with research using animal models. Specific types of STM seem to be somewhat resistant to decay during aging. Particularly, when learning and recall sessions are paired temporarily close together, older individuals and rodents are able to recall tasks, but show increasing errors as the delay increases 55 , 56 , 57 . This delay-specific impairment in STM is mostly not accounted in the design of human and rodent studies, which might result in incomplete conclusions when memory performance is evaluated to only account for short or long intervals.

Activity between several brain regions during long periods of time is required for memory consolidation and consequent formation of long-term memories (LTM). The formation of LTM is prone to disruption during aging in humans and rodents 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 . Recollection of LTM formed years or decades ago in humans is largely spared, which suggests that aging mostly impacts the acquisition of new information, which would be consolidated into LTM, but not the retrieval of LTM. One recent study evaluated healthy aged individuals´ performance in a cognitive examination over a period of 30 min or 4 weeks. They found that while at the 30 min test individuals showed overall good performance, 4 weeks later they detected accelerated long-term forgetting 63 . These findings indicate that evaluating long-term cognitive performance is a sensitive way of assessing age-related cognitive decline. Clinical and animal studies usually do not evaluate such long-term memory deficits. These studies mostly focus on age-dependent changes associated with the formation of recent memories. Moreover, longitudinal studies that accompany memory decay from middle to advanced age are underperformed in rodent studies. This is in part due to the requirement of inducing learning in middle-aged rodents and assessing memory recall after their age advances, which are time-consuming experiences to perform. As discussed in the next sections, most of the behavior paradigms used do not induce memories that would persist for several months. One exception would be tests that form associative memories based on aversive stimuli. It is not advised to retrain animals several times in cognitive tasks, as this process might introduce confounds of memory reconsolidation processes and/or reinforcement due to the repeated exposure to learning cues. A detailed discussion of behavior paradigms that can be used for these studies is presented in section 2.3 Cognitive tests used to evaluate age-related cognitive decline and is summarized in Fig. 2 and Table 1 .

Aging-related functional changes in the brain

There is extensive evidence of structural changes during aging in the brain, such as loss of synaptic complexity and reduced white matter volumes 21 , 31 . These alterations are accompanied by functional impairments that hinder brain plasticity and function.

In this section, we focus on known functional alterations that occur in the aging brain. Memory formation and recall recruit activity of several brain regions, which are altered during aging. Early studies suggested that aged individuals show a decrease in neuronal activation and recruit different brain regions compared to young individuals 64 , 65 , 66 . Nonetheless, these initial findings did not consider that young individuals tend to outperform aged individuals, which might lead to different patterns of brain activity independently of aging. Further work addressed this issue by separating aged individuals based on their performance in a spatial memory task and comparing their patterns of brain activity to young individuals 67 . The authors found that aged good performers and young individuals displayed similar patterns of brain activity evaluated by blood oxygen level-dependent signal. These findings indicate that patterns of activity predict the performance level in cognitive tasks and that activity may become less specific with age (Fig. 2 ).

One complementary hypothesis to altered activity patterns is the posterior-to-anterior shift in aging (Fig. 2 ). This theory postulates that during aging there is recruitment of anterior brain regions, such as the prefrontal cortex, as a compensation for impairments in posterior regions 68 . A recent study applied a novel model-based multivariate analysis to understand whether overactivation of the prefrontal cortex in aged individuals was a compensation mechanism or a recruitment impairment 69 . The authors found that increased prefrontal activity was associated with less specific or less efficient cognitive outcomes. Similar findings have been observed in aged rodents, particularly cognitively impaired aged rats show abnormal activation of cortical regions and subregions of the hippocampus 70 , 71 . Similarly, to humans, this pattern of overactivation was not observed in aged cognitively unimpaired rats, indicating an unspecific recruitment of other brain regions.

Besides the hippocampus and cortex, motor-associated regions are also affected with aging (Fig. 2 ). One study indicated that after learning a motor task, older adults showed an increased activation of several cortical regions, but also the cerebellum compared to young participants 72 . A more recent study that evaluated brain activity during spatial navigation, also observed increased cerebellar activity in aged adults 73 . Conversely, another study found that cerebellar activity is compromised in aged adults during motor learning 74 . These apparent contradictory results point to altered cerebellar function, which is in agreement with other studies 75 , 76 , 77 . Overall, these findings indicate that brain activity is altered during aging in several regions such as the cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum although more studies are required to evaluate task-specific alterations.

Cognitive tests used to evaluate age-related cognitive decline

Questionnaire-based tests.

There is an extensive collection of cognitive tests used in human and rodent studies. Here we explore some of the most commonly used tests by clinicians and behavior neuroscientists. One of the most common tests used worldwide, mainly by clinicians, is the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) 78 (Fig. 2 and Table 1 ). This questionnaire-based assessment consists on a set of questions that are used to screen for dementia and cognitive decline in the elderly. One of the main advantages of this test is that it provides a fast assessment of cognitive function without extensive training. Moreover, it has been reported to be sensitive for dementia, as diagnosed patients with dementia typically show an annual 3-point decline in MMSE score 79 . In clinical practice, the MMSE is used to evaluate cognitive performance as a whole, although performance in this test has been shown to correlate with atrophy of particular brain regions in the limbic system 80 . However, there are several factors that might influence the absolute score of this test, such as education level and gender 81 . Another limitation of this cognitive assessment is that it lacks sensitivity for milder forms of cognitive impairment 78 , 82 . For these reasons attempts have been made to develop alternatives to the MMSE. Developed in 2005, the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) is one of such alternatives and since then has become widespread in clinical practice 83 (Fig. 2 and Table 1 ). The MoCA has proven to be sensitive enough to detect mild forms of cognitive impairment, while simultaneously detecting dementias associated with neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s Disease 84 . Moreover, recent evidence suggests that performance scores in this test correlate with structural alterations of the hippocampus and cortical regions 85 . Components of the MoCA test are based on recollection of words over periods of time, which make it sensitive for detecting memory and attention deficits. It does present some limitations, as the test partially relies on fine motor movement, which might introduce bias into the score. Moreover, compared to the MMSE, the MoCA is an overall more intellectually demanding set of tests, and adjustments for factors such as education are needed 86 . Besides their sensitivity for dementia studies that evaluated the cognitive status of healthy aged adults using the MMSE and MoCA has shown that these tests might be useful for age-related cognitive decline spared of disease 87 , 88 . Although not without limitations, both tests can be powerful tools for an initial clinical evaluation of cognitive performance of the elderly. Particularly, they do not require long periods of time for preparation and can therefore be used to track the performance of patients during routine consultations over several years. As discussed above, cognitive aging affects specific types of memory, therefore although the MMSE and MoCA have clinical relevance, their broad type of evaluation does not provide much insight on specific types of age-related cognitive decline. Other alternatives have also been shown to be sensitive to detect age-related cognitive deficits such as automated computer tests 89 . Altogether these tests can be used in combination to allow more detailed evaluation particularly with virtual reality based on rodent studies 90 , 91 .

Behavior paradigms to evaluate age-related cognitive decline

In the past decades, clinical researchers have used an array of tasks that can assess deficits in spatial memory formation and navigation strategies using rodent models 92 , 93 , 94 . These paradigms have been used to evaluate cognitive function in physiological conditions and neurological disorders. Moreover, several tests have been established or adapted to study age-related cognitive decline. Criteria have been proposed for assessing the sensitivity of behavior tasks to study cognitive decline during aging 95 , 96 , 97 . Particularly, behavior rodent tasks should: (1) be sensitive to detect memory deficits, when comparing old and young animals; (2) avoid bias from other processes that might affect the outcome of the test; (3) avoid the use of dietary restrictions or stressors that might hinder the performance of aged animals; (4) detect memory deficits in young animals, when lesions occur brain regions that model deficits observed in aged animals; (5) be consistent across several animal strains and multiple species, such as humans and rodents; (6) be sensitive to established pharmacological approaches that are known to improve behavior in clinical trials with aged humans and; (7) depend on brain regions that support learning and memory formation. Based on these criteria, over the years several behavior paradigms have been developed that can, to some extent, be applied to rodents and humans. We will expand on tests that rely on spatial associative learning based on aversive or non-aversive cues.

Behavior paradigms dependent on conditioning

Associative learning relies on pairing between two independent stimuli as a measure of learning and memory. In classical conditioning paradigms, a neutral stimulus such as a chamber (contextual fear conditioning) or sound (cue fear conditioning) is presented in combination with an aversive stimulus (foot-shock) to induce associative learning (Fig. 2 and Table 1 ). After this initial learning session, the neutral stimulus is presented in the recall sessions in isolation. The readout of learning in these tasks relies on freezing behavior (absence of movement apart from breathing). One of the advantages of these tests, is that the learning event is clearly defined in time, during the association session, and can be separated from the recall session, without confounds of multiple training sessions. Another advantage is that the intensity and/or number of shocks can be modulated to induce memories that can potentially last several months. This might be particularly useful to understand how associative memories formed in middle age might be affected during aging. As the basis of these tests relies on aversive forms of learning generally rodents show consistent ability to freeze, though this might introduce bias when comparing young and older animals. Indeed, it is often reported that aged mice and rats do not show general impairments in freezing behavior, which can possibly be attributed to altered anxiety responses to the aversive stimuli 98 , 99 . Variations of these tasks, that heavily rely on intact hippocampal function, such as trace fear conditioning are more sensitive in detecting spatial memory deficits in aged rodents 100 . In humans, it is challenging to establish fear conditioning protocols that model studies in rodents 92 .

Another associative task used to evaluate age-related memory deficits is delay eyeblink conditioning (Fig. 2 . And Table 1 ). In this task, animals are trained to associate a neutral stimulus (e.g., tone) with a blink reflex-emitting stimulus (i.e., air puff to the eye) to elicit an unconditioned response (i.e., eyeblink). In contrast to other behavior tasks discussed in this review, delay eyeblink conditioning is dependent on the cerebellum, which is affected by the aging process. In accordance, numerous studies have demonstrated that aged adults show fewer conditioned responses than young adults 101 , 102 , 103 . Aged rodents also show impairments in this task, similarly to humans. One study compared young and aged mice that have intact auditory function in contextual or trace fear conditioning and eyeblink classical conditioning. They found that aged mice had impairments in eyeblink associative learning, although no age-related differences were observed in fear conditioning paradigms 75 . The authors concluded that cerebellar functions show earlier signs of senescence compared to the hippocampus. One possible limitation of this paradigm is that depends on an auditory tone as a neutral stimulus. It has been proposed that there is an age-dependent decrease in auditory function, which can potentially introduce bias 104 .

As discussed, fear conditioning paradigms might introduce confounds, due to their dependence on brain regions besides the hippocampus and altered anxiety-like behavior. An alternative to these studies is trace fear conditioning, which is accepted as a more sensitive test to evaluate hippocampal function in aged mice 100 , 105 . This variation of classical fear conditioning introduces a trace period that separates each conditioning trial, which increases the role of connections between the medial prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus for memory 106 . Nonetheless, these findings are consistent with the sensibility of eyeblink classical conditioning to evaluate cognitive decline associated with cerebellar dysfunction, which is consistent with other animal studies 97 , 107 . The combination of behavior paradigms evaluating different brain regions that are required for associative learning is useful to track age-related differences over time. The paradigms discussed so far induce association between fear responses and spatial component or reflexes. Therefore, it is possible that they can introduce unwanted confounds. These associative tasks highly depend on hippocampal (contextual/trace fear conditioning) or cerebellar function (delay eyeblink conditioning), regions that are known to be mostly affected during aging. Therefore, the use of these tasks, particularly in rodents are useful to investigate cellular and molecular alterations associated with age-related dysfunction in these regions.

In the next section, we will layout alternative strategies that are not based on Pavlovian conditioning.

Behavior paradigms based on spatial navigation

In 1981, Richard Morris developed a spatial behavior task based on a water-maze for rats 108 , 109 . Since then, the Morris water maze has become one of the golden standards for evaluating spatial learning and memory performance in rodents (Fig. 2 and Table 1 ). This paradigm consists in training animals to learn the spatial localization of a hidden platform in a water-maze over several trials. Animals learn this location using reference cues that are displayed around the maze, therefore eliciting spatial memory formation. Initially developed for rats, this task has been validated for mice, although their performance is generally poorer 110 . Aged rodents trained in the Morris water maze consistently display deficits in memory formation, compared to young 111 , 112 , 113 , 114 . One of the advantages of this test is the ability to evaluate allocentric and egocentric navigational strategies. Young animals that learn the spatial location of the hidden platform tend to use allocentric navigation, based on the spatial cues presented during the learning trials, while aged animals adopt egocentric navigation patterns as an alternative strategy to find the platform 53 . These findings are in accordance with aging human studies that evaluate spatial memory performance. The wide-spread use of the Morris water maze has encouraged the development of virtual versions that can be applied to humans 115 . Aged individuals spend more time using proximal navigation cues (egocentric) in comparison with young participants that navigate by reference to cues present in the room (allocentric). These findings have been replicated in other studies demonstrating that older adults display a robust shift for egocentric performance 116 . Similarly, another study using a real-space analogue of the Morris water maze found selective impairments in allocentric navigation in aged individuals, but preserved egocentric strategies 117 . In this study, however, they did not detect any differences in overall memory performance between the different age groups, which might suggest that a shift between allocentric to egocentric strategies might compensate performance in these tasks 117 . Recent findings separated aged good from poor performers and evaluated navigation strategies using virtual versions of the maze. The authors speculated that aged poor performers might be unable to adapt new navigation strategies to compensate altered neuronal subtracts 118 . Future human and rodent studies should couple navigational strategy and performance with imaging, to understand the engagement of distinct brain regions in allocentric and egocentric strategies during aging. For detailed reading on age-related egocentric and allocentric alterations during aging we recommend this systematic review 49 . This evaluation would represent a significant advancement in the field to develop target therapies for brain region specific impairments during aging. The Morris water maze depends on swimming-induced stress as a motivator for escaping, therefore age-associated changes in stress response might bias performance 119 . Moreover, cerebellar age-associated dysfunction can hinder swimming performance of aged rodents and influence performance, independently of altered memory capacity.

An alternative to the Morris water maze was developed by Carol Barnes in 1979. This paradigm consists in rodents learning the location of a target hole for escape based on distal cues. This task is dependent on prefrontal and hippocampal function 120 . Contrarily to the Morris water maze this task evaluates spatial memory formation without major aversive stimuli as it is a dry maze. Nonetheless, both tests induce an increase in the levels of stress hormones compared to naïve animals, but corticosterone levels are significantly higher in the Morris water maze compared to the Barnes maze 121 . Therefore, the Barnes Maze is accepted to be sensitive for spatial memory deficits, but requires less physical effort. This test was initially developed to evaluate age-related cognitive performance in aged rats that show impaired performance 121 . Versions of this task have also been applied to study aged mice 28 . Over the years it has shown to be a reliable tool to access memory performance during aging (Fig. 2 and Table 1 ). A recent study evaluated performance in the Barnes maze from young adulthood to middle age 122 . The authors found that mice aged 8–12 months old already show spatial memory impairments supporting the sensitivity of this behavior paradigm. In humans; however, there are currently no analogues to the Barnes maze. Nevertheless, the sensitivity of this test in rodent models should encourage future clinical research to develop similar paradigms that can be applied to humans. During the writing of this review, another behavior task was developed to evaluate spatial navigation in rats and humans 123 . This open-field navigation task, called Tartarus maze, allows spatial navigation pattern analysis. Moreover, the authors set up a physical apparatus that is applied to rats and an analogue system based on immersive head-mounted display virtual environment applied to humans. Importantly, navigation strategies used by both species showed strong similarities, which allows future direct comparisons that can potentially be used in aging studies in the future.

The last behavior protocol widely used in rodent animal models discussed in this review is the object location test. This paradigm also evaluates spatial learning and memory and combines several advantages to the tests described so far. In this test, animals explore an arena that contains novel objects. Due to their natural novelty seeking behavior, rodents will explore the objects during the learning phase and form a spatial map of their localization in the arena. Later, one of the objects is displaced onto a new location in the recall session, and animals that successfully learn this task will spend more time exploring the displaced compared to the non-displaced object. Aged mice show memory impairments in this task as they explore equally the displaced and non-displaced objects 124 (Fig. 2 and Table 1 ). One of the main advantages of using this paradigm is that it controls for reduced motor activity and alteration in stress responses that accompany aging 125 . This is achieved since the time spent exploring the displaced object can be normalized for the total time of exploration of each animal. In the clinical setting it is well established that object-associated memories are affected in the elderly 126 , 127 . Particularly, a study evaluated the memory performance of aged and young adults for sequences of object–location associations in combination with brain imaging 128 . They found that decreased performance by older adults was associated with fronto-striatal network and left superior temporal lobe activity, compared to young participants that use posterior brain regions. These findings support the idea that the elderly recruit alternative neuronal networks to perform in spatial-associated tasks. Nonetheless, these deficits seem to be selective, as aged adults show difficulties in distinguishing the location of objects in space, but retain the ability to recognize the objects presented 129 . Altogether many of these tasks that were initially designed and developed for rodent models, have analogues for use in the human clinical setting, the main exception being the Barnes Maze. The consistency of findings reflects the conserved nature of spatial memory impairments observed during cognitive aging across species.

Virtual-reality-based assessment of cognitive abilities

Novel technological advances allow the development of user-friendly tasks that can be easily implemented into clinical setting. Particularly, the emergence of virtual-reality-based tests that analyze spatial performance are novel powerful tools that can potentially bridge findings from human studies and animal models 130 . Indeed, a recent study suggested that aged individuals show impairments in navigation in virtual mazes 131 . Particularly, older and young adults experienced nine learning trials in a virtual maze, based on several spatial cues. Once these cues were removed, older adults used mainly egocentric navigational strategies, compared to young adults that used mostly allocentric negational strategies. Similar findings have been observed using other virtual-reality mazes 118 . The use of a virtual mazes brings the advantage of eliminating non-specific cues and the human factor present in the environment where non-virtual tests are performed. Moreover, besides the possible diagnosing capacity of these tests, evidence indicates that the use of virtual-reality-based tasks can improve cognitive abilities of aged individuals over time 132 . These virtual-reality tools have only recently been applied to laboratory rodent models. Although studies that use virtual reality tools to understand age-related cognitive decline in rodents are sparse, some efforts have been made 133 . For example, researchers used a virtual maze to train adult rats to understand the mechanisms associated with spatial navigation and memory formation. Using this paradigm, the authors demonstrated a direct involvement of activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) for navigation in this virtual maze, similarly to what has been shown in mice and human studies 134 , 135 . In summary, there is a wide-range of behavior tests available in clinical settings and in behavior laboratories. These evaluate different components of age-related cognitive decline and therefore can be used in combination to understand alterations associated with specific brain regions. The development of virtual-reality-based tests shows a high potential for future standardization of screening aged adults in the clinics without the need for spatial tasks that are difficult to implement in a clinical setting. Moreover, these methods can potentially generate comparable tasks to be developed for animal models which might bring closer together the data generated in preclinical and clinical studies.

Cognitive tests used as inclusion criteria for clinical trials in age-related cognitive decline

In the previous sections, we discussed common tests to evaluate cognitive performance during aging in mice and humans. Several tests show selective sensitivity, which is useful to discriminate specific impairments associated with aging. Therefore, it would be reasonable that clinical trials used as inclusion criteria the “best” possible paradigms to evaluate novel approaches to delay/treat deterioration of cognitive abilities during aging. We characterized the available clinical trials available in the clinicaltrials.gov under the category of “Age-Related Cognitive Decline” (Fig. 3 ). Only trials that included memory deficits without dementia were considered, a total of 58 clinical trials were considered eligible out of the initial 88 results screened. Most of these studies show common inclusion categories for selection of cognitively impaired participants. The majority of trials used screening based on “pen and paper” cognitive testing such as the MMSE or MoCA tests (44.8%). As previously discussed, these tests are widespread in clinical practice. Nonetheless, they lack the specificity to evaluate particular components of cognition in affected in patients. This might lead to the recruitment of aged individuals that have low scoring in these tests, but have age-related cognitive decline associated to different brain regions/tasks. In this scenario, even a therapeutic approach that might prove effective for one component could produce negative effects if there is recruitment bias. A second strategy is the use of self-identified age-related cognitive decline (12.1%). This criterion, which consists on self-reported worsening or increase of memory loss, might not be accurate enough to differentiate among the heterogeneity of individuals that display cognitive deficits. A third series of trials use neuro-cognitive testing to screen for cognitive impairments (5.2%). Moreover, a minor proportion of studies involved a combination of these strategies (13.8%) and a significant proportion did not perform cognitive evaluation prior to recruitment (24.1%) (Fig. 3 ). Overall, the wide toolkit of sensitive age-related cognitive tests available such as virtual environments or analogue tests to animal paradigms are largely not applied for screening the elderly in clinical trials.

The diagram depicts the flow of information through the different phases of screening.

Ending remarks and open questions

In this review, we discussed recent findings on altered brain activity during aging in humans and rodent models. We pointed to the main strategies to diagnose/investigate age-related cognitive decline and we contrasted their use in clinical settings and the laboratory. Lastly, we interrogated whether there was a wide variety of tests being currently used to select elderly patients for clinical trials enrollment. Many behavior paradigms have been successfully developed and most are used in rodent’s animal models and humans. The interdisciplinary versatility of these tests is crucial to develop therapeutic approaches that can be applied to patients that suffer from age-related cognitive decline. Moreover, these tests can also be used to understand the circuit and molecular alterations in cognitive abilities that affect the elderly. The spread of virtual-reality based tests is an opportunity to implement reliable and sensitive testing in the clinics and laboratory. Finally, clinical scientists should take advantage of the availability of sensitive cognitive tests beyond the classic “pen and paper” strategies particularly for admission into clinical trials.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank for the funding support to this project by CRESC Algarve 2020 (Operation Code: ALG-01–0145-FEDER-072586). This work was supported by the programa Operacional Regional do Algarve (ALG-01-0145-FEDER-072586).

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• D. V. C. Brito
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• , J. Apolónio
• , S. Calado
• , L. Faleiro
• , N. Marques
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Brito, D.V.C., Esteves, F., Rajado, A.T. et al. Assessing cognitive decline in the aging brain: lessons from rodent and human studies. npj Aging 9 , 23 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41514-023-00120-6

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A Deeper Look into Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

01.03.2022 • 9 min read

Zuriel van Belle

Subject Matter Expert

This article should provide a comprehensive view and explanation of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

In This Article

Who was Jean Piaget?

What is cognitive development, piaget’s theory of cognitive development, concepts to keep in mind, criticisms of piaget’s theory.

Jean Piaget (1896–1980) was a Swiss developmental psychologist who focused on cognition in children. Unlike other developmental psychologists around his time, Piaget did not use a psychoanalytical (think Sigmund Freud) or psychosocial (think Erik Erikson) lens to study how children develop. Instead, he focused specifically on cognitive development. Piaget thought cognition was key to understanding development. Piaget theorized that cognitive abilities develop in relatively distinct stages. (You can also dive into metacognition strategies to learn more about the mind.)

Piaget was something of a wunderkind. His early interests were in natural history and philosophy. By age 15, he had already published several articles on mollusks. He gained a reputation for his mollusk expertise in the scientific community. (Many in that community did not know he was a teenager at the time of publication). At university, Piaget focused on philosophy and natural science. He earned his Ph.D. in zoology/natural science from the University of Neuchâtel in his hometown in Switzerland.

Around this point is when he shifted his focus to developmental psychology. Piaget spent a semester at the University of Zürich with Carl Jung and Paul Eugen Bleuler (two prominent psychologists).

Shortly after, he went to Paris to teach at a school run by another well-known psychologist, Alfred Binet. Piaget was there, assisting Binet when Binet developed his infamous intelligence tests. Piaget observed how children answered Binet’s test questions and began his lifelong journey into rethinking our ideas about childhood cognitive development.

Development can be divided into physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development. Piaget focused on cognitive development. This is the development of thinking and learning abilities, including:

Popular thinking about children during Piaget’s time assumed that children were mini-adults, that their minds functioned like little adult minds. Piaget proposed an alternative cognitive theory: children’s minds are different from adults and go through a series of stages of development to reach an “adult mind.” He argued that development occurs in four stages that are tied to particular age ranges.

Piaget’s stages of development are:

Sensorimotor (ages 0-2)

Preoperational (2-6)

Concrete operational (7-11)

Formal operational (12+)

Keep in mind that these age ranges are rough estimates, and children develop at different rates.

Sensorimotor Stage, Ages 0-2

From birth to around age 2, the sensorimotor stage is all about exploring the world through the senses and motor behavior. You’ve probably seen a baby crawl around, bumping into things, grasping whatever they can, and putting much of it in their mouths—this is a critical part of their cognitive development. They are learning how things feel, taste, and exist in space.

Object Permanence

During this stage, children learn about object permanence. Object permanence is the idea that an object still exists, even if it is not in view. Imagine a child is playing with an adorable teddy bear. If someone places the teddy bear in a box, obscuring it from view, this will confuse an infant under five months.

As an infant develops the concept of object permanence, the child will understand that whether or not they can see the teddy bear, it still exists. This child will look for the teddy bear in the box, knowing it must be somewhere even if they can’t see it.

Stranger Anxiety

In this stage, children also exhibit stranger anxiety. Stranger anxiety is the common occurrence of babies being upset or uncomfortable around strangers and craving the familiarity of parents and others they know. If you’ve ever held a new baby who burst into tears until you have returned them to their parents, you’ve experienced stranger anxiety firsthand.

Piaget explained stranger anxiety as a baby’s inability to assimilate a new person into their existing schemata; this makes the stranger an unknown and frightful prospect. In the Concepts to Keep in Mind section below, we will learn more about schemas and assimilation.

Preoperational Stage, Ages 2-6

The preoperational stage, from ages 2 to 6, is all about language and symbolism. Children begin to learn language and develop their own logic, based on their experience so far and differs from “adult logic.”

Conservation

This stage is also when playing make-believe is at its peak. Do you remember using a stick as a sword or a bowl as a helmet? Perhaps you liked to zoom around the playground, arms aloft, pretending to be a bird or a plane. Did anyone else pretend their trike was a pony? Pretend play at this stage helps children grasp the concept that symbols can represent ideas.

During this stage, children grapple with, but do not master, the concept of conservation. Conservation is the idea that changing only the appearance of something does not change the size or quantity.

For example, imagine a 10” pizza (yum). If you cut the pizza into quarters or into eighths, the amount of pizza remains the same. For a child in the preoperational stage, this is not so simple. A child in this stage is likely to tell you that the 10” pizza cut into eighths is actually more pizza than the one cut into quarters simply because there are eight pieces instead of four.

One of Piaget’s classic conservation tests used cups of water. He would place two identical cups of water in front of the child with the same amount of water in each cup. Then, he would pour the water from one glass into a wide, shallow cup and the water from the other glass into a tall, narrow glass. Children at this stage say the tall, narrow glass has more water because the water level is higher in that glass.

Egocentrism

Besides grappling with (but not fully grasp) conservation, children display more egocentric behaviors during the preoperational stage. Egocentrism, in the Piagetian sense, means that children at this age can’t easily take the perspective of others. The child is focused on their perception of the world and assumes others think and see the world just as they do. They may not even consider others’ perspectives at all.

Imagine you are upset, and a child in the preoperational stage brings you their pacifier. Since the pacifier cheers them up, they assume it will cheer you up too.

Piaget explored children’s egocentrism using the three-mountain task. In this task, children look at a three-dimensional mountain scene, like three paper mache mountains on a table). After looking at the mountains from all angles, the child sits across from a researcher and asks what the researcher can see. A child early in the preoperational stage will likely think the researcher can see exactly what the child sees. An older child will be able to take the researcher’s perspective and imagine what the scene must look like from where the researcher is sitting.

Concrete Operational Stage, Ages 7-11

From ages 7 to 11, the concrete operational stage is all about learning to think in an organized, rational way about concrete events and perform mathematical calculations.

Conservation & Reversibility

During this stage, children master the concept of conservation (discussed above). Related to conservation, children in the concrete operational stage also master the concept of reversibility. Reversibility is the idea that, in some cases, you can change an object and then return it to its original form.

A classic example of this is in relation to the conservation cup exercise. Not only will a child in the concrete operational stage understand that when you pour the same amount of water into two differently shaped cups, you still have the same amount of water; they will also understand that when you pour that same water back into the original cups, you will have the same amount of water.

Formal Operational Stage, Ages 12+

From around age 12 on, the formal operational stage is all about abstraction, hypothetical situations, and developing into what we know as an adult mind. This stage involves problem-solving through abstract, creative thinking. Children learn to test their theories more rigorously and turn inward again in a second egocentric stage, first appearing in the preoperational stage.

The egocentrism in this stage is something we can all probably remember. Perhaps a teenager has to borrow her brother’s “dorky” backpack for a day. She assumes that everyone thinks she looks uncool because she thinks she looks uncool. Her egocentrism makes it hard for her to take others’ perspectives and realize that many people probably have not noticed the backpack or even cared.

Piaget used and introduced several important concepts in cognitive psychology, including schemas, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium.

One Piagetian concept that remains popular and important in cognitive psychology is the idea of a schema. Schemas are mental models or concepts that we use to understand and categorize information. Piaget thought children began with very few schemas, developing schemas to help them interpret the world. By the time a child reaches adulthood, they have schemas for pretty much everything.

Imagine a child who has a schema developed to help them understand what an apple is. They know apples are round, sweet, and can be eaten by taking big juicy bites out of them. If that same child then sees a nectarine, a plum, or a peach, they might fit them into their apple schema and adorably point out all the round fruits at the farmer’s market squealing, “Apple! Apple!” Eventually, the child will identify the differences between these fruits, update their apple schema and add some more schemas for the other fruits — as well as eventually adding a fruit schema.

Assimilation

Assimilation is the first of two processes children use to adjust their schemas when they learn new information. Assimilation is when they assess new information in terms of what they already know.

In our apple example, assimilation would be the comparison of a fuzzy, juicy peach to an existing apple schema.

Accommodation

Accommodation is the second process that children use to adjust their schemas when they learn new information. Accommodation is when a child changes their schema based on the new information they have assessed.

In our apple example, accommodation might be the erroneous inclusion of peaches into their apple schema or the addition of a peach schema.

Equilibrium

For Piaget, Equilibrium was the idea that humans, including children, want to identify and address contradictions in our knowledge structures (e.g., schemas).

In the apple example, a child might be striving for equilibrium to avoid disequilibrium when they seek to place a peach in their existing apple schema. Eventually, using the apple schema for a peach will become too uncomfortable. The child will respond by developing a new peach schema to reach equilibrium.

Much of Piaget’s work does not hold up to contemporary scientific scrutiny. He conducted much of his research on his own three children. Even outside of studies on his children, he generally had tiny sample sizes.

He did not adhere to rigorous study protocols. During his tests, he did not adhere to a script, so many of the differences in children’s responses cannot be disentangled from the presentation. Contemporary research shows that cognitive development is far more continuous than Piaget’s stages suggest.

In addition, contemporary psychologists argue that children reach the developmental milestones Piaget laid out earlier than predicted. While Piaget’s methods are not up to contemporary standards, his insistence that children’s minds are dramatically different from adults — and his creation of a staged process of development with critical developmental milestones — remains influential today.

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• Second Opinion

Cognitive Development in the Teen Years

What is cognitive development.

Cognitive development means the growth of a child’s ability to think and reason. This growth happens differently from ages 6 to 12, and from ages 12 to 18.

Children ages 6 to 12 years old develop the ability to think in concrete ways. These are called concrete operations. These things are called concrete because they’re done around objects and events. This includes knowing how to:

Combine (add)

Separate (subtract or divide)

Order (alphabetize and sort)

Transform objects and actions (change things, such as 5 pennies = 1 nickel)

Ages 12 to 18 is called adolescence. Kids and teens in this age group do more complex thinking. This type of thinking is also known as formal logical operations. This includes the ability to:

Do abstract thinking. This means thinking about possibilities.

Reason from known principles. This means forming own new ideas or questions.

Consider many points of view. This means to compare or debate ideas or opinions.

Think about the process of thinking. This means being aware of the act of thought processes.

How cognitive growth happens during the teen years

From ages 12 to 18, children grow in the way they think. They move from concrete thinking to formal logical operations. It’s important to note that:

Each child moves ahead at their own rate in their ability to think in more complex ways.

Each child develops their own view of the world.

Some children may be able to use logical operations in schoolwork long before they can use them for personal problems.

When emotional issues come up, they can cause problems with a child’s ability to think in complex ways.

The ability to consider possibilities and facts may affect decision-making. This can happen in either positive or negative ways.

Types of cognitive growth through the years

A child in early adolescence:

Uses more complex thinking focused on personal decision-making in school and at home

Begins to show use of formal logical operations in schoolwork

Begins to question authority and society's standards

Begins to form and speak his or her own thoughts and views on many topics. You may hear your child talk about which sports or groups he or she prefers, what kinds of personal appearance is attractive, and what parental rules should be changed.

A child in middle adolescence:

Has some experience in using more complex thinking processes

Expands thinking to include more philosophical and futuristic concerns

Often questions more extensively

Often analyzes more extensively

Thinks about and begins to form his or her own code of ethics (for example, What do I think is right?)

Thinks about different possibilities and begins to develop own identity (for example, Who am I? )

Thinks about and begins to systematically consider possible future goals (for example, What do I want? )

Thinks about and begins to make his or her own plans

Begins to think long-term

Uses systematic thinking and begins to influence relationships with others

A child in late adolescence:

Uses complex thinking to focus on less self-centered concepts and personal decision-making

Has increased thoughts about more global concepts, such as justice, history, politics, and patriotism

Often develops idealistic views on specific topics or concerns

May debate and develop intolerance of opposing views

Begins to focus thinking on making career decisions

Begins to focus thinking on their emerging role in adult society

How you can encourage healthy cognitive growth

To help encourage positive and healthy cognitive growth in your teen, you can:

Include him or her in discussions about a variety of topics, issues, and current events.

Encourage your child to share ideas and thoughts with you.

Encourage your teen to think independently and develop his or her own ideas.

Help your child in setting goals.

Challenge him or her to think about possibilities for the future.

Compliment and praise your teen for well-thought-out decisions.

Help him or her in re-evaluating poorly made decisions.

If you have concerns about your child's cognitive development, talk with your child's healthcare provider. 

Related Links

• Brain and Behavior
• Child and Adolescent Mental Health
• The Growing Child: School-Age (6 to 12 Years)
• Understanding the Teen Brain
• Topic Index

Related Topics

Adolescent Growth and Development

Cognitive Development in Adolescence

Growth and Development in Children with Congenital Heart Disease

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Piaget’s Theory and Stages of Cognitive Development

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

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Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Key Features

• Constructivist approach to learning : Piaget believed that children actively construct their understanding of the world rather than passively absorbing information. This emphasizes the child’s role as a “little scientist,” exploring and making sense of their environment.
• Developmental Stages : Piaget proposed four sequential stages of cognitive development, each marked by distinct thinking patterns, progressing from infancy to adolescence.
• Schemas : Schemas are mental frameworks that help individuals organize and interpret information. As children grow and learn, their schemas become more numerous and sophisticated, allowing for more complex understanding of the world.
• Assimilation : Incorporating new information into preexisting ideas and schemas.
• Accommodation : Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to fit new information.
• Equilibration : This is how children progress through cognitive developmental stages. It involves balancing assimilation and accommodation, driving the shift from one stage of thought to the next as children encounter and resolve cognitive conflicts.

Stages of Development

Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four different stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of children’s thought

Each child goes through the stages in the same order (but not all at the same rate), and child development is determined by biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

At each stage of development, the child’s thinking is qualitatively different from the other stages, that is, each stage involves a different type of intelligence.

Although no stage can be missed out, there are individual differences in the rate at which children progress through stages, and some individuals may never attain the later stages.

Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age – although descriptions of the stages often include an indication of the age at which the average child would reach each stage.

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: birth to 2 years.

During the sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2) infants develop basic motor skills and learn to perceive and interact with their environment through physical sensations and body coordination.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving around and exploring their environment).
• During the sensorimotor stage, a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include: object permanence; self-recognition (the child realizes that other people are separate from them); deferred imitation; and representational play.
• Cognitive abilities relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to represent the world mentally
• At about 8 months, the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will still exist even if they can’t see them, and the infant will search for them when they disappear.

At the beginning of this stage, the infant lives in the present. It does not yet have a mental picture of the world stored in its memory, so it does not have a sense of object permanence.

If it cannot see something, then it does not exist. This is why you can hide a toy from an infant, while it watches, but it will not search for the object once it has gone out of sight.

The main achievement during this stage is object permanence – knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden. It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a schema) of the object.

Towards the end of this stage the general symbolic function begins to appear where children show in their play that they can use one object to stand for another. Language starts to appear because they realise that words can be used to represent objects and feelings.

The child begins to be able to store information about the world, recall it, and label it.

Individual Differences

• Cultural Practices : In some cultures, babies are carried on their mothers’ backs throughout the day. This constant physical contact and varied stimuli can influence how a child perceives their environment and their sense of object permanence.
• Gender Norms : Toys assigned to babies can differ based on gender expectations. A boy might be given more cars or action figures, while a girl might receive dolls or kitchen sets. This can influence early interactions and sensory explorations.

Learn More: The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 – 7 years.

Piaget’s second stage of intellectual development is the preoperational stage , which occurs between 2 and 7 years. At the beginning of this stage, the child does not use operations (a set of logical rules), so thinking is influenced by how things look or appear to them rather than logical reasoning.

For example, a child might think a tall, thin glass contains more liquid than a short, wide glass, even if both hold the same amount, because they focus on the height rather than considering both dimensions.

Furthermore, the child is egocentric; he assumes that other people see the world as he does, as shown in the Three Mountains study.

As the preoperational stage develops, egocentrism declines, and children begin to enjoy the participation of another child in their games, and let’s pretend play becomes more important.

Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policemen), and may play these roles with props that symbolize real-life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary playmate.

• Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery.
• During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.
• A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet capable of logical (problem-solving) type of thought.
• Moreover, the child has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but cannot include objects in sub-sets, which involves classifying objects as belonging to two or more categories simultaneously.
• Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.

By 2 years, children have made some progress toward detaching their thoughts from the physical world. However, have not yet developed logical (or “operational”) thought characteristics of later stages.

Thinking is still intuitive (based on subjective judgments about situations) and egocentric (centered on the child’s own view of the world).

• Cultural Storytelling : Different cultures have unique stories, myths, and folklore. Children from diverse backgrounds might understand and interpret symbolic elements differently based on their cultural narratives.
• Race & Representation : A child’s racial identity can influence how they engage in pretend play. For instance, a lack of diverse representation in media and toys might lead children of color to recreate scenarios that don’t reflect their experiences or background.

Learn More: The Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development

The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 – 11 years.

By the beginning of the concrete operational stage , the child can use operations (a set of logical rules) so they can conserve quantities, realize that people see the world in a different way (decentring), and demonstrate improvement in inclusion tasks.

Children still have difficulties with abstract thinking.

• During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.
• Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although things may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.
• During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g., picture a ball of plasticine returning to its original shape).
• During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel.

The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more successfully if they can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them.

Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child’s cognitive development because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means the child can work things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world).

Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes.

But operational thought is only effective here if the child is asked to reason about materials that are physically present. Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be overwhelmed when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems.

• Cultural Context in Conservation Tasks : In a society where resources are scarce, children might demonstrate conservation skills earlier due to the cultural emphasis on preserving and reusing materials.
• Gender & Learning : Stereotypes about gender abilities, like “boys are better at math,” can influence how children approach logical problems or classify objects based on perceived gender norms.

Learn More: The Concrete Operational Stage of Development

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and over.

The formal operational period begins at about age 11. As adolescents enter this stage, they gain the ability to think abstractly, the ability to combine and classify items in a more sophisticated way, and the capacity for higher-order reasoning.

Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is (not everyone achieves this stage). This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning.

Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas; for example, they can understand division and fractions without having to actually divide things up and solve hypothetical (imaginary) problems.

• Concrete operations are carried out on physical objects, whereas formal operations are carried out on ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints.
• During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g., they no longer need to think about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).
• They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific examples.
• Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. For example, if asked, ‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour?’ they could speculate about many possible consequences.
• Piaget described reflective abstraction as the process by which individuals become aware of and reflect upon their own cognitive actions or operations (metacognition).

From about 12 years, children can follow the form of a logical argument without reference to its content. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test hypotheses.

This stage sees the emergence of scientific thinking, formulating abstract theories and hypotheses when faced with a problem.

• Culture & Abstract Thinking : Cultures emphasize different kinds of logical or abstract thinking. For example, in societies with a strong oral tradition, the ability to hold complex narratives might develop prominently.
• Gender & Ethics : Discussions about morality and ethics can be influenced by gender norms. For instance, in some cultures, girls might be encouraged to prioritize community harmony, while boys might be encouraged to prioritize individual rights.

Learn More: The Formal Operational Stage of Development

Piaget’s Theory

• Piaget’s theory places a strong emphasis on the active role that children play in their own cognitive development.
• According to Piaget, children are not passive recipients of information; instead, they actively explore and interact with their surroundings.
• This active engagement with the environment is crucial because it allows them to gradually build their understanding of the world.

1. How Piaget Developed the Theory

Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking.

He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of adults and children.

Piaget branched out on his own with a new set of assumptions about children’s intelligence:

• Children’s intelligence differs from an adult’s in quality rather than in quantity. This means that children reason (think) differently from adults and see the world in different ways.
• Children actively build up their knowledge about the world . They are not passive creatures waiting for someone to fill their heads with knowledge.
• The best way to understand children’s reasoning is to see things from their point of view.

Piaget did not want to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea of number , time, quantity, causality , justice , and so on emerged.

Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence using naturalistic observation of his own three babies and sometimes controlled observation too. From these, he wrote diary descriptions charting their development.

He also used clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand questions and hold conversations.

2. Piaget’s Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:

Piaget’s (1936, 1950) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world.

He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process that occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.

Children’s ability to understand, think about, and solve problems in the world develops in a stop-start, discontinuous manner (rather than gradual changes over time).

• It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.
• It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or specific behaviors.
• It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.

The goal of the theory is to explain the mechanisms and processes by which the infant, and then the child, develops into an individual who can reason and think using hypotheses.

To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.

Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment.

A schema is a mental framework or concept that helps us organize and interpret information. It’s like a mental file folder where we store knowledge about a particular object, event, or concept.

According to Piaget (1952), schemas are fundamental building blocks of cognitive development. They are constantly being created, modified, and reorganized as we interact with the world.

Wadsworth (2004) suggests that schemata (the plural of schema) be thought of as “index cards” filed in the brain, each one telling an individual how to react to incoming stimuli or information.

According to Piaget, we are born with a few primitive schemas, such as sucking, which give us the means to interact with the world. These initial schemas are physical, but as the child develops, they become mental schemas.

For example:

• Babies have a sucking reflex, triggered by something touching their lips. This corresponds to a “sucking schema.”
• The grasping reflex, elicited when something touches the palm of a baby’s hand, represents another innate schema.
• The rooting reflex, where a baby turns its head towards something which touches its cheek, is also considered an innate schema.

When Piaget discussed the development of a person’s mental processes, he referred to increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that the person had learned.

When a child’s existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e., mental) balance.

Operations are more sophisticated mental structures that allow us to combine schemas in a logical (reasonable) way. For example, picking up a rattle would combine three schemas, gazing, reaching and grasping.

As children grow, they can carry out more complex operations and begin to imagine hypothetical (imaginary) situations.

Operations are learned through interaction with other people and the environment, and they represent a key advancement in cognitive development beyond simple schemas.

As children grow and interact with their environment, these basic schemas become more complex and numerous, and new schemas are developed through the processes of assimilation and accommodation .

4. The Process of Adaptation

Piaget (1952) believed child development results from maturation and environmental interaction. Adaptation is the process of changing mental models to match reality, achieved through assimilation and accommodation.

• Assimilation is fitting new information into existing schemas without changing one’s understanding. For example,  a child who has only seen small dogs might call a cat a “dog” due to similar features like fur, four legs, and a tail.
• Accommodation occurs when existing schemas must be revised to incorporate new information. For instance, a child who believes all animals have four legs would need to accommodate their schema upon seeing a snake. A baby tries to use the same grasping schema to pick up a very small object. It doesn’t work. The baby then changes the schema using the forefinger and thumb to pick up the object.

When schemas explain our perceptions, we’re in equilibration. New, unexplainable situations create disequilibrium, motivating learning. This cognitive conflict, where contradictory views exist, drives development.

Piaget viewed intellectual growth as an adaptation to the world through assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. These processes are continuous and interactive, allowing schemas to evolve and become more sophisticated.

Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration.

5. Equilibration

Piaget (1985) believed that all human thought seeks order and is uncomfortable with contradictions and inconsistencies in knowledge structures. In other words, we seek “equilibrium” in our cognitive structures.

Equilibrium occurs when a child’s schemas can deal with most new information through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).

Piaget believed that cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge (accommodation).

Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment to it.

Equilibration is a regulatory process that maintains a balance between assimilation and accommodation to facilitate cognitive growth. Think of it this way: We can’t merely assimilate all the time; if we did, we would never learn any new concepts or principles.

Everything new we encountered would just get put in the same few “slots” we already had. Neither can we accommodate all the time; if we did, everything we encountered would seem new; there would be no recurring regularities in our world. We’d be exhausted by the mental effort!

Applications to Education

Think of old black-and-white films you’ve seen where children sat in rows at desks with inkwells. They learned by rote, all chanting in unison in response to questions set by an authoritarian figure like Miss Trunchbull in Matilda.

Children who were unable to keep up were seen as slacking and would be punished by variations on the theme of corporal punishment. Yes, it really did happen and in some parts of the world still does today.

Piaget is partly responsible for the change that occurred in the 1960s and for your relatively pleasurable and pain-free school days!

“Children should be able to do their own experimenting and their own research. Teachers, of course, can guide them by providing appropriate materials, but the essential thing is that in order for a child to understand something, he must construct it himself, he must re-invent it. Every time we teach a child something, we keep him from inventing it himself. On the other hand that which we allow him to discover by himself will remain with him visibly”. Piaget (1972, p. 27)

Plowden Report

Piaget (1952) did not explicitly relate his theory to education, although later researchers have explained how features of Piaget’s theory can be applied to teaching and learning.

Piaget has been extremely influential in developing educational policy and teaching practice. For example, a review of primary education by the UK government in 1966 was based strongly on Piaget’s theory. The result of this review led to the publication of the Plowden Report (1967).

In the 1960s the Plowden Committee investigated the deficiencies in education and decided to incorporate many of Piaget’s ideas into its final report published in 1967, even though Piaget’s work was not really designed for education.

The report makes three Piaget-associated recommendations:

• Children should be given individual attention and it should be realized that they need to be treated differently.
• Children should only be taught things that they are capable of learning
• Children mature at different rates and the teacher needs to be aware of the stage of development of each child so teaching can be tailored to their individual needs.

The report’s recurring themes are individual learning, flexibility in the curriculum, the centrality of play in children’s learning, the use of the environment, learning by discovery and the importance of the evaluation of children’s progress – teachers should “not assume that only what is measurable is valuable.”

Discovery learning, the idea that children learn best through doing and actively exploring, was seen as central to the transformation of the primary school curriculum.

How to teach

Learning should be student-centered and accomplished through active discovery in the classroom. The teacher’s role is to facilitate learning rather than direct tuition.

Because Piaget’s theory is based upon biological maturation and stages, the notion of “readiness” is important. Readiness concerns when certain information or concepts should be taught.

According to Piaget’s theory, children should not be taught certain concepts until they have reached the appropriate stage of cognitive development.

Consequently, education should be stage-specific, with curricula developed to match the age and stage of thinking of the child. For example, abstract concepts like algebra or atomic structure are not suitable for primary school children.

Assimilation and accommodation require an active learner, not a passive one, because problem-solving skills cannot be taught, they must be discovered (Piaget, 1958).

Therefore, teachers should encourage the following within the classroom:

• Consider the stages of cognitive development : Educational programs should be designed to correspond to Piaget’s stages of development. For example, a child in the concrete operational stage should not be taught abstract concepts and should be given concrete aid such as tokens to count with.
• Provide concrete experiences before abstract concepts : Especially for younger children, ensure they have hands-on experiences with concepts before introducing more abstract representations.
• Provide challenges that promote growth without causing frustration : Devising situations that present useful problems and create disequilibrium in the child.
• Focus on the process of learning rather than the end product : Instead of checking if children have the right answer, the teacher should focus on the students’ understanding and the processes they used to arrive at the answer.
• Encourage active learning : Learning must be active (discovery learning). Children should be encouraged to discover for themselves and to interact with the material instead of being given ready-made knowledge. Using active methods that require rediscovering or reconstructing “truths.”
• Foster social interaction: Using collaborative, as well as individual activities (so children can learn from each other). Implement cooperative learning activities, such as group problem-solving tasks or role-playing scenarios.
• Differentiated teaching : Adapt lessons to suit the needs of the individual child. For example, observe a child’s ability to classify objects by color, shape, and size. If they can easily sort by one attribute but struggle with multiple attributes, tailor future activities to gradually increase complexity, such as sorting buttons first by color, then by color and size together.
• Providing support for the “spontaneous research” of the child : Provide opportunities and resources for children to explore topics of their own interest, encouraging their natural curiosity and self-directed learning. Create a “Wonder Wall” in the classroom where children can post questions about topics that interest them. 

Classroom Activities

Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years):.

Although most kids in this age range are not in a traditional classroom setting, they can still benefit from games that stimulate their senses and motor skills.

• Object Permanence Games : Play peek-a-boo or hide toys under a blanket to help babies understand that objects still exist even when they can’t see them.
• Sensory Play : Activities like water play, sand play, or playdough encourage exploration through touch.
• Imitation : Children at this age love to imitate adults. Use imitation as a way to teach new skills.

Preoperational Stage (2-7 years):

• Role Playing : Set up pretend play areas where children can act out different scenarios, such as a kitchen, hospital, or market.
• Use of Symbols : Encourage drawing, building, and using props to represent other things.
• Hands-on Activities : Children should interact physically with their environment, so provide plenty of opportunities for hands-on learning.
• Egocentrism Activities : Use exercises that highlight different perspectives. For instance, having two children sit across from each other with an object in between and asking them what the other sees.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years):

• Classification Tasks : Provide objects or pictures to group, based on various characteristics.
• Hands-on Experiments : Introduce basic science experiments where they can observe cause and effect, like a simple volcano with baking soda and vinegar.
• Logical Games : Board games, puzzles, and logic problems help develop their thinking skills.
• Conservation Tasks : Use experiments to showcase that quantity doesn’t change with alterations in shape, such as the classic liquid conservation task using differently shaped glasses.

Formal Operational Stage (11 years and older):

• Hypothesis Testing : Encourage students to make predictions and test them out.
• Abstract Thinking : Introduce topics that require abstract reasoning, such as algebra or ethical dilemmas.
• Problem Solving : Provide complex problems and have students work on solutions, integrating various subjects and concepts.
• Debate and Discussion : Encourage group discussions and debates on abstract topics, highlighting the importance of logic and evidence.
• Feedback and Questioning : Use open-ended questions to challenge students and promote higher-order thinking. For instance, rather than asking, “Is this the right answer?”, ask, “How did you arrive at this conclusion?”

While Piaget’s stages offer a foundational framework, they are not universally experienced in the same way by all children.

Social identities play a critical role in shaping cognitive development, necessitating a more nuanced and culturally responsive approach to understanding child development.

Piaget’s stages may manifest differently based on social identities like race, gender, and culture:

• Race & Teacher Interactions : A child’s race can influence teacher expectations and interactions. For example, racial biases can lead to children of color being perceived as less capable or more disruptive, influencing their cognitive challenges and support.
• Racial and Cultural Stereotypes : These can affect a child’s self-perception and self-efficacy . For instance, stereotypes about which racial or cultural groups are “better” at certain subjects can influence a child’s self-confidence and, subsequently, their engagement in that subject.
• Gender & Peer Interactions : Children learn gender roles from their peers. Boys might be mocked for playing “girl games,” and girls might be excluded from certain activities, influencing their cognitive engagements.
• Language : Multilingual children might navigate the stages differently, especially if their home language differs from their school language. The way concepts are framed in different languages can influence cognitive processing. Cultural idioms and metaphors can shape a child’s understanding of concepts and their ability to use symbolic representation, especially in the pre-operational stage.

Overcoming Challenges and Barriers to Implementation

Balancing play and curriculum.

• Purposeful Play: Ensuring that play is not just free time but a structured learning experience requires careful planning. Educators must identify clear learning objectives and create play environments that facilitate these goals.  
• Alignment with Standards: Striking a balance between child-initiated play and curriculum expectations can be challenging. Educators need to find ways to integrate play-based learning with broader educational goals and standards.
• Pace of Learning: The curriculum’s focus on specific content by certain ages can create pressure to accelerate student learning, potentially contradicting Piaget’s notion of developmental stages. Teachers should regularly assess students’ understanding to identify areas where they need more support or challenge.
• Assessment Focus: The emphasis on standardized testing can shift the focus from process-oriented learning (as Piaget advocated) to outcome-based teaching. Educators should use assessments that reflect real-world tasks and allow students to demonstrate their understanding in multiple ways.
• Parental Expectations: Some parents may have misconceptions about play-based learning, believing it to be less rigorous than traditional instruction. Educators may need to address these concerns and communicate the value of play. 
• Parental Involvement: Involving parents in understanding Piaget’s theory can foster consistency between home and school environments. Providing resources and information to parents about child development can empower them to support their child’s learning at home.

Other challenges

• Individual Differences: Piaget emphasized individual differences in cognitive development, but classrooms often have diverse learners. Meeting the needs of all students while maintaining a play-based approach can be demanding.
• Time Constraints: In some educational settings, there may be pressure to cover specific content or prepare students for standardized tests. Prioritizing play-based learning within these constraints can be difficult.    
• Cultural Sensitivity: Recognizing and respecting cultural differences is essential. Piaget’s theory may need to be adapted to fit the specific cultural context of the children being taught.

Can Piaget’s Ideas Be Applied to Children with Special Educational Needs and Disabilities?

Yes, Piaget’s ideas can be adapted to support children with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), though with important considerations:

• Individualized Approach : Tailor learning experiences to each child’s unique strengths, needs, and interests, recognizing that development may not follow typical patterns or timelines (Daniels & Diack, 1977).
• Concrete Learning Experiences : Provide hands-on, multisensory activities to support concept exploration, particularly beneficial for children with learning difficulties or sensory impairments (Lee & Zentall, 2012).
• Gradual Scaffolding : Break down tasks into manageable steps and provide appropriate support to help children progress through developmental stages at their own pace (Morra & Borella, 2015).
• Flexible Assessment : Modify Piagetian tasks to accommodate different abilities and communication methods, using multiple assessment approaches.
• Strengths-Based Focus : Emphasize children’s capabilities rather than deficits, using Piaget’s concepts to identify and build upon existing cognitive strengths.
• Interdisciplinary Approach : Combine Piagetian insights with specialized knowledge from fields like occupational therapy and speech-language pathology.

While Piaget’s theory offers valuable insights, it should be part of a broader, evidence-based approach that recognizes the diverse factors influencing development in children with SEND.

Social Media (Digital Learning)

Jean Piaget could not have anticipated the expansive digital age we now live in.

Today, knowledge dissemination and creation are democratized by the Internet, with platforms like blogs, wikis, and social media allowing for vast collaboration and shared knowledge. This development has prompted a reimagining of the future of education.

Classrooms, traditionally seen as primary sites of learning, are being overshadowed by the rise of mobile technologies and platforms like MOOCs (Passey, 2013).

The millennial generation, the first to grow up with cable TV, the internet, and cell phones, relies heavily on technology.

They view it as an integral part of their identity, with most using it extensively in their daily lives, from keeping in touch with loved ones to consuming news and entertainment (Nielsen, 2014).

Social media platforms offer a dynamic environment conducive to Piaget’s principles. These platforms allow interactions that nurture knowledge evolution through cognitive processes like assimilation and accommodation.

They emphasize communal interaction and shared activity, fostering both cognitive and socio-cultural constructivism. This shared activity promotes understanding and exploration beyond individual perspectives, enhancing social-emotional learning (Gehlbach, 2010).

A standout advantage of social media in an educational context is its capacity to extend beyond traditional classroom confines. As the material indicates, these platforms can foster more inclusive learning, bridging diverse learner groups.

This inclusivity can equalize learning opportunities, potentially diminishing biases based on factors like race or socio-economic status, resonating with Kegan’s (1982) concept of “recruitability.”

However, there are challenges. While social media’s potential in learning is vast, its practical application necessitates intention and guidance. Cuban, Kirkpatrick, and Peck (2001) note that certain educators and students are hesitant about integrating social media into educational contexts.

This hesitancy can stem from technological complexities or potential distractions. Yet, when harnessed effectively, social media can provide a rich environment for collaborative learning and interpersonal development, fostering a deeper understanding of content.

In essence, the rise of social media aligns seamlessly with constructivist philosophies. Social media platforms act as tools for everyday cognition, merging daily social interactions with the academic world, and providing avenues for diverse, interactive, and engaging learning experiences.

Criticisms of Jean Piaget’s Theories and Concepts

Criticisms of research methods.

• Small sample size : Piaget often used small, non-representative samples, frequently including only his own children or those from similar backgrounds (European children from families of high socio-economic status). This limits the generalizability of his findings (Lourenço & Machado, 1996).

The lack of inter-rater reliability and potential issues with clinical interviews (e.g., children misunderstanding questions or trying to please the experimenter) may have led to biased or inaccurate conclusions.

Using multiple researchers and more standardized methods could have improved reliability (Donaldson, 1978).

• Age-related issues : Some critics argue that Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of younger children. This may be due to the complex language used in his tasks, which could have masked children’s true understanding.
• Cultural limitations : Piaget’s research was primarily conducted with Western, educated children from relatively affluent backgrounds. This raises questions about the universality of his developmental stages across different cultures (Rogoff, 2003).

As several studies have shown Piaget underestimated the abilities of children because his tests were sometimes confusing or difficult to understand (e.g., Hughes , 1975).

Challenges to Key Concepts and Theories

Fixed developmental stages.

Are the stages real? Vygotsky and Bruner would rather not talk about stages at all, preferring to see development as a continuous process.

Others have queried the age ranges of the stages. Some studies have shown that progress to the formal operational stage is not guaranteed.

For example, Keating (1979) reported that 40-60% of college students fail at formal operational tasks, and Dasen (1994) states that only one-third of adults ever reach the formal operational stage.

Current developmental psychology has moved beyond seeing development as progressing through discrete, universal stages (as Piaget proposed) to view it as a more gradual, variable process influenced by social, genetic, and cultural factors.

Current perspectives acknowledge greater variability in the timing and sequence of developmental milestones.

There’s greater recognition of the brain’s plasticity and the potential for cognitive growth throughout the lifespan.

This challenges the idea of fixed developmental endpoints proposed in stage theories.

Culture and individual differences

The fact that the formal operational stage is not reached in all cultures and not all individuals within cultures suggests that it might not be biologically based.

• According to Piaget, the rate of cognitive development cannot be accelerated as it is based on biological processes however, direct tuition can speed up the development which suggests that it is not entirely based on biological factors.
• Because Piaget concentrated on the universal stages of cognitive development and biological maturation, he failed to consider the effect that the social setting and culture may have on cognitive development.

Cross-cultural studies show that the stages of development (except the formal operational stage) occur in the same order in all cultures suggesting that cognitive development is a product of a biological maturation process.

However, the age at which the stages are reached varies between cultures and individuals which suggests that social and cultural factors and individual differences influence cognitive development.

Dasen (1994) cites studies he conducted in remote parts of the central Australian desert with 8—to 14-year-old Indigenous Australians.

He gave them conservation of liquid tasks and spatial awareness tasks. He found that the ability to conserve came later in the Aboriginal children, between the ages of 10 and 13 (as opposed to between 5 and 7, with Piaget’s Swiss sample).

However, he found that spatial awareness abilities developed earlier among Aboriginal children than among Swiss children.

Such a study demonstrates that cognitive development is not purely dependent on maturation but on cultural factors as well—spatial awareness is crucial for nomadic groups of people.

Underemphasis on social and emotional factors

While Piaget’s theory focuses primarily on individual cognitive development, it arguably underestimates the crucial role of social and emotional factors.

Lev Vygotsky , a contemporary of Piaget, emphasized the social nature of learning in his sociocultural theory.

Vygotsky argued that cognitive development occurs through social interactions, particularly with more knowledgeable others (MKOs) such as parents, teachers, or skilled peers.

He introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development ( ZPD ), which represents the gap between what a child can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance.

Furthermore, Vygotsky viewed language as fundamental to thought development, asserting that social dialogue becomes internalized as inner speech, driving cognitive processes. This perspective highlights how cultural tools, especially language, shape thinking.

Emotional factors, including motivation, self-esteem, and relationships, also play significant roles in learning and development – aspects not thoroughly addressed in Piaget’s cognitive-focused theory.

This social-emotional dimension of development has gained increasing recognition in modern educational and developmental psychology.

Underestimating children’s abilities

Piaget failed to distinguish between competence (what a child can do) and performance (what a child can show when given a particular task).

When tasks were altered, performance (and therefore competence) was affected. Therefore, Piaget might have underestimated children’s cognitive abilities.

For example, a child might have object permanence (competence) but still be unable to search for objects (performance). When Piaget hid objects from babies, he found that it wasn’t until after nine months that they looked for them.

However, Piaget relied on manual search methods – whether the child was looking for the object or not.

Later, researchers such as Baillargeon and Devos (1991) reported that infants as young as four months looked longer at a moving carrot that didn’t do what it expected, suggesting they had some sense of permanence, otherwise they wouldn’t have had any expectation of what it should or shouldn’t do.

Jean Piaget’s Legacy and Ongoing Influence

Piaget’s ideas on developmental psychology have had an enormous influence. He changed how people viewed the child’s world and their methods of studying children.

He inspired many who followed and took up his ideas. Piaget’s ideas have generated a huge amount of research, which has increased our understanding of cognitive development.

• Seminal Theory : Piaget (1936) was one of the first psychologists to study cognitive development systematically. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
• Neo-Piagetian theories : Researchers have built upon Piaget’s stage theory of cognitive development, incorporating information processing and brain development to explain cognitive growth, emphasizing individual differences and more gradual developmental progressions (Case, 1985; Fischer, 1980; Pascual-Leone, 1970).

Impact on Educational Practices

Early Childhood Education : Piaget’s theories underpin many early childhood programs that emphasize play-based learning, sensory experiences, and exploration.

Constructivist Pedagogy: Piaget’s idea that children construct knowledge through interaction with their environment led to a shift from teacher-centered to child-centered approaches. This emphasizes exploration, discovery, and hands-on activities.

By understanding Piaget’s stages, educators can create environments and activities that challenge children appropriately.

The National Association for the Education of Young Children ( NAEYC ) has incorporated Piagetian principles into its DAP framework, influencing early childhood education policies worldwide.

Parenting Practices

Piaget’s theory influenced parenting by emphasizing stimulating environments, play, and supporting children’s curiosity.

Parents can use Piaget’s stages to have realistic developmental expectations of their children’s behavior and cognitive capabilities.

For instance, understanding that a toddler is in the pre-operational stage can help parents be patient when the child is egocentric.

Play Activities

Recognizing the importance of play in cognitive development, many parents provide toys and games suited for their child’s developmental stage.

Parents can offer activities that are slightly beyond their child’s current abilities, leveraging Vygotsky’s concept of the “ Zone of Proximal Development ,” which complements Piaget’s ideas.

• Peek-a-boo : Helps with object permanence.
• Texture Touch : Provide different textured materials (soft, rough, bumpy, smooth) for babies to touch and feel.
• Sound Bottles : Fill small bottles with different items like rice, beans, bells, and have children shake and listen to the different sounds.
• Memory Games : Using cards with pictures, place them face down, and ask students to find matching pairs.
• Role Playing and Pretend Play : Let children act out roles or stories that enhance symbolic thinking. Encourage symbolic play with dress-up clothes, playsets, or toy cash registers. Provide prompts or scenarios to extend their imagination.
• Story Sequencing : Give children cards with parts of a story and have them arranged in the correct order.
• Number Line Jumps : Create a number line on the floor with tape. Ask students to jump to the correct answer for math problems.
• Classification Games : Provide a mix of objects and ask students to classify them based on different criteria (e.g., color, size, shape).
• Logical Puzzle Games : Games that involve problem-solving using logic, such as simple Sudoku puzzles or logic grid puzzles.
• Debate and Discussion : Provide a topic and let students debate the pros and cons. This promotes abstract thinking and logical reasoning.
• Hypothesis Testing Games : Present a scenario and have students come up with hypotheses and ways to test them.
• Strategy Board Games : Games like chess, checkers, or Settlers of Catan can help in developing strategic and forward-thinking skills.

Comparing Jean Piaget’s Ideas with Other Theorists

Integrating diverse theories enables early years professionals to develop a comprehensive view of child development.

This allows for creating holistic learning experiences that support cognitive, social, and emotional growth.

By recognizing various developmental factors, professionals can tailor their practices to each child’s unique needs and background.

Comparison with Lev Vygotsky

Differences:.

• Stage-Based vs Continuous Development : Piaget proposed a stage-based model of cognitive development, while Vygotsky viewed development as a continuous process influenced by social and cultural factors.
• Role of Language : For Piaget, language is considered secondary to action, i.e., thought precedes language. Vygotsky argues that the development of language and thought go together and that the origin of reasoning has more to do with our ability to communicate with others than with our interaction with the material world.

Similarities:

• Both theories view children as actively constructing their own knowledge of the world; they are not seen as just passively absorbing knowledge.
• They also agree that cognitive development involves qualitative changes in thinking, not only a matter of learning more things.

Comparison with Erik Erikson

Erikson’s (1958) psychosocial theory outlines 8 stages of psychosocial development from infancy to late adulthood.

At each stage, individuals face a conflict between two opposing states that shapes personality. Successfully resolving conflicts leads to virtues like hope, will, purpose, and integrity. Failure leads to outcomes like mistrust, guilt, role confusion, and despair.

• Cognitive vs. Psychosocial Focus : Piaget focuses on cognitive development and how children construct knowledge. Erikson emphasizes psychosocial development, exploring how social interactions shape personality and identity.
• Universal Stages vs. Cultural Influence : Piaget proposed universal cognitive stages relatively independent of culture. Erikson’s psychosocial stages, while sequential, acknowledge significant cultural influence on their expression and timing.
• Role of Conflict : Piaget sees cognitive conflict (disequilibrium) as a driver for learning. Erikson views psychosocial crises as essential for personal growth and identity formation.
• Scope of Development : Piaget’s theory primarily covers childhood to adolescence. Erikson’s theory spans the entire lifespan, from infancy to late adulthood.
• Learning Process vs. Identity Formation : Piaget emphasizes how children learn and understand the world. Erikson focuses on how individuals develop their sense of self and place in society through resolving psychosocial conflicts.
• Stage-based theories : Both propose that development occurs in distinct stages  (Gilleard & Higgs, 2016).
• Age-related progression : Stages are generally associated with specific age ranges.
• Cumulative development : Each stage builds upon the previous ones.
• Focus on childhood : Both emphasize the importance of early life experiences.
• Active role of the individual : Both see children as active participants in their development.

Comparison with Urie Bronfenbrenner

Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological systems theory posits that an individual’s development is influenced by a series of interconnected environmental systems, ranging from the immediate surroundings (e.g., family) to broad societal structures (e.g., culture).

Bronfenbrenner’s theory offers a more comprehensive view of the multiple influences on a child’s development, complementing Piaget’s focus on cognitive processes with a broader ecological perspective.

• Individual vs. Ecological Emphasis : Piaget focuses on individual cognitive development through independent exploration. Bronfenbrenner emphasizes the complex interplay between an individual and multiple environmental systems, from immediate family to broader societal influences.
• Stage-based vs. Systems Approach : Piaget proposed distinct stages of cognitive development. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory views development as ongoing interactions between the individual and various environmental contexts throughout the lifespan.
• Role of Environment : For Piaget, the environment provides opportunities for cognitive conflict and schema development. Bronfenbrenner sees the environment as a nested set of systems (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem) that directly and indirectly influence development.
• Cognitive Structures vs. Proximal Processes : Piaget focused on the development of cognitive structures (schemas). Bronfenbrenner emphasized proximal processes – regular, enduring interactions between the individual and their immediate environment – as key drivers of development.
• Discovery Learning vs. Contextual Learning : Piaget advocated for discovery learning to challenge existing schemas. Bronfenbrenner would emphasize the importance of understanding and leveraging the various ecological contexts in which learning occurs, from family to cultural systems.
• Both recognize the child as an active participant in development.
• Both acknowledge the importance of the child’s environment in shaping development.

What is cognitive development?

Cognitive development is how a person’s ability to think, learn, remember, problem-solve, and make decisions changes over time.

This includes the growth and maturation of the brain, as well as the acquisition and refinement of various mental skills and abilities.

Cognitive development is a major aspect of human development, and both genetic and environmental factors heavily influence it. Key domains of cognitive development include attention, memory, language skills, logical reasoning, and problem-solving.

Various theories, such as those proposed by Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky, provide different perspectives on how this complex process unfolds from infancy through adulthood.

What are the 4 stages of Piaget’s theory?

Piaget divided children’s cognitive development into four stages; each of the stages represents a new way of thinking and understanding the world.

He called them (1) sensorimotor intelligence , (2) preoperational thinking , (3) concrete operational thinking , and (4) formal operational thinking . Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately.

According to Piaget, intellectual development takes place through stages that occur in a fixed order and which are universal (all children pass through these stages regardless of social or cultural background).

Development can only occur when the brain has matured to a point of “readiness”.

What are some of the weaknesses of Piaget’s theory?

However, the age at which the stages are reached varies between cultures and individuals, suggesting that social and cultural factors and individual differences influence cognitive development.

What are Piaget’s concepts of schemas?

Schemas are mental structures that contain all of the information relating to one aspect of the world around us.

According to Piaget, we are born with a few primitive schemas, such as sucking, which give us the means to interact with the world.

These are physical, but as the child develops, they become mental schemas. These schemas become more complex with experience.

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• Morra, S., & Borella, E. (2015). Working memory training: From metaphors to models. Frontiers in Psychology, 6 , 1097.
• McLeod, S. (2024, January 24). Vygotsky’s Theory Of Cognitive Development . Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html
• McLeod, S. (2024, January 25). Erik Erikson’s Stages Of Psychosocial Development . Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/erik-erikson.html
• Ojose, B. (2008). Applying Piaget’s theory of cognitive development to mathematics instruction. The Mathematics Educator, 18 (1), 26-30.
• Pascual-Leone, J. (1970). A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget’s developmental stages. Acta Psychologica, 32 , 301-345.
• Passey, D. (2013).  Inclusive technology enhanced learning: Overcoming cognitive, physical, emotional, and geographic challenges . Routledge.
• Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child . London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Piaget, J. (1945). Play, dreams and imitation in childhood . London: Heinemann.
• Piaget, J. (1952). The child’s conception of number. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. (M. Cook, Trans.). W W Norton & Co. (Original work published 1936)
• Piaget, J. (1957). Construction of reality in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Piaget, J., & Cook, M. T. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children . New York, NY: International University Press.
• Piaget, J. (1962). The language and thought of the child (3rd ed.). (M. Gabain, Trans.). Routledge & Kegan Paul. (Original work published 1923)
• Piaget, J. (1981).  Intelligence and affectivity: Their relationship during child development.(Trans & Ed TA Brown & CE Kaegi) . Annual Reviews.
• Piaget, J. (1985). The equilibration of cognitive structures: The central problem of intellectual development. (T. Brown & K. J. Thampy, Trans.). University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1975)
• Piaget, J., & Inhelder, B. (1956). The child’s conception of space. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Piaget, J., & Szeminska, A. (1952). The child’s conception of number. Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Plowden, B. H. P. (1967). Children and their primary schools: A report (Research and Surveys). London, England: HM Stationery Office.
• Rogoff, B. (2003). The cultural nature of human development . Oxford University Press.
• Shayer, M. (1997). The Long-Term Effects of Cognitive Acceleration on Pupils’ School Achievement, November 1996.
• Siegler, R. S., DeLoache, J. S., & Eisenberg, N. (2003). How children develop . New York: Worth.
• Smith, L. (Ed.). (1996).  Critical readings on Piaget . London: Routledge.
• Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Wadsworth, B. J. (2004). Piaget’s theory of cognitive and affective development: Foundations of constructivism . New York: Longman.

Further Reading

• BBC Radio Broadcast about the Three Mountains Study
• Piagetian stages: A critical review
• Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

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• v.11(8); 2017 Aug

Prevalence of Principles of Piaget’s Theory Among 4-7-year-old Children and their Correlation with IQ

Sugandha marwaha.

1 Postgraduate Student, Department of Paedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, I.T.S Dental College, Hospital and Research Centre, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Mousumi Goswami

2 Professor and Head, Department of Paedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, I.T.S Dental College, Hospital and Research Centre, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Binny Vashist

3 Postgraduate Student, Department of Paedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, I.T.S Dental College, Hospital and Research Centre, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Introduction

Cognitive development is a major area of human development and was extensively studied by Jean Piaget. He proposed that the development of intellectual abilities occurs in a series of relatively distinct stages and that a child’s way of thinking and viewing the world is different at different stages.

To assess Piaget’s principles of the intuitive stage of preoperational period among 4-7-year-old children relative to their Intelligence quotient (IQ).

Materials and Methods

Various characteristics as described by Jean Piaget specific for the age group of 4-7 years along with those of the previous (preconceptual stage of preoperational period) and successive periods (concrete operations) were analysed using various experiments in 300 children. These characteristics included the concepts of perceptual and cognitive egocentrism, centration and reversibility. IQ of the children was measured using Seguin form board test. Inferential statistics were performed using Chi-square test and Kruskal Wallis test. The level of statistical significance was set at 0.05.

The prevalence of perceptual and cognitive egocentrism was 10.7% and 31.7% based on the experiments and 33% based on the interview question. Centration was present in 96.3% of the children. About 99% children lacked the concept of reversibility according to the clay experiment while 97.7% possessed this concept according to the interview question. The mean IQ score of children who possessed perceptual egocentrism, cognitive egocentrism and egocentrism in dental setting was significantly higher than those who lacked these characteristics.

Perceptual egocentrism had almost disappeared and prevalence of cognitive egocentrism decreased with increase in age. Centration and lack of reversibility were appreciated in most of the children. There was a gradual reduction in the prevalence of these characters with increasing age. Mean IQ score of children who possessed perceptual egocentrism, cognitive egocentrism and egocentrism in dental setting was higher.

Physical, social and cognitive developments are major areas of human development. The term cognition means knowing or understanding [ 1 ]. A wide range of human mental abilities are included in it. In the broadest sense, cognitive development refers to mental development, which not only includes intelligence but also perception, recognition, recall and interpretation of information along with all forms of reasoning [ 2 ].

The information in the area of cognitive psychology in the 20 th century has been described by Jean Piaget, an eminent Swiss epistemologist. His work primarily concentrated on the development of thought in the child [ 2 ]. His work includes a theory of child cognitive development based on detailed observational studies on his three children and a nephew, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities [ 3 ].

Through his observations, Piaget proposed that the development of intellectual abilities occurs in a series of relatively distinct stages and that a child’s way of thinking and viewing the world is different at different stages. Since the thinking of a child is different from that of adults, one cannot expect a child to process and utilize information in the same way that an adult would. Therefore, for efficient communication with a child, it is necessary to understand his/her intellectual level and the ways in which thought processes work at various stages [ 4 ].

Piaget categorized cognitive intelligence into various stages, the year’s 4-7 fall in the intuitive stage of the preoperational period of the second period of Piaget’s conceptual intelligence [ 1 ].

Seguin form board test is widely used in both research and clinical practice as a performance test of intelligence for young children in our country [ 5 ]. It offers various advantages like simplicity, ease of administration, portability, arousal and retention of interest and temporal brevity [ 5 ].

This study was undertaken to provide a database and assess Piaget’s principles of the intuitive stage of pre-operational period among 4-7-year-old Northern Indian children relative to their IQ. It was also intended to see whether or not the features of previous stage diminish and successive stage establish with age.

This observational study was conducted among 300 children in the age group of 4-7 years of Delhi NCR region of India. Prior to the study, a letter was sent to the principal of the participating schools explaining the nature of the study and seeking permission. Informed consent was duly obtained from the parents of the participants. The children were divided into three groups based on their age. Group I comprised of children who had completed four years of age but not yet completed five years of age. Group II consisted of children who had completed five years of age but not yet completed six years of age. Group III contained children who had completed six years of age but not yet completed seven years of age.

Sample size estimation was done by using G Power software. In G Power, a prior power analysis was performed. Then, a Chi square test was chosen. A minimum total sample size of 298 was found to be sufficient for an error of alpha of 0.05, power of 80% and a moderate effect size of 0.25 (judged from a similar type of study). This sample size was rounded off as 300 (n=100 for each group).

IQ of each child was assessed using Seguin form board test [ 6 ]. It comprises of ten geometrical figures, as nearly uniform in size as their variety of form allows, cut through an oak board 18 X 12 X 1.5 inches. The board is finished in its natural color and the blocks are painted black. The board was kept horizontally on a table which was low enough to enable the child to look down upon the center of it and have full view of the board. The blocks were kept on the table within the reach of the child, making sure that no block is kept close to its recess. The child was then asked to place the blocks in their respective recesses as quickly and accurately as possible. Each child was given three trials and the time taken and number of errors made for each trial was recorded.

Four experiments were carried out and all the children were asked two interview questions in person to assess the classical characteristics of Piaget’s theory among these children. They were:

• Perceptual egocentrism;
• Cognitive egocentrism;
• Concept of centration;
• Concept of reversibility.

The experiments used in the study were based on Piaget’s cognitive theory. Experiment design for each characteristic was as follows:

I. Perceptual Egocentrism:

The child and the interpreter sat across a table. Toys of two different superheroes were placed on the table in front of the child and he/she was asked if he/she could see them. After the child confirmed that he/she could see both of them, an obstruction was placed in between the two toys such that the child could still see both the toys. Then he/she was asked if he/she could still see the superhero toys. After an affirmative reply, the child was asked if the two superheroes could see each other. A positive reply indicated the presence of perceptual egocentrism in the child.

II. Cognitive Egocentrism:

The child was shown three different stickers and was asked to tell his favourite and least liked sticker amongst them. After obtaining a response from the child, a mean monkey was introduced to the child and he was told that the mean monkey always took away your favourite sticker. It was also explained that the mean monkey doesn’t know which sticker is the child’s favourite and that it would first ask him/her and then take it. The child was asked to save his sticker. The experiment was carried out after explaining the entire procedure. The child was given three chances to save his sticker. If the child pointed to his favourite sticker after being asked by the monkey in all the three trials, he/she was considered to possess the characteristic of cognitive egocentrism. On the contrary, if the child was able to fool the monkey by pointing to a sticker other than his favourite, cognitive egocentrism was considered to be absent in him/her.

III. Concept of Centration:

To assess the concept of centration, the classical beaker experiment was used. The child was presented with two identical beakers having the same amount of liquid. Then the liquid from one beaker was poured into a third taller and thinner beaker in front of the child. The child was asked to identify the beaker that contained more liquid. If the child pointed out the taller beaker as the one containing more liquid, he/she was marked to possess the concept of centration.

IV. Concept of Reversibility

To assess the presence of concept of reversibility, the child was shown two similar linear worms of same length made up of same amount of clay. After the child confirmed that the two worms had an equal amount of clay, one worm was changed to a wiggly worm in front of the child without addition or removal of any clay. The child was then asked if both the worms still had an equal amount of clay. If the child replied with a positive answer, it indicated that the child could reverse the procedure of conversion of straight worm into wiggly worm and could understand that only the shape of the worm was changed without change in amount of clay, thus possessing the concept of reversibility.

Two interview questions were also asked to each child to assess the presence of egocentrism and concept of reversibility in dental settings. They were:

• To assess the presence of egocentrism in dental setting, each child was shown four different pictures and was asked what he/she would want to do after his/her dental treatment. The child was asked to choose a picture regarding what his/her best friend should do after their dental treatment. If the child chose the same picture for his/her best friend as he chose for him/herself, the child was considered to be egocentric.
• To assess the presence of reversibility in dental setting, each child was shown a series of pictures depicting a sad and dirty tooth, the tooth brushing itself and a happy and clean tooth in the same order. The child was then asked what could he/she do to keep his/her teeth happy. Children who could explain that brushing the teeth and cleaning them was required to keep the teeth happy were marked as ones who had mastered the concept of reversibility.

Statistical Analysis

Data was entered into Microsoft Excel spreadsheet and was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21.0. Categorical variables were summarized as frequencies and continuous variables like IQ score were summarized as mean and standard deviation. Graphs were prepared on Microsoft Excel. Shapiro Wilk test was used to check the normality of the data. Inferential statistics were performed using Chi-square test and Kruskal Wallis test. The level of statistical significance was set at 0.05.

Gender-wise distribution of study population among the three age groups was not significantly different. Males were predominantly more as compared to females in all the groups.

The mean IQ score of group I was significantly higher than that of Group II which was further significantly higher than that of Group III as shown in [ Table/Fig-1 ].

Showing age wise comparison of IQ score. Post hoc pairwise comparison done using Mann Whitney U test reveals that IQ (Group I) > IQ (Group II)>IQ (Gruup III)

p b value<0.001, significant, b Kruskal Wallis test.

The distribution of children according to their IQ category was significantly different among various age groups. In Group I, significantly higher number of children showed high average and very superior level of IQ as depicted in [ Table/Fig-2 ].

[Table/Fig-2]:

Showing distribution of study population based on their I.Q.

p value <0.001, Significant

The prevalence of perceptual egocentrism was found to be significantly higher among Group I (31%) as compared to other two age groups [ Table/Fig-3 ] whereas the prevalence of cognitive egocentrism was not found to be significantly different among all the groups [ Table/Fig-4 ].

Showing intra and inter-group comparison of the prevalence of perceptual egocentrism using Chi square test.

p-value<0.001, significant)

Showing inter-group comparison of the prevalence of congnitive egocenrism using a Chi square test.

(p-value = 0.373, Non-Significant)

Based on the beaker experiment, a significantly higher number of children showed the presence of centration (p<0.001). On inter-group comparison, lack of centration was found to be significantly higher among Group III as compared to the other groups [ Table/Fig-5 ].

Showing the prevalence of centration. On inter-group comparison using a Chi square test, lack of centration was significantly higher among Group III.

On intragroup comparison, the worm test using clay revealed that significantly higher number of children among all groups lacked the concept of reversibility (p<0.001). Intergroup comparison revealed no statistically significant difference [ Table/Fig-6 ].

Comparing the prevalence of reversibility using a Chi Square test.

p-value = 0.364, Non-Significant

Based on the interview question, the prevalence of egocentrism in dental setting was not found to be significantly different among all groups [ Table/Fig-7 ] whereas as a statistically higher number of children in each group showed the absence of egocentrism in dental setting (p<0.05).

Comparing the prevalence of egocentrism in dental setting. Inter-group comparison using a Chi square test reveals no statistically significant difference in its prevalence.

p-value = 0.282, Non-significant

All the children in Group III possessed the concept of reversibility in dental setting based on the interview question, which was significantly higher as compared to 94% among Group I [ Table/Fig-8 ].

Comparing the prevalence of reversibility in dental setting using Chi square test.

p-value = 0.011, Significant

On comparing the mean IQ score of children with characteristics of Piaget, it was observed that there was a statistically significant difference between the mean IQ score of children who possessed or lacked perceptual egocentrism, cognitive egocentrism and egocentrism in dental setting [ Table/Fig-9 ].

[Table/Fig-9]:

Co-relating the mean IQ score of children with Piaget’s characteristics.

b Kruskal Wallis test

In the preoperational period, the child’s representational abilities become more sophisticated and children learn to use language to communicate ideas to others. The child does not understand the use of symbols and basic operations [ 2 ]. The child is preoperational throughout most of the pre-school years, from age 18 or 24 months to 6-7 years of age. Cognitively, these years represent enormous change as the child’s capability of reasoning shows substantial growth [ 7 ].

The intuitive stage children between the age of 4-7 years who are usually the most difficult to manage in a dental setting and thus pose a challenge to the dentists were included in the study. (Children under 4 years of age who lacked the cognitive ability to apprehend the study were excluded). The characteristics studied included perceptual egocentrism, cognitive egocentrism, concept of centration and concept of reversibility. This paper has attempted to correlate the prevalence of these features with the age and IQ of a child. It would also help to anticipate and modify a child’s reaction in a dental setting using various behavior management techniques based on his/her level of cognitive development.

In the present study, the mean I.Q score of 4-5 year age group was significantly higher than that of 5-6-year-old which was further significantly higher than that of 6-7-year-old. The distribution of children according to their IQ category was significantly different among various age groups which ranged from extremely low to very superior. In 4-5 year age group, significantly higher number of children showed above and higher level of IQ.

The results of the study showed that prevalence of perceptual egocentrism was found to be significantly higher among 4-5 year age group. This is in accordance with Piaget who believed that by school age or earlier, most children have overcome this characteristic where they do not realize that other people see things from a viewpoint different from theirs. But there is continued cognitive egocentrism, in which children find it difficult to understand that other people do not know their thoughts. In communicating with others, children often forget to put themselves in the role of the listener. In the present study also, prevalence of cognitive egocentrism was not found to be significantly different among all age groups which further supports the principles of Piaget. Based on the interview question, the prevalence of egocentrism in dental setting among all age groups was not significantly different. It also reveals an increase in egocentrism with age. The reason for this increase might be because a child might answer at random. Eg: “If I am going to the playground, then my best friend should also come and play with me.”

Preoperational thought also focuses on a single striking feature of an object or event, a tendency called centration. All the children in the age group of 4-5 years possessed the concept of centration whereas it decreased to 90% in the age group of 6-7 years. Lack of centration was found to be significantly higher among 6-7 year age group as compared to other two age groups. This shows that there is a gradual and significant reduction in the prevalence of centration with increase in age. IQ of the children who responded correctly lied in average (27.3%), high average (9.1%), superior (45.8%) and very superior (18.2%) category. This indicates that elder children and children who had higher IQ showed the presence of decentration.

Another feature of this stage is irreversibility which is the inability to envision reversing an action. According to this study, most of the children among all age groups lacked the concept of reversibility and there was no statistically significant difference with respect to that. Based on the interview question, all the children in 6-7 year age group possessed the concept of reversibility in dental setting which was significantly higher as compared to 94% among 4-5 year age group. This might be because of an increased awareness about the importance of tooth brushing, role of media or a previous exposure to a dentist and dental health education. IQ of the children who possessed reversibility in dental setting lied in average (21.2%), high average (18.4%), superior (18.4%) and very superior (25.6%) category.

The mean IQ score of perceptually and cognitively egocentric children was significantly higher than that of non egocentric children. However, there was no statistically significant difference in the mean IQ score of children who possessed or lacked the concept of centration and concept of reversibility. This could be attributed to a greater number of subjects giving the incorrect response which was expected out of them according to their age.

Clinical application of the study: Knowledge of a child’s thought processes at different ages can be used to improve communication which helps to instill a positive attitude in children and their parents regarding oral health, create an environment to facilitate the child’s ability to ultimately accept care, protect the child’s self-esteem and enhance the work quality and efficiency of the dental personnel [ 8 , 9 ]. For example, it would not be useful to point out to a child how proud his father would be if he stopped sucking his thumb, since the child would think that his father’s attitude is the same as his (egocentrism). Since the child’s view of time is centered around the present, and he is dominated by how things look, feel, taste and sound now, there is also no point in talking to a four-year-old about how much better his teeth will look in the future if he stops sucking his thumb. Telling him that the teeth will feel better now or talking about how bad his thumb tastes, however, may make an impact, since he can relate to that. Taking advantage of egocentrism, the child could be allowed to make believe he/she is in-charge and could be permitted to take some decision about the treatment, e.g., when to temporarily stop using hand signals or allow them to be ‘in-charge’ of the saliva ejector [ 10 ]. The dentist should let the child patient know what’s going on and have an active part in treatment [ 11 ].

Children between the age of 2-7 years focus at a single compelling feature and thus cannot de-center. The sight of multiple instruments used during dental treatment will tend to terrify such children. Therefore, distracting the child by giving him/her a hand mirror to focus on and watch the procedure might help to ease of his/her anxiety [ 12 - 14 ]. Since a child at this stage of development concentrate on the most striking feature of an object or situation, the dental operatory should provide the child a strikingly colourful and relaxed environment to shift his/her focus away from the “terrifying” instruments.

If the study included an older age group of children, where fairly more number of subjects would have given correct responses, a correlation of centration and reversibility with IQ would be more significant.

This observational study provides an insight into the prevalence of Piaget’s characteristics and correlates them with the IQ of 4-7-year-old children. It concludes that perceptual egocentrism disappeared whereas cognitive egocentrism though present, decreased with increase in age. Centration and lack of reversibility were appreciated in most of the children between 4 and 7 years of age. There was a gradual reduction in the prevalence of these characters with increase in age from 4 to 7 years. The mean IQ score of children who possessed perceptual egocentrism, cognitive egocentrism and egocentrism in dental setting was significantly higher than those who lacked these characteristics. Thus, most of Piaget’s principles are still valid today.

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A study on the mechanism of female participation in rural development of yunnan on their capacity building for sustainable development—based on cognitive, emotional and behavioural perspectives.

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Gao, S.; Chen, F.; Jiao, J.; Zhang, Y. A Study on the Mechanism of Female Participation in Rural Development of Yunnan on Their Capacity Building for Sustainable Development—Based on Cognitive, Emotional and Behavioural Perspectives. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7044. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167044

Gao S, Chen F, Jiao J, Zhang Y. A Study on the Mechanism of Female Participation in Rural Development of Yunnan on Their Capacity Building for Sustainable Development—Based on Cognitive, Emotional and Behavioural Perspectives. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):7044. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167044

Gao, Suwei, Fan Chen, Jianyi Jiao, and Yangdan Zhang. 2024. "A Study on the Mechanism of Female Participation in Rural Development of Yunnan on Their Capacity Building for Sustainable Development—Based on Cognitive, Emotional and Behavioural Perspectives" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 7044. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167044

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