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Beyond Policing: The Problem of Crime in America

José luis morín.

1 John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY, New York City, NY, USA

Photo by Francois Polito. Sculpture by Carl Fredrik Reuterswärd.

In 2020, the United States experienced the sharpest one-year rise in homicides on record. 1 In 2021, hate crimes also surged to their highest level in twelve years, with the largest increases being anti-Black crimes followed by anti-Asian crimes. 2 Pundits and politicians on the right have been quick to cite bail reform and “defunding” of police as reasons for the national rise in crime. Yet, the best available evidence points to other causes—among them, the massive social and economic dislocation resulting from the Covid-19 pandemic and the nationwide proliferation of guns along with the spread of racial and ethnic hatred and the violence it has roused.

While violent crime today [is] much lower . . . than in 1991, when [it] reached its highest point in recent history, public anxiety about crime is high.

While violent crime today registers at much lower levels than in 1991, when violent crime reached its highest point in recent history, 3 public anxiety about crime is high. Yet, more police and a redoubling of get-tough measures, however alluring, have not proven to be as effective as they appear. An examination of what is not driving the recent spike in crime as well as what probably is driving it—and revisiting the role that policing and the criminal justice system has played in U.S. society in reproducing racial, social, and economic inequalities—may move us closer to arriving at effective public safety solutions.

Starting with What Is Not: Bail Reform and Defunding the Police

The purpose of bail is to “provide reasonable assurance of court appearance or public safety,” 4 but, a 2022 briefing report by the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights suggests that the current cash bail system is also associated with producing deleterious racial disparities and economic inequities that undermine the presumption of innocence and worsen public safety. 5 The Commission report points out that low-income persons and people of color are disproportionately detained as a result of their inability to make bail, and persons of color are more often assigned higher bail amounts and considered more “dangerous” than whites. 6 To persons jailed simply because they could not afford bail, jail can result in severe trauma: loss of employment, housing, custody of a child; and economic hardship. 7 The think tank, Prison Policy Initiative, issued a report in 2016 documenting that cash bail “perpetuates an endless cycle of poverty and jail time.” 8 Nevertheless, with crime rates on the rise in 2020, bail reform became a political cudgel, and New York State’s law became a focal point of harsh condemnation from the GOP and conservative media outlets nationwide. But analyses of bail reform show no clear link between bail reform and spikes in crime. 9

To reduce unnecessary pretrial detention and ameliorate the harms associated with cash bail, New York State passed a bail reform law in 2019, ending cash bail for certain misdemeanors and most non-violent felony cases. Changes to the original law in 2020 and 2022 gave judges the ability to impose cash bail in more situations. 10 To date, research on the law shows no significant impact on crime rates. One study by the Times Union of Albany found that, of almost 100,000 cases, only a minimal number (2 percent) of individuals faced rearrest for a violent felony. As a result, as many as 80,000 people may have avoided incarceration while posing no documented threat to public safety. 11 And, looking at the national picture, the Brennan Center for Justice, a progressive law and public policy institute, points out that crime surged nationally, even in states that did not enact bail reform. 12

Another report—this one from the Office of New York City Comptroller Brad Lander—covered three calendar years and revealed that “pretrial rearrest rates remained nearly identical pre- and post-bail reform.” 13 The Comptroller’s report also warned that rollbacks to New York State’s bail reforms would “syphon money” from low-income communities. Indeed, families unable to make cash bail often turn to for-profit bail bond companies that require a non-refundable premium of 10 to 15 percent, even if no wrongdoing is found. Some form of collateral—such as a car or house—is also required. As the bail bond industry has become increasingly lucrative, growing numbers of indigent persons and their families face steep financial risks. 14 Critics of bail reform, by contrast, have produced little to no empirical evidence to support their position. Outspoken in its condemnation of bail reform, the New York Police Department has fallen short in backing up its assertions that bail reform was causing increases in gun violence. In 2021, when challenged by Albany legislators, NYPD Commissioner Dermot Shea, failed to provide any hard data to support his contention that bail reform is driving up crime. In the end, he was forced to retract his statements. 15

The term “defunding the police” has been variously understood. For the purpose of this discussion, I define the term not as a movement to eliminate police budgets, but as a call to lessen encounters with police by shifting funds away from aggressive and militarized forms of policing toward social services—such as mental health, addiction, education, and housing. In its most literal meaning, “defunding the police” is frequently cited as a reason for the surge in crime. As with bail, hard evidence to support this allegation has not materialized. Of twelve Democratic-led cities (including Austin, Louisville, Rochester, and St. Paul) cited by Republicans as examples of where crime purportedly rose due to police defunding, criminal justice scholars find no discernible link between defunding and crime. In fact, not all twelve cities defunded police; most did not substantially reduce police funding, and some actually increased their police budgets. 16

Funding quality educational programs, by comparison, has proven to be successful in diminishing crime. 17 For example, two studies—one in North Carolina and one in Michigan—showed that increased expenditures on primary schools helped to reduce adult crime by improving student academic success, which in turn provides a greater opportunity for socio-economic mobility. 18

Examining What Is: Covid-19, Guns, and the Rise in Hate

Prior to the Covid-19 pandemic, crime rates were relatively low. As the graph in Figure 1 demonstrates, the rate of violent crime offenses declined from a peak in 1991 of 758.2 per year to 398.5 per year in 2020. 19 The rate of homicide over the same period also dropped significantly, from its highest level in 1991 compared with 2020. 20 But the crime rate shows an uptick with the onset of the Covid-19 pandemic in 2020.

Rate of violent crime offenses by population in the United States: 1985-2020.

Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Trend of Violent Crime from 1985 to 2020,” Crime Data Explorer, accessed September 19, 2022, https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend .

Note. Rate per 100,000 people, by year.

The pandemic is widely understood as the cause of immense social and economic dislocation, disproportionately disadvantaging children, communities of color, immigrants, LGBTQIA+ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer or questioning, intersex, asexual, and more) youth, and persons with disabilities. 21 The pandemic also exposed and aggravated deeply entrenched inequities in health care, poverty, education, housing, and racial segregation. Its impact on mental health and psychosocial well-being, substance abuse, and domestic violence has become a focus of attention in relation to the rise in crime. All these factors are related to the rise in crime.

As gun violence became a major driver of crime nationwide, hate crimes also spiked. During the pandemic, reports of hate crimes reached a twelve-year high.

The proliferation of guns and gun violence nationwide appears to have contributed greatly to the spike in homicides. Sharp increases in gun purchases coincided with the start of the pandemic in 2020 and continued well into 2021. 22 The increased supply of guns as well as the types of guns—high-powered semi-automatic weapons, for instance—has been linked to the surge in gun violence. 23 Criminologists Philip J. Cook and Jens Ludwig deem gun violence and the fear of gun violence as devastating to the lives of children and families around the country, most especially in low-income neighborhoods and communities of color. In their estimation, public safety begins with addressing the needs of communities most vulnerable to gun violence, and that includes investments in social policies, such as summer jobs for teens, cleaning vacant lots, and spending more on social programs—all of which have been shown to reduce homicide rates. 24

As gun violence became a major driver of crime nationwide, hate crimes also spiked. During the pandemic, reports of hate crimes reached a twelve-year high (see Figure 2 ). 25 While anti-Black incidents topped the list of hate crimes based on race, people of Asian descent experienced a steep rise in anti-Asian violence and crime, with a 169 percent increase in reports of anti-Asian hate crimes in fifteen of America’s largest cities and counties in the first quarter of 2021 when compared with the first quarter of 2020. 26

Hate crimes in the United States: 1995-2020.

Source: Hate Crime in the United States Incident Analysis, 1995 to 2020,” Crime Data Explorer, accessed October 6, 2022, https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/hate-crime .

. . . [I]t is no surprise that the earliest form of policing in the United States was the slave patrol, established in 1704.

Even before the pandemic, former President Donald Trump’s xenophobic, racially inflammatory rhetoric and policies were understood as green-lighting racial and ethnic violence. But unfortunately, this is not unique in our history. Hate groups of different types—white nationalists, neo-Nazis, and anti-government paramilitary organizations—historically have played a major role in the spread of hatred and violence.

Policing: The Historical Context

The history of policing in the United States may help us determine the best policies and practices to advance public safety without subjecting communities to abusive police practices.

The institution of slavery—and its continuance—was integral to the founding of the nation. So, it is no surprise that the earliest form of policing in the United States was the slave patrol, established in 1704. 27 The patrols were designed to maintain the system of slave labor and to capture runaway slaves. Patrollers, often armed, used violence to terrorize slaves and deter rebellions. In 1787, the apprehension of slaves was codified in the U.S. Constitution in Article IV, Section 2, commonly referred to as the “Fugitive Slave Clause.” The intent of the clause, which passed unanimously, was “to require fugitive slaves and servants to be delivered up like criminals.” 28 The clause was nullified by passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865. Slave patrols were also disbanded after the Civil War, only to be replaced by other forms of policing Black lives. These included the Ku Klux Klan and the institution of Jim Crow, which was maintained in Southern states by police who often used intimidation and terror to maintain a brutally oppressive system. 29

By the 1990s, the acquisition of military equipment by police forces across the country became ubiquitous . . .

Over time, police and other law enforcement agencies helped preserve and reproduce race and class inequality, as in the 1918 massacre of fifteen Mexican men in Porvenir, Texas and the 1921 Tulsa, Oklahoma massacre that resulted in destruction of a prosperous Black neighborhood. 30 Business and economic elites—such as Andrew Carnegie and Henry Clay Frick—also relied on police or private law enforcement agencies to employ deadly force against workers and union organizers. The massacre of strikers at the Homestead Steelworks in 1882 is one example; the 1897 massacre of coal miners in Lattimer, Pennsylvania is another. 31

The militarization of policing arose in the 1960s, amid cries for a “war on crime” and a “war on drugs.” In Los Angeles, Daryl F. Gates, then head of the Los Angeles Police Department, spearheaded an effort to outfit local police departments with military-grade armaments and equipment to handle emergencies, such as hostage situations and sniper shootings. By the 1990s, the acquisition of military equipment by police forces across the country became ubiquitous through a federal program that encouraged the militarization of law enforcement. 32 But, as a report from the American Civil Liberties Union documents, militarization, too, frequently came at the expense of individual civil liberties, particularly in Black and Latinx communities. 33

Police practices—including chokeholds, stop and frisks, and “broken windows” tactics—have come into question as the victims of police brutality have come into sharp focus. From George Floyd and Breonna Taylor to Eric Garner and Freddy Gray, their names are now familiar and—for some—synonymous with policing in the United States. Yet, despite the bright light shone on these cases, fatal police shootings continue to rise. According to the Washington Post , “2021 was the deadliest year for police shootings” since the newspaper began tracking such incidents in 2015. 34

Centering Communities to Advance Public Safety

Following incidents of excessive police force, municipalities commonly opt for police retraining. However, as some analysts observe, retraining is too often inadequate or ineffective in resolving or mitigating a recurrence of police misconduct. 35 Similarly, while there is merit to hiring police officers who resemble members of the communities they serve, a diverse police force does not necessarily decrease incidents of brutality against persons of color. Regrettably, research shows that a Black officer may be more inclined to use force in encounters with Black community members than white officers. 36 These officers often face the dilemma of how to fit into a police culture that commonly takes an “us against them” approach when patrolling communities. Aggressive behavior can be one way to prove that they belong. 37

Ensuring public safety requires attention to non-violent as well as violent situations. In the context of rising crime, expectations that police officers can resolve a wide array of concerns are high. Police are often called to aid unhoused people, assist individuals experiencing emotional difficulties, or settle domestic disputes. The police are not trained to handle such matters. Social workers or other trained professionals are much better equipped to deal with problems of this nature.

National data on homicide “clearance rates”—the rate at which homicide cases are resolved—also raise questions about the effectiveness of policing. In 2020, the clearance rate was just under 50 percent, representing a historic low and “a long, steady drop since the early 1980s, when police cleared about 70 percent of all homicides.” 38 The pandemic and the spike in violent crimes may help to explain the fall in clearance rates, but the data still beg the question of whether policing itself is sufficiently effective in meeting the public safety needs of contemporary society.

In determining the best approaches moving forward, the intractability of problems related to policing cannot be ignored. Policing remains a leading cause of death for young men in the United States. 39 People of color are most vulnerable, with Black men facing a one in one thousand risk of being killed by police. As we have seen, violent encounters with the police have profound effects on whole communities and neighborhoods, affecting the health and the life chances of individuals in those communities.

Community concerns about crime are real, especially in the most vulnerable communities of color. But the alternative of aggressive policing and mass incarceration has resulted in tremendous harm and cannot be the ultimate solution.

The high rate of recidivism—the rate at which persons released from prison are rearrested—does not point to a system that works well. The most recent Bureau of Justice Statistics covering a ten-year period (2008-2018) shows that “about 66 percent of prisoners released across 24 states in 2008 were rearrested within three years, and 82 percent were arrested within ten years.” 40 Recidivism rates this high should call into question the adequacy of the criminal justice system. It should also raise the issue of whether a system, focused on retribution rather than rehabilitation and public health, is actually serving the cause of public safety. These questions have found resonance with advocates of prison abolition. These abolitionists include scholars Angela Davis, Gina Dent, Ruth Wilson Gilmore, and Alex Vitale. In their view, the current structure of policing and incarceration is profoundly connected to systems of oppression. What is required, they believe, is a system that operates within a social-justice framework—one that substantively engages communities in maintaining their own safety. Such a system, they believe, would reaffirm the values of self-determination and community empowerment. 41 Rather than simply replicating punitive approaches that disproportionally and discriminatorily harm communities of color, abolitionists look to broader social solutions to the problem of crime—remedial measures such as restitution, reconciliation, rehabilitation, and restorative justice.

While a complete transformation of policing and the criminal justice system may not be on the immediate horizon, a variety of initiatives in recent years have sought to address the basic human needs of communities while minimizing negative interactions with police. In a 2021 experiment in Brooklyn, for example, the Brownsville Safety Alliance—a community-based organization—arranged for precinct police to disengage from their usual assignments in a two-block area for five days. In their place, trained violence interrupters and crisis management groups were charged with securing public safety. Although limited in duration, this pilot program has been praised by New York City officials as well as members of the community as “a model for the future.” 42 A range of other crime-reduction strategies that do not involve the deployment of police have also produced promising results. These include improvements in street lighting, clean-up of empty lots, provision of quality mental health and drug treatment services, and expansion of Medicaid services. 43

Community concerns about crime are real, especially in the most vulnerable communities of color. But the alternative of aggressive policing and mass incarceration has resulted in tremendous harm and cannot be the ultimate solution. The best, most promising option is to center communities and underlying social and economic inequality as the means to advance public safety.

Author Biography

José Luis Morín is a professor at John Jay College of Criminal Justice, City University of New York.

1 Jeff Asher, “Murder Rose by almost 30% in 2020: It’s Rising at a Slower Rate in 2021,” New York Times , September 22, 2021, updated November 15, 2021, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/22/upshot/murder-rise-2020.html .

2 Federal Bureau of Investigation, “FBI Releases 2020 Hate Crime Statistics,” August 30, 2021, available at https://www.fbi.gov/news/press-releases/press-releases/fbi-releases-2020-hate-crime-statistics ; See also, Christina Carrega and Priya Krishnakumar, “Hate Crime Reports in US Surge to the Highest Level in 12 Years, FBI Says,” CNN , October 26, 2021, available at https://www.cnn.com/2021/08/30/us/fbi-report-hate-crimes-rose-2020/index.html .

3 Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Trend of Violent Crime from 1985 to 2020,” Crime Data Explorer, available at https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend .

4 Timothy Schnacke, “Fundamentals of Bail: A Resource Guide for Pretrial Practitioners and a Framework for American Pretrial Reform,” National Institute of Corrections, September 2, 2014, available at https://s3.amazonaws.com/static.nicic.gov/Library/028360.pdf .

5 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, “Civil Rights Implications of Cash Bail,” Briefing Report, Washington, DC, available at https://www.usccr.gov/reports/2021/civil-rights-implications-cash-bail .

6 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 10.

7 Adureh Onyekwere, “How Cash Bail Works,” Brennan Center for Justice at NYU Law, December 10, 2019, updated February 24, 2021, available at https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/how-cash-bail-works#:~:text=Cash%20bail%20is%20used%20as,is%20forfeited%20to%20the%20government ; See also, U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 6-8.

8 Bernadette Rabuy and Daniel Kopf, “Detaining the Poor: How Money Bail Perpetuates an Endless Cycle of Poverty and Jail Time,” Prison Policy Initiative , May 10, 2016, available at https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/DetainingThePoor.pdf .

9 Ames Grawert and Noah Kim, “The Facts on Bail Reform and Crime Rates in New York State,” Brennan Center for Justice at NYU Law, March 22, 2022, available at https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/facts-bail-reform-and-crime-rates-new-york-state .

10 Taryn A. Merkl, “New York’s Latest Bail Law Changes Explained,” Brennan Center for Justice at NYU Law, April 16, 2020, available at https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/new-yorks-latest-bail-law-changes-explained ; See also, Jon Campbell, “NY Lawmakers Pass $220B Budget that Changes Bail Reform, Approves Buffalo Bills Stadium Funding,” Gothamist, April 9, 2022, available at https://gothamist.com/news/ny-lawmakers-pass-220b-budget-that-changes-bail-reform-approves-buffalo-bills-stadium-funding?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=nypr-email&utm_campaign=Gothamist%20Daily%20Newsletter&utm_term=https%3A%2F%2Fgothamist.com%2Fnews%2Fny-lawmakers-pass-220b-budget-that-changes-bail-reform-approves-buffalo-bills-stadium-funding&utm_id=88591&sfmc_id=2849872&utm_content=202249 .

11 Grawert and Kim, “Bail Reform and Crime.”

12 Grawert and Kim, “Bail Reform and Crime.”

13 Office of New York City Comptroller Brad Lander, “NYC Bail Trends Since 2019,” available at https://comptroller.nyc.gov/reports/nyc-bail-trends-since-2019/ .

14 Gillian B. White, “Who Really Makes Money Off of Bail Bonds?” The Atlantic , May 12, 2017, available at https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/05/bail-bonds/526542/ ; See also, Onyekwere, “How Cash Bail Works”; Rabuy and Kopf, “Detaining the Poor.”

15 “During Questioning in Albany, NYPD Commissioner Shea Backtracks on Bail Reform Law as Big Reason for Gun Violence,” CBS New York , October 14, 2021, available at https://www.cbsnews.com/newyork/news/bail-reform-nypd-commissioner-dermot-shea-assembly-hearing/ .

16 Daniel Funke, “Fact Check: No Evidence Defunding Police to Blame for Homicide Increases, Experts Say,” USA TODAY , January 28, 2022, available at https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2022/01/28/fact-check-police-funding-not-linked-homicide-spikes-experts-say/9054639002/ .

17 See, for example, Brian Bell, Rui Costa, and Stephen Machin, “Why Does Education Reduce Crime?” Journal of Political Economy 130, no. 3 (2022): 732-65.

18 David J. Deming, “Better Schools, Less Crime?” Quarterly Journal of Economics 126 (2011): 2063-115; See also, E. Jason Baron, Joshua M. Hyman, and Brittany N. Vasquez, “Public School Funding, School Quality, and Adult Crime,” National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 29855, available at http://www.nber.org/papers/w29855 .

19 FBI, “Trend of Violent Crime from 1985 to 2020.”

20 FBI, “Trend of Homicide from 1985-2020,” Crime Data Explorer, available at https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/crime-trend .

21 Charles Oberg, H.R. Hodges, Sarah Gander, Rita Nathawad, and Diana Cutts. “The Impact of COVID-19 on Children’s Lives in the United States: Amplified Inequities and a Just Path to Recovery,” Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care 52, no. 7 (2022): 1-17.

22 Sabrina Tavernise, “An Arms Race in America: Gun Buying Spiked during the Pandemic. It’s Still Up,” New York Times , May 29, 2021, updated May 30, 2021, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/29/us/gun-purchases-ownership-pandemic.html .

23 Tavernise, “An Arms Race in America.”

24 Philip J. Cook and Jens Ludwig, “Gun Violence Is THE Crime Problem,” Vital City . March 2, 2022, available at https://www.vitalcitynyc.org/articles/gun-violence-is-the-crime-problem .

25 Carrega and Krishnakumar, “Hate Crime Reports in US Surge”; FBI, “Hate Crime in the United States Incident Analysis, 1995-2020,” Crime Data Explorer,” accessed October 6, 2022, https://crime-data-explorer.fr.cloud.gov/pages/explorer/crime/hate-crime .

26 Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism at California State University, “Report to the Nation: Anti-Asian Prejudice & Hate Crime 2021,” (2021), available at https://www.csusb.edu/sites/default/files/Report%20to%20the%20Nation%20-%20Anti-Asian%20Hate%202020%20Final%20Draft%20-%20As%20of%20Apr%2028%202021%2010%20AM%20corrected.pdf .

27 Chelsea Hansen, “Slave Patrols: An Early Form of American Policing,” National Law Enforcement Museum , July 10, 2019, available at https://lawenforcementmuseum.org/2019/07/10/slave-patrols-an-early-form-of-american-policing/ ; See also, Jill Lepore, “The Invention of the Police: Why Did American Policing Get so Big, so Fast? The Answer, Mainly, Is Slavery,” The New Yorker , July 13, 2020, available at https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2020/07/20/the-invention-of-the-police .

28 Library of Congress, “The Fugitive Slave Clause,” Constitution Annotated, available at https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artIV-S2-C3-1/ALDE_00013571/ [“clause”].

29 Hansen, “Slave Patrols.”

30 Zinn Education Project, “Massacres in U.S. History,” available at https://www.zinnedproject.org/collection/massacres-us/ .

31 Gary Potter, “The History of Policing in the United States, Part 3,” EKU Online . Eastern Kentucky University. July 9, 2013, available at https://ekuonline.eku.edu/blog/police-studies/the-history-of-policing-in-the-united-states-part-3/ ; See also, Paul A. Shackel, “How a 1897 Massacre of Pennsylvania Coal Miners Morphed from a Galvanizing Crisis to Forgotten History,” Smithsonian Magazine , March 13, 2019, available at https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/how-1897-massacre-pennsylvania-coal-miners-morphed-galvanizing-crisis-forgotten-history-180971695/ .

32 Radley Balko, Rise of the Warrior Cop: The Militarization of America’s Police Forces , (New York: Public Affairs, 2021).

33 American Civil Liberties Union, “War Comes Home: The Excessive Militarization of American Policing” (2014), available at https://www.aclu.org/sites/default/files/assets/jus14-warcomeshome-report-web-rel1.pdf .

34 The Marshall Project, “How Policing Has—and Hasn’t—Changed since George Floyd,” August 6, 2022, available at https://www.themarshallproject.org/2022/08/06/how-policing-has-and-hasn-t-changed-since-george-floyd .

35 See, for example, Alex S. Vitale, The End of Policing (London: Verso Books, 2017), 4-11.

36 Vitale, The End of Policing , 11-13; See also, “Does Diversifying Police Forces Reduce Brutality against Minorities?” NPR , June 22, 2020, available at https://www.npr.org/2020/06/22/881559659/does-diversifying-police-forces-reduce-brutality-against-minorities .

37 Vitale, The End of Policing ; See also, José Luis Morín, Latino/a Rights and Justice in the United States: Perspectives and Approaches , 2nd edition (Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2009), 106-15; Balko, Rise of the Warrior Cop .

38 Weihua Li and Jamiles Lartey, “As Murders Spiked, Police Solved about Half in 2020,” The Marshall Project , January 12, 2022, available at https://www.themarshallproject.org/2022/01/12/as-murders-spiked-police-solved-about-half-in-2020 .

39 Frank Edwards, Hedwig Lee, and Michael Esposito, “Risk of being Killed by Police Use of Force in the United States by Age, Race–Ethnicity, and Sex,” PNAS 116, no. 34 (2019): 16793-8.

40 Leonardo Antenangeli and Matthew R. Durose, Recidivism of Prisoners Released in 24 States in 2008: A 10-Year Follow-up Period (2008–2018), Bureau of Justice Statistics NCJ Number 256094 September 2021, available at https://bjs.ojp.gov/library/publications/recidivism-prisoners-released-24-states-2008-10-year-follow-period-2008-2018 .

41 See, for example, Ruth Wilson Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons Surplus, Crisis, and Oppression in Globalizing California (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007); Vitale, The End of Policing ; Derecka Purnell, Becoming Abolitionists: Police, Protests, and the Pursuit of Freedom (New York: Astra House, 2021); Mariame Kaba, We Do This ’Til We Free Us: Abolitionist Organizing and Transforming Justice (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2021); Angela Y. Davis, Gina Dent, Erica R. Meiners, and Beth Richie. Abolition. Feminism. Now (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2022).

42 Yoav Gonen and Eileen Grench, “Five Days without Cops: Could Brooklyn Policing Experiment Be a ‘Model for the Future’?” The City , January 3, 2021, available at https://www.thecity.nyc/2021/1/3/22211709/nypd-cops-brooklyn-brownsville-experiment-defund-police .

43 Shaila Dewan. “‘Re-fund the Police’? Why It might Not Reduce Crime,” New York Times , November 8, 2021, updated November 11, 2021, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/08/us/police-crime.html .

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Crime Rates in a Pandemic: the Largest Criminological Experiment in History

• Published: 16 June 2020
• Volume 45 , pages 525–536, ( 2020 )

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• Ben Stickle   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8561-2070 1 &
• Marcus Felson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3173-072X 2  

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The COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 has impacted the world in ways not seen in generations. Initial evidence suggests one of the effects is crime rates, which appear to have fallen drastically in many communities around the world. We argue that the principal reason for the change is the government ordered stay-at-home orders, which impacted the routine activities of entire populations. Because these orders impacted countries, states, and communities at different times and in different ways, a naturally occurring, quasi-randomized control experiment has unfolded, allowing the testing of criminological theories as never before. Using new and traditional data sources made available as a result of the pandemic criminologists are equipped to study crime in society as never before. We encourage researchers to study specific types of crime, in a temporal fashion (following the stay-at-home orders), and placed-based. The results will reveal not only why, where, when, and to what extent crime changed, but also how to influence future crime reduction.

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The COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 is unquestionably one of the most significant world-wide events in recent history, impacting culture, government operations, crime, economics, politics, and social interactions for the foreseeable future. One unique aspect of this crisis is the governmental response of issuing legal stay-at-home orders to attempt to slow the spread of the virus. While these orders varied, both in degree and timing, between countries and states, they generally began with strong encouragement for persons to isolate themselves voluntarily. As the magnitude of the crisis grew, governments began legally mandating persons to stay-at-home to reduce the transmission rate of the virus. There were, of course, exceptions; workers who were deemed ‘essential,’ such as those in the fields of medicine, finance, public safety, food production, transportation, and in other miscellaneous industries did not have to abide by these orders to the degree to which the general public did.

Nevertheless, practically overnight, the entire country ceased or significantly reduced day-to-day travels, eliminating commutes from home to work, as well as leisure activities, shopping trips, social gatherings, the ability to dine out, and more. One poll in late March found that 90% of Americans, including essential workers, were ‘staying at home as much as possible’ (Washington Post-ABC, 2020 ). The ‘stay-at-home’ mandates brought about the most wide-reaching, significant, and sudden alteration of the lives of billions of people in human history. Across the United States and around the world, a positive byproduct (Fattah, 2020 ) of these unprecedented events is a dramatic drop in crime rates.

Initial Crime Data

Several researchers have made initial examinations into how crime rates have fluctuated in the advent of COVID-19. The results have been mixed, to say the least, especially when comparing broad categories of crime across different cities and with different methods and periods of study. However, these initial academic studies are intrinsically valuable and deserve to be mentioned here.

One of the earliest studies with perhaps the most striking results was by Shayegh and Malpede ( 2020 ), which identified an overall drop in crime in San Francisco of 43% and Oakland of about 50% following city issuance of some of the most restrictive and early stay-at-home orders in the US, beginning March 16th , 2020 and the two weeks after.

Surprisingly, significant results are also clearly seen when examining specific crimes against retailers in crime in Los Angeles. Pietrawska, Aurand, and Palmer ( 2020a ) found a 64% increase in retail burglary, while city-wide burglary rates were down 10%. Similarly, Pietrawska, Aurand, and Palmer ( 2020b ) identified a five-week change in crimes occurring at restaurants in Chicago, a 74% reduction, while city-wide crime declined 35%. Continuing their study of crime rates in the pandemic outside of a retail focus, Pietrawska, Aurand, and Palmer ( 2020c ) compared crimes against persons and crimes against property in four cities for ten weeks, finding sharp variations from week to week and within different crime types.

Another early study by Ashby ( 2020a ) of eight large US cities during the first few weeks of the crisis (January to March 23rd—before some states and areas implemented stay-at-home orders) found disparate impacts by crime type and location. For example, burglary declined in Austin, Los Angeles, Memphis, and Scan Francisco, but not in Louisville or Boston. Conversely, serious assaults in public declined in Austin, Los Angeles, and Louisville, but not other cities.

Felson, Jiang, and Xu ( 2020 ) examined burglary in Detroit during three periods, representing data before stay-at-home orders were in place and two periods under orders (March 10th to March 23rd and March 24th to March 31st). Their findings indicated an overall 32% decline in burglary, with the most substantial change in the third period. However, the decline was more significant in block groups of higher residential parcels than in mix-use land areas.

Campedelli et al. ( 2020 ) analyzed crime in Los Angeles in two time periods (the first ending March 16th and the second ending March 28th) using Bayesian structural time-series models to estimate what crime would have been if the COVID-19 pandemic had not occurred. Comparing the actual crime data against the estimated ‘sans-pandemic’ data, the first model found an overall crime reduction of 5.6% during the pandemic. Likewise, the second model (ending March 28th) showed a 15% reduction. Specifically, researchers found that overall crime rates significantly decreased, particularly when referencing robbery (−24%), shoplifting (−14%), theft (−21%), and battery (−11%). However, burglary, domestic violence, stolen vehicles, and homicide remained statically unchanged.

While not explicitly measuring crime rates, studies of calls for police service can function as an indirect measure of crime in a given area. Early studies of calls for service during the pandemic present mixed results. Lum, Maupin, and Stoltz ( 2020 ) found that 57% of 1000 agencies surveyed in the United States and Canada reported a reduction in calls for service in March of 2020. Ashby ( 2020b ), on the other hand, found no discernible difference in forecasted calls for service in 10 large US cities between the first identified cases of COVID-19 in the US throughout early March. However, Ashby found that once stay-at-home orders were implemented, calls for service did decline, although not evenly across call types or cities. In another study of police calls for service, Mohler et al. ( 2020 ) examined calls in Los Angeles and Indianapolis between January and mid-April; they concluded there was some impact on police calls for service but not across all crime types or places.

Internationally, Swedish researchers Gerell, Kardell, and Kindgren ( 2020 ) examined crime during the five weeks after government restrictions on activities began, observing an 8.8% total drop in reported crime despite the country’s somewhat lax response (when compared to other countries’ policies on restricting the public’s movement). Specifically, the researchers found residential burglary fell by 23%, commercial burglary declined 12.7%, and instances of pick-pocketing were reduced by a staggering 61% —however, there was little change in robberies or narcotics crime. In Australia, Payne and Morgan ( 2020 ) studied crime in March, finding assaults, sexual violations, and domestic violence were not significantly different from what was predicted under ‘normal’ conditions at the lower end of the confidence interval. They cautioned against early conclusions based on this data as the government orders came only a few weeks into the study.

These initial reports indicate that crime rates have indeed changed, but unequally across different categories, types, places, and timeframes. Among crime researchers, the featured question of this pandemic will be, “Why have crime rates fallen so dramatically?” The corollary is, “What can be learned from this experience to leverage crime reduction in the future?” The data and opportunities before every criminologist will provide near-endless research opportunities at levels never before possible, and every effort should be made to capture data and promote the study of crime. This research note aims to identify and encourage these lines of inquiry, to urge researchers to dive deeply into the data made available from the pandemic, and to provide the impetus for not only discerning why crime fell but also for how to pragmatically utilize this knowledge after the world emerges from seclusion.

Crime in Lock-Down: Theoretical Implications

During the few hours before a legal stay-at-home order was implemented, and throughout the first few weeks that followed, it is essential to note what likely did ‘not’ change. As people around the world returned from frantic and stress-filled trips to stock up on food and other essentials and closed the door to their residence behind them, their biological and physiological conditions changed very little, nor did the labels attributed to them by society, friends, or family. Poverty and inequality did not disappear or increase immediately. It is unlikely that self-control dramatically increased either. There were, however, things that did change; society became more disorganized, and social influences and relationships were suddenly cut, diminished, or otherwise altered. Strain, stress, and anomie likely increased significantly as many became fearful for the future (both financially and physically) and estranged from family and friends whom they could not visit physically. Further, punitive responses to crime (i.e., deterrence) were slowed or ceased altogether as courts closed, police were encouraged to reduce contact with the public, and thousands of prisoners were released early.

With crime declining at such a significant pace and many of the often-attributed circumstances impacting crime staying consistent or in some cases increasing or decreasing in a direction opposite of what many believe drives crime, many criminological theories appear to be struggling to explain the abrupt and sweeping change. We believe the scope and nature of crime changes during the COVID-19 crisis will become a proving ground for the many theories that attempt to explain the etiology of criminal behavior. In the end, this naturally occurring experiment will advance our knowledge of crime and human behavior as no other event has ever done during the era in which criminological data were widely available.

As such, we argue that the single most salient aspect of the steep fall in crime rates during the COVID-19 pandemic are the legal stay-at-home orders (i.e., lock-down, shelter-in-place) implemented to slow the spread of the virus by promoting social distancing. Stay-at-home orders were issued by most states and legally required residence to stay within their homes except for authorized activities. Commonly, these activities included seeking health care, purchasing food and other necessary supplies, banking, and similar activities. The orders either outright closed or by de-facto closed broad swaths of the economy and impacted schools, private social gatherings, religious activities, travel, and more. In short, these orders disrupted the daily activities of entire populations and was the only variable that changed abruptly, just days before double-digit drops in crime around the world. As such, we believe, the Environmental Criminology suite of perspectives including; Rational Choice (Clarke & Felson, 1993 ) and Routine Activity (Cohen & Felson, 1979 ) will emerge as frontrunners in understanding the crime changes during COVID-19 and will provide insight how to influence crime in the future.

A Call to Examine Crime

Therefore, we offer a call for examining crime before, during, and after a government-imposed stay-at-home order, that coincides with the COVID-19 pandemic. Specifically, we advocate for researchers to consider crime in the context of temporal shifts, in a place-based context, to use emerging data sources, and to study crime with specificity.

Crime Specificity

Criminologists tend to overgeneralize about crime while underestimating the enormous specificity in offender decision making (LeClerc, & Wortley, R. (Eds.)., 2013 ). Even within each crime type, the finer particulars of an offense should be studied to understand how crime patterns change and shift. Specificity is even more critical when researching crime in a pandemic as it allows for an understanding of nuanced changes, such as opportunity structure, that would otherwise be missed. For example, the changes in daily activities in the wake of the pandemic tend to decrease the population in non-residential parts of the metropolis, while increasing the population in residential zones.

For example, the broad category of ‘theft’ appears to be down across many cities in the US (Ashby, 2020a ). However, theft is likely not declining evenly across all categories. Consider theft in a retail context. The retail sector has experienced an 85% decline in foot traffic after the stay-at-home orders were implemented (Jahshan, 2020 ); many stores are closed, and thus the opportunity for shoplifting and employee theft are curtailed. Pietrawska et al. ( 2020a ), for example, identified a 24% decline in shoplifting in Los Angeles, compared to a city-wide decline of theft at only 5%. However, theft may persist (and even see an increase) within stores that remain open such as grocers, construction supplies, convenience stores, pharmacies, and other ‘essential’ retailers. These thefts may be the result of a change in offender behavior (i.e., shifting from targeting a specific store—now closed, to another that is open), due to panic buying (i.e., purchasing limits on essential products may result in theft), or impacted by reduced guardianship within the stores (e.g., short-staffed employees are more focused on service than crime prevention).

One of the most exciting illustrations of crime specificity has to do with pocket-picking the covert removal of a wallet from a pocket or purse in a crowded venue. This crime thrives on a crowd, perhaps more than any other form. As noted earlier, Swedish researchers (Gerell et al., 2020 ) found that pocket-picking decreased by 61% in Stockholm during the COVID-affected period when crowd-reduction was especially emphasized. These findings underscore the importance of linking specific changes in routines to specific types of crime.

Theft may also be moving outside of the physical retail structure and developing in areas where officially reported came data is not readily available. For example, before COVID-19 package theft (e.g., packages delivered outside a residence and stolen before the owner can retrieve them) was a growing concern, and few, if any, police agencies kept data on the problem (Stickle, Hicks, Stickle, & Hutchinson, 2020 ). However, with entire populations confined to their homes, shopping has shifted virtually, and delivery of products has risen 74% (ACI, 2020 ). As a result, the opportunity for theft of packages left unattended at a residence may be increasing (Stickle, 2020a ). While more person may be home, daily routine activities have also been interrupted, which impact guardianship. As a result, packages left unattended for extended periods or forgotten altogether (Stickle, 2020b ).

These are just a few examples of why examining specific crime types and situations is vital to criminology. It allows the researcher to identify nuanced changes that are important when developing future prevention techniques and to test theoretical tools. There are, no doubt, many factors that are impacting pandemic crime rates, and only by examining them with specificity can researchers achieve an enhanced understanding of crime.

Temporal Shift

Temporal understanding of crime is essential because the time of day, day of the week, months, seasons, and other time-related factors are commonly known to impact crime; in other words, crime is not evenly distributed across place or time (Brantingham & Brantingham, 1995 ). However, stay-at-home orders that have people living, working, eating, and finding entertainment at home as weekdays merge into weekends may cause time distinctions to blur when speaking of crime. The change in the population’s routine behavior, even at home, is already being seen in online browsing habits and television use; behavior has shifted to higher viewing rates on Mondays than on the traditional Saturday (Comcast, 2020 ). To address these unusual, pandemic-generated changes in routine activities, criminologists need to examine crime rates in a different temporal perspective and consider the context of COVID-19 stay-at-home orders. However, there must be more specificity than a pre and post examination of crime trends, and measurements at the state and even community level are needed to ensure accuracy.

We propose the following seven important periods for identification and comparison of crime rate changes related to the crisis (Table 1 ).

These measures must be tailored to individual communities or states to coincide with routine activity trends and government orders. Period 1 should be of sufficient time to establish some base levels of crime rates. Period 2 is where the beginning of voluntary behavior changes is likely to be observable, somewhere around mid-February, and extending until the government ordered quarantines for the general population. During this time, as concern swept across the nation, many people chose to alter their lifestyles; schools closed, and other modifications in society likely began to impact crime slowly. For example, an early study of police calls for service by Mohler et al. ( 2020 ) found routine activities began to change 8 to 10 days before stay-at-home orders were enacted in Los Angeles, California, and Indianapolis, Indiana, as well as other cities and other nations.

Periods 3 and 4 are contingent on the length of the government-ordered closures. For example, if a state was under stay-at-home orders for 4 weeks, we recommend examining an early period (period 3) as well as a late period (period 4) of two weeks. Dividing the length of stay-at-home orders by half (or more if the order is longer than six weeks) will capture the changes in routine activity as the stay-at-home orders continue. Capturing this data in two or more periods is crucial as the longer the order continues, the more likely people will begin to violate the order, and crime rates may begin to change. For example, early reports in Sweden saw a slight decline in vandalism (−4%), followed by a sharp increase after five weeks into the restrictions. There is also likely some relationship between non-compliance and crime as Nivette et al. ( 2020 ) found non-compliance with stay-at-home orders was associated with delinquent behavior. While early reports have not identified the same trends in the US, news reports during the month of May (Koetsier, 2020 ) indicated that a large number of persons were emerging from homes before an official end to the stay-at-home orders. A rise in crime may be detected because it is possible that the longer the orders continue, the less effective they become.

Lastly, periods 5 and 6 are difficult to define as the situation is still unfolding at the time of this publication, as a complete rescinded stay-at-home order has not occurred to date. Moreover, it is also critical to consider that many individuals who live in an area where the stay-at-home orders have been partially revoked may still choose not to return to their daily lives (see a news report by Schaul et al., 2020 ). This is why it will be important to capture data starting at the point of a rescinded stay-at-home order and by measuring crime rates every few weeks after that for an extended period. These periods may coincide with the phased re-opening plan followed by many governments (see CDC, 2020 ) or within a timeframe for several weeks each, which may result in the need to add continued periods of crime data.

Criminologists do not have to rely on the assumption that people follow stay-at-home orders. For the first time, Mobility Trend Reports are being offered free (including in CSV format) by both Google ( 2020 ) and Apple ( 2020 ). These reports offer aggregated movement data based on anonymized cell phone location history at the national, state, and county levels. The data includes daily reports and includes inferred locations (i.e., retail, grocery, parks, transit, residential, workplace). With this data, it is possible to compare societal behavior within these recommended periods and gain a more accurate picture of where people were and importantly when they were there. Combined with the ability to measure compliance with movement restrictions, criminologists have the data to examine the routine activities of whole populations at a level never before possible while overlaying crime rates for both a temporal a place-based evaluation.

Place-Based

Studying crime based at a place is another critical part of understanding not only crime trends but also methods to disrupt crime (Eck & Weisburd, 2015 ). Under the current circumstances with people’s daily routine disrupted, this is even more important as people shift to more time within the home, the opportunities and places for offenders and victims to meet become limited. As a result, there is likely far less crime as people; both victims and offenders are not together in a place for the crime to occur.

To illustrate, consider workplace violence and crime. With a significant number of persons at home, rather than work, there is a reduced opportunity for offenders to assault co-workers. Similarly, there is less opportunity for a victim to have a phone stolen from the breakroom. It is important to remember that during the COVID-19 crisis, variables commonly related to many other criminological theories (i.e., poverty, stress, self-control) have not changed to such a degree to explain the sharp reduction in crime. Instead, the opportunity to be connected to a victim in time and place appears to be the most significant variable that has led to a marked reduction in the workplace and other place-based crimes.

However, in some regards, this place-based shift may result in increased crime rates in other areas (Roberts, 2020 ). For example, while digital, the internet can be classified as a ‘place’ or medium for victimization to occur (Machimbarrena et al., 2018 ). Under the COVID-19 stay-at-home orders, people are spending significantly more time online. By late March, for example, cable internet usage, as reported by The Internet and Television Association ( 2020 ), surged more than 30% and continued to grow until mid-April, which appears to coincide with many of the stay-at-home orders. The increased time using the internet likely leads to more opportunities for cybercrimes to occur as the victim’s virtual presence has shifted dramatically (e.g., away from place-based crime at work or school and to place-based crime online). Additionally, offenders may have also been impacted by the COVID-19 stay-at-home orders and have increased time to identify victims.

Shifting back to a physical place and crimes, it is also important to evaluate land usage and population density when considering crime trends. There are emerging trends in the new COVID-19 crime data suggesting crime differences in certain places (Ashby, 2020a ). For example, public places such as stores, restaurants, and entertainment areas are experiencing sharp decreases in some types of crime (Pietrawska et al., 2020a ), while crime in the home may be remaining consistent (Campbdelli, 2020; Payne & Morgan, 2020 ; Shayegh & Malpede, 2020 , and mix-land use may see relatively stable or slightly increasing crime rates (Felson et al., 2020 ). Here again, routine activities and rational choice perspectives may explain much of the crime in these places. For instance, entertainment businesses and districts, along with dine-in restaurants, were generally closed during the orders. Thus, with fewer offenders routinely in these places and fewer victims present, crime will naturally decline. However, a reasoning offender (Cornish & Clarke, 2014 ) may choose to target areas with fewer people (i.e., guardians) such as closed malls, business parks, and other places that may see an increase in property crimes. Additionally, mixed land usage, especially in population-dense areas, may allow an offender to travel in areas unnoticed easily and, therefore, present opportunities for crime (Felson et al., 2020 ).

Place, whether virtual or physical, is a crucial factor in crime. The COVID-19 crisis has re-shaped the places that persons routinely visit, increasing some—home and online, while decreasing others—work, retail, school, and entertainment. Highlighting the role that place has played in crime rates during the pandemic should influence how criminologists study crime in a post-pandemic world and lead to further crime reduction through place-based prevention techniques.

Data-Driven

We have listed some initial findings on crime in the COVID-19 era and also described the need to study crime specifically, temporally, and place-based. Next, we will discuss data for measuring crime. One problem in criminology, as in other social science fields, is there are too many variables, too little variation, or an inability to control for specific variables. However, in the current pandemic, these problems decrease dramatically, and criminologists should take advantage of the favorable conditions and abundant data.

First, as described in the introduction, few variables changed during the first several weeks of the pandemic. The most substantial change has been the stay-at-home orders, which impacted the routine activities of entire populations. With so few variables changed, it should be easier to identify and measure significant and substantial changes in crime. Second, the variation in crime rates has been drastic. On the order of 10%, 20%, and even sometimes 60% transformation of crime patterns. These significant measurable changes allow researchers to see ‘past’ other variables that have little impact and focus on the significant variables impacting crime. Third, with entire populations affected by the pandemic, there is little need for controlling traditional variables such as age, gender, education, social status, and more. The impacted population is closer to the entire population rather than a ‘sample population,’ which means it is possible to move beyond inferential statistics and measure the actual change in the whole population.

Another challenge for criminologists is crime data. We encourage the use of four broad categories of data, including official police reports, victim and other self-report surveys, private or anecdotal data, and public data. Police data is an essential source during the pandemic. However, with many agencies experiencing workforce-related issues during the pandemic and purposely reducing the person-to-person contact to reduce the risk of virus spread, the official police data may underreport crime more than usual. Further, with more persons staying inside and not venturing out to school and work, other crimes, such as intimate partner violence and abuse of children, may not be captured through traditional reporting means. Therefore, it will be important that victim and self-report surveys continue to be used to help capture data that official reports do not (see Krohn, Thornberry, Gibson, & Baldwin, 2010 ).

Other sources of direct crime data and ancillary sources are often overlooked. Ancillary sources of data can take the form of calls to abuse hotlines, reports on consumer spending, internet traffic, police call for service, hospital mandatory reporting on specific injuries, and the Bureau of Labor Statics ( 2020 ) data on injuries resulting from violence at the workplace. Additionally, sources from private companies also provide insight into crime not always reported through official channels. For example, many retail organizations release data on crime within their stores, credit card companies release fraud statistics, and insurance organizations publish claims related to crime victimization. These sources may be particularly important as many areas where crime is occurring during the COVID-19 crisis are within private spaces, and obtaining non-police data is essential to understanding the crime shift. Lastly, other publicly available resources should be included in the analysis as well. Specifically, Mobility Trend Reports by Apple and Google, which provide detailed information on population location daily that the county level. This data set, never before publicly provided, should be used to overlay with other data (see Mohler et al., 2020 ).

Moving beyond the data to the methods, the circumstances of the COVID-19 crisis has led to a naturally occurring quasi-random control trial. Because each state-issued stay-at-home order at different times, under different circumstances, and rescinded them at different dates, it is possible to compare crime across many population groups. For example, Kentucky issued an order on March 26th and entered phased re-opening on May 11th (47 days) while neighboring state Tennessee waited seven more days, issuing a stay-at-home order on March 31st, and began a phased re-opening on April 27th, fourteen days ahead of its neighbor. These states, which share many demographic similarities, are ideal for comparison.

In addition to the unequal start and stop dates for state-wide lock-downs, the activities limited by the orders varied as well; for instance, some states kept parks open while others closed them. Similarly, some states outlawed gatherings of 10 or more, while other states established different criteria. The response to alcohol also creates a valuable point in data analysis. Examples abound of states that relaxed laws on alcohol sales, such as Kentucky, which allowed for the first-time home delivery of alcohol and service of alcohol with food take-out orders during the crisis (Minton, 2020 ). On the other end of the spectrum, some states deemed alcohol ‘non-essential’ but changed course after public backlash. For example, Pennsylvania initially closed liquor stores and created a cascade of persons traveling outside the state seeking alcohol (Thomas, 2020 ). Conditions such as these either between states or even within states are plentiful and provide essential data points that allow for an excellent comparison of crime and related factors.

The Largest Criminological Experiment in History

There is little doubt that the COVID-19 crisis will impact history on a scale not seen since WWII. Provisional insights indicate that a substantial drop in crime is occurring around the world and within the US. However, these reports also indicate the changes are not even across time, place, or crime type. Therefore, we encourage criminologists to study this crisis through the use of new and existing sources of crime data, with a specificity of crime types, in a temporal fashion, and placed based.

Moreover, the leading feature of these crime changes will be that the government ordered stay-at-home mandates, which impacted the routine activities of entire populations. The variation in these orders by state and community regarding when the orders were implemented and rescinded and what restrictions were in place has provided a naturally occurring, quasi-randomized control experiment. For example, researchers can compare states and communities that released prisoners early, increased or reduced alcohol availability, began lock-downs early, crime in public places as opposed to residential and mixed land use, and operationalize many variables that were previously intangible or inarticulable.

The findings emerging from the COVID-19 crisis will impact criminological theories for the next several decades. We encourage researchers to embark on in-depth explorations of the data made available from the pandemic and to search for not only why, where, when, and to what extent crime fell, but also how to use this knowledge for practical applications after the world returns to ‘normal’ and concludes this experiment in crime reduction and extraordinary test of human determination and resiliency.

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Stickle, B., Felson, M. Crime Rates in a Pandemic: the Largest Criminological Experiment in History. Am J Crim Just 45 , 525–536 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-020-09546-0

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Gun Violence: Prediction, Prevention, and Policy

• Gun Violence and Crime

Gun violence is an urgent, complex, and multifaceted problem. It requires evidence-based, multifaceted solutions. Psychology can make important contributions to policies that prevent gun violence. Toward this end, in February 2013 the American Psychological Association commissioned this report by a panel of experts to convey research-based conclusions and recommendations (and to identify gaps in such knowledge) on how to reduce the incidence of gun violence — whether by homicide, suicide, or mass shootings — nationwide.

Following are chapter-by-chapter highlights and short summaries of conclusions and recommendations of the report’s authors. More information and supporting citations can be found within the chapters themselves.

Antecedents to Gun Violence: Developmental Issues

A complex and variable constellation of risk and protective factors makes persons more or less likely to use a firearm against themselves or others. For this reason, there is no single profile that can reliably predict who will use a gun in a violent act. Instead, gun violence is associated with a confluence of individual, family, school, peer, community, and sociocultural risk factors that interact over time during childhood and adolescence. Although many youths desist in aggressive and antisocial behavior during late adolescence, others are disproportionately at risk for becoming involved in or otherwise affected by gun violence. The most consistent and powerful predictor of future violence is a history of violent behavior.  P revention efforts guided by research on developmental risk can reduce the likelihood that firearms will be introduced into community and family conflicts or criminal activity.  Prevention efforts can also reduce the relatively rare occasions when severe mental illness contributes to homicide or the more common circumstances when depression or other mental illness contributes to suicide. Reducing incidents of gun violence arising from criminal misconduct or suicide is an important goal of broader primary and secondary prevention and intervention strategies. Such strategies must also attend to redirecting developmental antecedents and larger sociocultural processes that contribute to gun violence and gun-related deaths.

Antecedents to Gun Violence: Gender and Culture

Any account of gun violence in the United States must be able to explain both why males are perpetrators of the vast majority of gun violence and why the vast majority of males never perpetrate gun violence. Preliminary evidence suggests that changing perceptions among males of social norms about behaviors and characteristics associated with masculinity may reduce the prevalence of intimate partner and sexual violence. Such interventions need to be further tested for their potential to reduce gun violence. The skills and knowledge of psychologists are needed to develop and evaluate programs and settings in schools, workplaces, prisons, neighborhoods, clinics, and other relevant contexts that aim to change gendered expectations for males that emphasize self-sufficiency, toughness, and violence, including gun violence.

What Works: Gun Violence Prediction and Prevention at the Individual Level

Although it is important to recognize that most people suffering from a mental illness are not dangerous, for those persons at risk for violence due to mental illness, suicidal thoughts, or feelings of desperation, mental health treatment can often prevent gun violence. Policies and programs that identify and provide treatment for all persons suffering from a mental illness should be a national priority. Urgent attention must be paid to the current level of access to mental health services in the United States; such access is woefully insufficient. Additionally, it should be noted that behavioral threat assessment is becoming a standard of care for preventing violence in schools, colleges, and the workplace and against government and other public officials. Threat assessment teams gather and analyze information to assess if a person poses a threat of violence or self-harm, and if so, take steps to intervene.

What Works: Gun Violence Prevention at the Community Level

Prevention of violence occurs along a continuum that begins in early childhood with programs to help parents raise emotionally healthy children and ends with efforts to identify and intervene with troubled individuals who are threatening violence. The mental health community must take the lead in advocating for community-based collaborative problem-solving models to address the prevention of gun violence. Such models should blend prevention strategies in an effort to overcome the tendency within many community service systems to operate in silos. There has been some success with community-based programs involving police training in crisis intervention and with community members trained in mental health first aid. These programs need further piloting and study so they can be expanded to additional communities as appropriate. In addition, public health messaging campaigns on safe gun storage are needed. The practice of keeping all firearms appropriately stored and locked must become the only socially acceptable norm.

What Works: Policies to Reduce Gun Violence

The use of a gun greatly increases the odds that violence will lead to a fatality: This problem calls for urgent action. Firearm prohibitions for high-risk groups — domestic violence offenders, persons convicted of violent misdemeanor crimes, and individuals with mental illness who have been adjudicated as being a threat to themselves or to others — have been shown to reduce violence. The licensing of handgun purchasers, background check requirements for all gun sales, and close oversight of retail gun sellers can reduce the diversion of guns to criminals. Reducing the incidence of gun violence will require interventions through multiple systems, including legal, public health, public safety, community, and health. Increasing the availability of data and funding will help inform and evaluate policies designed to reduce gun violence.

Dewey Cornell, PhD, and Nancy G. Guerra, EdD

Gun violence is an important national problem leading to more than 31,000 deaths and 78,000 nonfatal injuries every year. Although the rate of gun homicides in the United States has declined in recent years, U.S. rates remain substantially higher than those of almost every other nation in the world and are at least seven times higher than those of Australia, Canada, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and many others (see Alpers & Wilson).

Guns are not a necessary or sufficient cause of violence and can be used legally for a variety of sanctioned activities. Still, they are especially lethal weapons that are used in approximately two thirds of the homicides and more than half of all suicides in the United States. Every day in the United States, approximately 30 persons die of homicides and 53 persons die of suicides committed by someone using a gun (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2013a). Guns also provide individuals with the capacity to carry out multiple-fatality shootings that inflict great trauma and grief on our society, and the public rightly insists on action to make our communities safer.

Gun violence demands special attention. At the federal level, President Barack Obama announced a new “Now Is the Time” plan (White House, 2013) to address firearm violence to better protect children and communities and issued 23 related executive orders to federal agencies. The importance of continued research to address firearm violence is reflected in the 2013 report of the Institute of Medicine (IOM) and the National Research Council (NRC) "Priorities for Research to Reduce the Threat of Firearm-Related Violence. "  This report calls for a public health approach that emphasizes the importance of accurate information on the number and distribution of guns in the United States, including risk factors and motivations for acquisition and use, the association between exposure to media violence and any subsequent perpetration of gun violence, and how new technology can facilitate prevention. The report also outlines a research agenda to facilitate programs and policies that can reduce the occurrence and impact of firearm-related violence in the United States.

Psychology can make an important contribution to policies that prevent gun violence. Rather than debate whether “people” kill people or “guns” kill people, a reasonable approach to facilitate prevention is that “people with guns kill people.” The problem is more complex than simple slogans and requires careful study and analysis of the different psychological factors, behavioral pathways, social circumstances, and cultural factors that lead to gun violence. Whether prevention efforts should focus on guns because they are such a powerful tool for violence, on other factors that might have equal or greater impact, or on some combination of factors should be a scientific question settled by evidence.

Toward this end, the American Psychological Association (APA) commissioned this report, with three goals. First, this report is intended to focus on gun violence, recognizing that knowledge about gun violence must be related to a broader understanding of violence. Second, the report reviews what is known from the best current science on antecedents to gun violence and effective prevention strategies at the individual, community, and national levels. Finally, the report identifies policy directions, gaps in the literature, and suggestions for continued research that can help address unresolved questions about effective strategies to reduce gun violence. For over a decade, research on gun violence has been stifled by legal restrictions, political pressure applied to agencies not to fund research on certain gun-related topics, and a lack of funding. The authors of this report believe the cost of gun violence to our society is too great to allow these barriers to remain in place.

The Role of Mental Health and Mental Illness

An important focus of this report is the role that mental health and mental illness play in why individuals commit firearm-related violence and how this can inform preventive efforts. This focus undoubtedly brings to mind shootings such as those in Newtown, Conn., Aurora, Colo., and Tucson, Ariz. However, it is important to realize that mass fatality incidents of this type, although highly publicized, are extremely rare, accounting for one tenth of 1 percent of all firearm-related homicides in the United States (CDC, 2013a). Moreover, serious mental illness affects a significant percentage of the U.S. population, with prevalence estimates in the general population as high as 5 percent (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration [SAMHSA], 2012). This is quite significant, given that the term serious mental illness is typically reserved for the most debilitating kinds of mental disorder, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and the most severe forms of depression, but can include other mental disorders that result in acute functional impairment.

Although many highly publicized shootings have involved persons with serious mental illness, it must be recognized that persons with serious mental illness commit only a small proportion of firearm-related homicides; the problem of gun violence cannot be resolved simply through efforts focused on serious mental illness (Webster & Vernick, 2013a). Furthermore, the overwhelming majority of people with serious mental illness do not engage in violence toward others and should not be stereotyped as dangerous (Sirotich, 2008).

It also is important to recognize that for the small proportion of individuals whose serious mental illness does predispose them to violence, there are significant societal barriers to treatment. Psychiatric hospitalization can be helpful, but treatment can be expensive, and there may not be appropriate follow-up services in the community. Civil commitment laws, which serve to protect individuals from being unreasonably detained or forced into treatment against their will, can also prevent professionals from treating someone who does not recognize his or her need for treatment.

Other kinds of mental disorders that do not rise to the level of serious mental illness also are associated with gun violence and criminal behavior generally. For example, conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder are associated with increased risk for violence. (This link is not surprising because violent behavior is counted as one of the symptoms that helps qualify someone for the diagnosis.) Nevertheless, there are well-established, scientifically validated mental health treatment programs for individuals with these disorders, such as multisystemic therapy, that can reduce violent recidivism (Henggeler, 2011). Substance abuse is another form of mental disorder that is a risk factor for violence in the general population and also increases the risk for violence among persons with serious mental illness (Van Dorn, Volavka, & Johnson, 2012).

These observations reflect the complexity of relationships among serious mental illness, mental disorders, and violence. In contrast to homicide, suicide accounts for approximately 61 percent of all firearm fatalities in the United States (CDC, 2013a), and more than 90 percent of persons who commit suicide have some combination of depression, symptoms of other mental disorders, and/or substance abuse (Moscicki, 2001). This suggests that mental health and mental illness are especially relevant to understanding and preventing suicide, the leading type of firearm-related death.

Prediction and Prevention

The prediction of an individual’s propensity for violence is a complex and challenging task for mental health professionals, who often are called upon by courts, correctional authorities, schools, and others to assess the risk of an individual’s violence. Mental health professionals are expected to take action to protect potential victims when they judge that their patient or client poses a danger to others. However, decades of research have established that there is only a moderate ability to identify individuals likely to commit serious acts of violence. Much depends on the kind of violence and the time frame for prediction. For example, there are specialized instruments for the assessment of violence risk among sex offenders, civilly committed psychiatric patients, and domestic violence offenders. However, the time frame and focus for these predictions often are broadly concerned with long-term predictions that someone will ever be violent with anyone rather than whether a person will commit a particular act of targeted violence.

Research has moved the field beyond the assessment of “dangerousness” as a simple individual characteristic applicable in all cases to recognize that predictive efforts must consider a range of personal, social, and situational factors that can lead to different forms of violent behavior in different circumstances. Moreover, risk assessment has expanded to include concepts of risk management and interventions aimed at reducing risk.

In making predictions about the risk for mass shootings, there is no consistent psychological profile or set of warning signs that can be used reliably to identify such individuals in the general population. A more promising approach is the strategy of behavioral threat assessment , which is concerned with identifying and intervening with individuals who have communicated threats of violence or engaged in behavior that clearly indicates planning or preparation to commit a violent act. A threat assessment approach recognizes that individuals who threaten targeted violence are usually troubled, depressed, and despondent over their circumstances in life. A threat assessment leads to interventions intended to reduce the risk of violence by taking steps to address the problem that underlies the threatening behavior. Such problems can range from workplace conflicts to schoolyard bullying to serious mental illness. One of the most influential threat assessment models was developed by the U.S. Secret Service (Fein et al., 2002; Vossekuil, Fein, Reddy, Borum, & Modzelski, 2002) and has been adapted for use in schools, colleges, business settings, and the U.S. military.

The limited ability to make accurate predictions of violence has led some to question whether prevention is possible. This is a common misconception, because prevention does not require prediction of a specific individual’s behavior . For example, public health campaigns have reduced problems ranging from lung cancer to motor vehicle accidents by identifying risk factors and promoting safer behaviors even though it is not possible to predict whether a specific individual will develop lung cancer or have a motor vehicle accident (Mozaffarian, Hemenway, & Ludwig, 2013). A substantial body of scientific evidence identifies important developmental, familial, and social risk factors for violence. In addition, an array of rigorously tested psychological and educational interventions facilitate healthy social development and reduce aggressive behavior by teaching social skills and problem-solving strategies. It is important that policymakers and stakeholders recognize the value of prevention.

Prevention measures also should be distinguished from security measures and crisis response plans. Prevention must begin long before a gunman comes into a school or shopping center. Prevention efforts are often conceptualized as taking place on primary, secondary, and tertiary levels:

• Primary prevention (also called universal prevention) consists of efforts to promote healthy development in the general population. An example would be a curriculum to teach all children social skills to resist negative peer influences and resolve conflicts peacefully.
• Secondary prevention (also called selective prevention) involves assistance for individuals who are at increased risk for violence. Mentoring programs and conflict-mediation services are examples of such assistance.
• Tertiary prevention (also called indicated prevention) consists of intensive services for individuals who have engaged in some degree of aggressive behavior and could benefit from efforts to prevent a recurrence or escalation of aggression. Programs to rehabilitate juvenile offenders are examples.

Throughout this report, we discuss evidence-based prevention programs relevant to the issue of firearm-related violence.

Research can help us understand and prevent gun violence. The psychological research summarized in this report can inform public policy and prevention efforts designed to promote public safety and reduce violence. Gun violence is not a simple, discrete category of crime; it shares characteristics with other forms of violence, and it can be a product of an array of cultural, social, psychological, and situational factors. Nevertheless, there is valuable psychological knowledge that can be used to make our communities safer.

Robert Kinscherff, PhD, JD; Nancy G. Guerra, EdD; and Ariel A. Williamson, MA

Youth gun violence is often sensationalized and misunderstood by the general public, in part because of increasingly public acts of violence and related media coverage (Snyder & Sickmund, 2006; Williams, Tuthill, & Lio, 2008). In truth, only a small number of juvenile offenders commit the majority of violent juvenile crimes in the United States (Williams et al., 2008). Most juvenile offenders commit “nonperson” offenses, usually in terms of property and technical (parole) violations (Sickmund, Sladky, Kang, & Puzzanchera, 2011). For example, in 2010, the majority of juvenile offenses were nonperson offenses such as property offenses (27.2 percent), drug offenses (8.4 percent), public order offenses (10.7 percent), technical violations (14.4 percent), and status offenses (4.6 percent) — that is, crimes defined by minor (under age 18) status, such as alcohol consumption, truancy, and running away from home (Sickmund et al., 2011). Additionally, young adults between the ages of 18 and 34 are the most likely to commit violent crimes like homicide and to do so using a gun, compared with individuals under 18 (Cooper & Smith, 2011).

A subgroup of youth is particularly vulnerable to violence and victimization. Minority males constitute a disproportionate number of youths arrested and adjudicated, with 60 percent of all arrested youths identifying as part of a racial/ethnic minority group (Sickmund et al., 2011). Males also outnumber females in arrest rates for every area except status offenses and technical violations. Urban African American males are at substantially greater risk for involvement in gun-related homicides as perpetrators and as victims (CDC, 2013a; Spano, Pridemore, & Bolland, 2012). However, the majority of the infrequent but highly publicized shootings with multiple fatalities, such as those at Sandy Hook Elementary School or the Aurora, Colo., movie theater, have been committed by young White males.

This presents a picture of a small number of youths and young adults who are at an increased risk for involvement in gun violence. In the United States, these youths are somewhat more likely to be males of color growing up in urban areas. But it also is important to understand that most young males of all races and ethnicities — and most people in general — are not involved in serious violence and do not carry or use guns inappropriately.

How did this small subset of youths and young adults come to be involved in serious gun violence? Is there a “cradle-to-prison” pipeline, particularly for youths of color living in poverty and in disadvantaged urban areas, that triggers a cascade of events that increase the likelihood of gun violence (Children’s Defense Fund, 2009)? A developmental perspective on antecedents to youth gun violence can help us design more effective prevention programs and strategies.

This chapter describes the biological and environmental risk factors that begin early in development and continue into adolescence and young adulthood. Developmental studies that link children’s aggressive behavior to more serious involvement in the criminal justice system suggest the accumulation and interaction of many risks in multiple contexts (Dodge, Greenberg, Malone, & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2008; Dodge & Pettit, 2003). There is no single biological predisposition, individual trait, or life experience that accounts for the development and continuity of violent behavior or the use of guns. Rather, violence is associated with a confluence of individual, family, school, peer, community, and sociocultural risk factors that interact over time during childhood and adolescence (Brennan, Hall, Bor, Najman, & Williams, 2003; Dodge & Pettit, 2003). Risk for gun violence involves similar risk processes, although the complexity and variability of individuals means there is no meaningful profile that allows reliable prediction of who will eventually engage in gun violence. Nevertheless, developmental factors beginning in utero may increase the risk of aggressive behavior and lead to gun violence — especially when guns are readily available and part of an aggressive or delinquent peer culture.

Early-Onset Aggression

Early onset of aggressive behavior significantly increases risk for later antisocial behavior problems. The most consistent and powerful predictor of future violence is a history of violent behavior, and risk increases with earlier and more frequent incidents. Longitudinal work has shown that having a first arrest between 7 and 11 years of age is associated with patterns of long-term adult offending (Loeber, 1982). Children who are highly aggressive throughout childhood and continue to have serious conduct problems during adolescence have been identified as “life-course persistent” (LCP) youths (Moffitt, 1993). Examining longitudinal data from a large birth cohort in New Zealand, Moffitt (1993) created a taxonomy of antisocial behavior that differentiates LCP youths from an “adolescence-limited” subgroup. The latter subgroup characterizes those who engage in antisocial behaviors during adolescence and usually desist by adulthood. By contrast, LCP youths display more severe early aggression in childhood and develop a pattern of chronic violence during adolescence and into adulthood.

Both biological and environmental risks during prenatal development, infancy, and early childhood contribute to the development of early-onset aggression and the LCP developmental trajectory (Brennan et al., 2003; Dodge & Pettit, 2003; Moffitt, 2005). Pre- and postnatal risks associated with early-onset aggression include maternal substance abuse during pregnancy, high levels of prenatal stress, low birth weight, birth complications and injuries (especially those involving anoxia), malnutrition, and exposure to environmental toxins like lead paint (Brennan et al., 2003; Dodge & Pettit, 2003). According to Moffitt (1993), these early developmental risks disrupt neural development and are associated with neuropsychological deficits, particularly in executive functioning and verbal abilities.

Along with neuropsychological deficits, poor behavioral control and a difficult temperament are associated with the development of early-onset aggression (Dodge & Pettit, 2003; Moffitt, 1993). Children with difficult temperaments are typically irritable, difficult to soothe, and highly reactive. These patterns of behavior often trigger negative and ineffective reactions from parents and caregivers that can escalate into early aggressive behavior (Dodge & Pettit, 2003; Wachs, 2006). Family influences, such as familial stress and negative parent–child interactions, can interact with a child’s individual characteristics, leading to increased aggressive behavior during childhood.

Family Influences

Highly aggressive children who engage in serious acts of violence during later childhood and adolescence also are exposed to continued environmental risks throughout development (Dodge et al., 2008). The family context has been found to be quite influential in the development and continuity of antisocial behavior. Particularly for early-onset aggressive youths raised in families that are under a high degree of environmental stress, aggressive child behavior and negative parenting practices interact to amplify early-onset aggression. Examples of family risk factors include low parent–child synchrony and warmth, poor or disrupted attachment, harsh or inconsistent discipline (overly strict or permissive), poor parental monitoring, the modeling of antisocial behavior, pro-violent attitudes and criminal justice involvement, and coercive parent–child interaction patterns (Dodge & Pettit, 2003; Farrington, Jolliffe, Loeber, Stouthamer-Loeber, & Kalb, 2001; Hill, Howel, Hawkins, & Battin-Pearson, 1999; Patterson, Forgatch, & DeGarmo, 2010).

Coercive parent–child interactions have been associated with the emergence of aggressive behavior problems in children (Patterson et al., 2010). In these interactions, children learn to use coercive behaviors such as temper tantrums to escape parental discipline. When parents acquiesce to these negative behaviors, they inadvertently reward children for coercive behaviors, reinforcing the idea that aggression or violence is adaptive and can be used instrumentally to achieve goals. These interaction patterns tend to escalate in their severity (e.g., from whining, to temper tantrums, to hitting, etc.) and frequency, leading to increased aggression and noncompliance (Patterson et al., 2010). Such behaviors also generalize across contexts to children’s interactions with others outside the home, including with teachers, other adults, and peers. Indeed, prevention research has shown that intervening with at-risk families to improve parenting skills can disrupt the pathway from early-onset aggressive behavior to delinquency in adolescence (Patterson et al., 2010).

Other family risk factors for youths with early predispositions to aggression may be especially relevant to increased risk for gun violence. For instance, research has shown that many families with children own firearms and do not keep them safely stored at home (Johnson, Miller, Vriniotis, Azrael, & Hemenway, 2006). Although keeping firearms at home is not a direct cause of youth gun violence, the rates of suicides, homicides, and unintentional firearm fatalities are higher for 5–14-year-olds who live in states or regions in which rates of gun ownership are more prevalent (Miller, Azrael, & Hemenway, 2002). Poor parental monitoring and supervision, which are more general risk factors for involvement in aggression and violent behaviors (Dodge et al., 2008), may be especially salient in risk for gun violence. For example, impulsive or aggressive children who are often unsupervised and live in a home with access to guns may be at risk.

The family also is an important context for socialization and the development of normative beliefs or perceptions about appropriate social behavior that become increasingly stable during early development and are predictive of later behavior over time (Huesmann & Guerra, 1997). These beliefs shape an individual’s social-cognitive understanding about whether and under what circumstances threatened or actual violence is justified. Children who develop beliefs that aggression is a desirable and effective way to interact with others are more likely to use coercion and violence instrumentally to achieve goals or solve problems (Huesmann & Guerra, 1997). Antisocial attitudes and social-cognitive distortions (e.g., problems in generating nonviolent solutions, misperceiving hostile/aggressive intent by others, justifying acts of violence that would be criminal) can also increase risk for violence (Borum & Verhaagen, 2006; Dodge & Pettit, 2003).

Families can play a role in establishing and maintaining normative beliefs about violence and gun usage. For example, pro-violence attitudes and the criminality of parents and siblings during childhood have been found to predict adolescent gang membership and delinquency (Farrington et al., 2001; Hill et al., 1999). Youths from families that encourage the use of guns for solving problems also may be exposed to such attitudes in other contexts (in communities, with peers, and in the media) and may perceive firearms to be an appropriate means to solve problems and protect themselves.

School and Peer Influences

The school setting is another important context for child socialization. Children who enter school with high levels of aggressive behavior, cognitive or neurobiological deficits, and poor emotional regulation may have difficulty adjusting to the school setting and getting along with peers (Dodge et al., 2008; Dodge & Pettit, 2003). Highly aggressive children who have learned to use aggression instrumentally at home will likely use such behavior with teachers, increasing the chances that they will have poor academic experiences and low school engagement (Patterson et al., 2010). Academic failure, low school interest, truancy, and school dropout are all correlated with increased risk for problem behavior and delinquency, including aggression and violence (Dodge & Pettit, 2003). This risk is strongest when poor academic achievement begins in elementary school and contributes to school underachievement and the onset of adolescent problem behaviors, such as substance use and drug trafficking, truancy, unsafe sexual activity, youth violence, and gang involvement (Dodge et al., 2008; Guerra & Bradshaw, 2008).

Involvement in these risk behaviors also is facilitated by affiliation with deviant peers, particularly during adolescence (Dodge et al., 2008). Research has shown that children who are aggressive, victimized, and academically marginalized from the school setting may suffer high levels of peer rejection that amplify preexisting aggressive behaviors (Dodge et al., 2008; Dodge & Pettit, 2003). Longitudinal work indicates that experiences of academic failure, school marginalization, and peer rejection interact to produce affiliations with similarly rejected, deviant, and/or gang-involved peers. Friendships between deviant peers provide youths with “training” in antisocial behaviors that reinforce and exacerbate preexisting aggressive tendencies (Dishion, Véronneau, & Meyers, 2010; Dodge et al., 2008). Peer deviancy training is a primary mechanism in the trajectory from overt, highly aggressive behaviors during childhood to more covert processes during adolescence, such as lying, stealing, substance use, and weapon carrying (Dishion et al., 2010; Patterson et al., 2010).

The larger school context also can interact with youths’ experiences of academic failure, peer rejection, and deviant peer affiliations to influence the continuity of antisocial behavior. Poorly funded schools located in low-income neighborhoods have fewer resources to address the behavioral, academic, mental health, and medical needs of their students. In addition, these schools tend to have stricter policies toward discipline, are less clinically informed about problem behaviors, and have stronger zero tolerance policies that result in more expulsions and suspensions (Edelman, 2007). This contextual factor is important, as youths who are attending and engaged in school are less likely to engage in delinquent or violent behavior, whereas marginalized and rejected youths, particularly in impoverished schools, are at increased risk for aggression and violence at school and in their communities. Schools that provide safe environments that protect students from bullying or criminal victimization support student engagement, reduce incidents of student conflict that could result in volatile or violent behavior, and diminish risks that students will bring weapons to school.

Although few homicides (< 2 percent) and suicides occur at school or during transportation to and from school (Roberts, Zhang, & Truman, 2012) and widely publicized mass school shootings are rare, research indicates that a small number of students do carry guns or other weapons. In 2011, 5.1 percent of high school students in Grades 9–12 reported carrying a gun in the 30 days prior to the survey, and 5.4 percent of students had carried a weapon (gun, knife, or club) on school grounds at least once in the 30 days prior to the survey (Eaton et al., 2012). Studies show that youths who carry guns are more likely to report involvement in multiple problem behaviors, to be affiliated with a gang, to overestimate how many of their peers carry guns, and to have a high need for interpersonal safety. For instance, student reports of involvement in and exposure to risk behaviors at school such as physical fighting, being threatened, using substances, or selling drugs on school grounds have been positively correlated with an increased likelihood of carrying weapons to school (Furlong, Bates, & Smith, 2001).

In another study of high school students, 5.5 percent of urban high school students reported that they carried a gun in the year prior to the study, but students estimated that 32.6 percent of peers in their neighborhoods carried guns, a substantial overestimation of the actual gun-carrying rates. Lawful, supervised gun carrying by juveniles is not the concern of this line of research; however, when unsupervised youths carry guns in high-violence neighborhoods, they may be more likely to use guns to protect themselves and resolve altercations. Gun-carrying youths in this study had higher rates of substance use, violence exposure, gang affiliation, and peer victimization (Hemenway, Vriniotis, Johnson, Miller, & Azrael, 2011). Additionally, many gun-carrying youths had lower levels of perceived interpersonal safety (Hemenway et al., 2011). Research has also revealed that deviant peer group affiliations during specific periods of adolescent development may increase the risk for gun violence. For example, research findings have shown that gang membership in early adolescence is significantly associated with increased gun carrying over time. This changes somewhat in late adolescence and young adulthood, when gun carrying is linked more to involvement in drug dealing and having peers who illegally own guns (Lizotte, Krohn, Howell, Tobin, & Howard, 2000).

Communities Matter

The community context is an additional source of risk for the development and continuity of antisocial behavior. Living in extremely disadvantaged, underresourced communities with high levels of crime and violence creates serious obstacles to healthy development. Recent estimates show that currently in the United States, 16.4 million children live in poverty and 7.4 million of those live in extreme poverty (i.e., an annual income of less than half of the federal poverty level; Children’s Defense Fund, 2012). One in four children under 5 years of age is poor during the formative years of brain development. In addition, 22 percent of children who have lived in poverty do not graduate from high school, compared with 6 percent of children who have never been poor (Children’s Defense Fund, 2012). For families and youths, living in poverty is associated with high levels of familial stress, poor child nutrition, elevated risks of injury, and limited access to adequate health care (Adler & Steward, 2010; Patterson et al., 2010). Ethnic minority youth in the United States are overrepresented in economically struggling communities. These environmental adversities can, in turn, compromise children’s health status and functioning in other environments and increase the risk for involvement in violent behaviors, contributing significantly to ethnic and cultural variations in the rates of violence (Borum & Verhaagen, 2006).

In a community context, the degree to which children have access to adequate positive resources (e.g., in terms of health, finances, nutrition, education, peers, and recreation), have prosocial and connected relationships with others, and feel safe in their environment can significantly affect their risk for involvement in violent behaviors. Aggressive children and adolescents who are living in neighborhoods with high levels of community violence, drug and firearm trafficking, gang presence, and inadequate housing may have increased exposure to violence and opportunities for involvement in deviant behavior. Compared with communities that have better resources, disenfranchised and impoverished communities may also lack social, recreational, and vocational opportunities that contribute to positive youth development. Youths with high levels of preexisting aggressive behavior and emerging involvement with deviant or gang-involved peers may be especially at risk for increased violent behavior and subsequent criminal justice involvement when exposed to impoverished and high-crime communities.

Exposure to violence in one’s community, a low sense of community safety, unsupervised access to guns, and involvement in risky community behaviors such as drug dealing all contribute to youths’ involvement in gun carrying and gun violence. Decreased community perceptions of neighborhood safety and higher levels of social (e.g., loitering, public substance use, street fighting, prostitution, etc.) and physical (e.g., graffiti, gang signs, and discarded needles, cigarettes, and beer bottles) neighborhood disorder have been associated with increased firearm carrying among youths (Molnar, Miller, Azrael, & Buka, 2004). A study of African American youths living in poverty found that those who had been exposed to violence prior to carrying a gun were 2.5 times more likely than nonexposed youths to begin carrying a gun at the next time point, even when controlling for gang involvement (Spano et al., 2012). This study also indicated that after exposure to violence, youths were more likely to start carrying guns in their communities (Spano et al., 2012).

Studies have shown that apart from characteristics like conduct problems and prior delinquency, youths who are involved in gang fighting and selling drugs are also more likely to use a gun to threaten or harm others (e.g., Butters, Sheptycki, Brochu, & Erikson, 2011). Involvement in drug dealing in one’s community appears to be particularly risky for gun carrying during later adolescence and early adulthood, possibly due to an increased need for self-protection (Lizotte et al., 2000). Taken together, these studies show that firearm possession may be due to interactions between the need for self-protection in violent communities and increased involvement in delinquent behaviors.

Sociocultural Context: Exposure to Violent Media

Child and adolescent exposure to violent media, a more distal, sociocultural influence on behavior, is also important when considering developmental risks for gun violence. Decades of experimental, cross-sectional, and longitudinal research have documented that exposure to violent media, in movies and television, is associated with increased aggressive behaviors, aggressive thoughts and feelings, increased physiological arousal, and decreased prosocial behaviors (e.g., Anderson et al., 2003; Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Huesmann, 2010; Huesmann, Moise-Titus, Podolski, & Eron, 2003). In light of ongoing advances in technology, research has been expanded to include violent content in video games, music, social media, and the Internet (Anderson et al., 2010; IOM & NRC, 2013).

Findings on associations between violent media exposure and aggressive behavior outcomes have held across differences in culture, gender, age, socioeconomic status, and intellect (e.g., Anderson et al., 2010; Huesmann et al., 2003). Social-cognitive theory on violent media exposure suggests that these images are part of children’s socialization experiences, similar to violence exposure in interpersonal and community contexts (Huesmann, 2010). The viewing of violent images can serve to desensitize children to violence and normalize violent behavior, particularly when children have previously developed beliefs that aggression and violence are an acceptable means of achieving goals or resolving conflicts.

It is important to note that the link between violent media exposure and subsequent violent behaviors does not demonstrate a direct causal effect but instead shows how some children may be more susceptible to this risk factor than others. For instance, Huesmann et al. (2003) found that identification with aggressive characters on television and the perception that television violence was real were robust predictors of later aggression over time. Additionally, there is no established link between violent media exposure and firearm usage in particular. However, given the substantial proportion of media that includes interactions around firearms (e.g., in video games, movies, and television shows), the IOM and NRC (2013) recently identified a crucial need to examine specific associations between exposure to violent media and use of firearms. Exposure to violent media, especially for youths with preexisting aggressive tendencies and poor parental monitoring, may be an important contextual factor that amplifies risk for violent behavior and gun use.

Summary and Conclusions

The relatively small number of youths most likely to persist in serious acts of aggression (including increased risk of gun violence) have often experienced the following:

• Early childhood onset of persistent rule-breaking and aggression
• Socialization into criminal attitudes and behaviors by parents and caretakers who themselves are involved in criminal activities
• Exposure in childhood to multiple adverse experiences in their families and communities
• Social dislocation and reduced opportunities due to school failure or underachievement
• Persisting affiliation with deviant peers or gangs engaged in delinquent/criminal misconduct and with attitudes and beliefs that support possession and use of guns
• Broad exposure to sociocultural influences such as mass media violence and depictions of gun violence as an effective means of achieving goals or status

Most youths — even those with chronic and violent delinquent misconduct — desist in aggressive and antisocial behavior during late adolescence, and no single risk factor is sufficient to generate persisting violent behavior. Still, many are disproportionately at risk for becoming perpetrators or victims of gun violence. Homicide remains the second leading cause of death for teens and young adults between the ages of 15 and 24. In 2010, there were 2,711 infant, child, and adolescent victims of firearm deaths. In that year, 84 percent of homicide victims between the ages of 10 and 19 were killed with a firearm, and 40 percent of youths who committed suicide between the ages 15 and 19 did so with a gun (CDC, 2013a). 1

There is no one developmental trajectory that specifically leads to gun violence. However, prevention efforts guided by research on developmental risk can reduce the likelihood that firearms will be introduced into community and family conflicts or criminal activity. Prevention efforts can also reduce the relatively rare occasions when severe mental illness contributes to homicide or the more common circumstances when depression or other mental illness contributes to suicide.

Reducing incidents of gun violence arising from criminal misconduct or suicide is an important goal of broader primary and secondary prevention and intervention strategies. Such strategies must also attend to redirecting developmental antecedents and larger sociocultural processes that contribute to gun violence and gun-related deaths.

1 The 2010 data shown here are available online .

Eric Mankowski, PhD

Any account of gun violence in the United States must consider both why males are the perpetrators of the vast majority of gun violence and why the vast majority of males never perpetrate gun violence. An account that explains both phenomena focuses, in part, on how boys and men learn to demonstrate and achieve manhood through violence, as well as the differences in opportunities to demonstrate manhood among diverse groups of males. Although evidence exists for human biological and social-environmental systems interacting and contributing to aggressive and violent behavior, this review focuses on the sociocultural evidence that explains males’ higher rates of gun violence.

Reducing the propensity for some males to engage in violence will involve both social and cultural change. Hence, this section reviews existing research on the relationships between sex, gender (i.e., masculinity), and the perpetration and victimization of gun violence in the United States. The intersection of gender, race/ethnicity, and economic disadvantage is also considered in explaining the rates of gun violence across diverse communities. Finally, the relationships between masculinity, gender socialization, and gun violence are analyzed to identify gender-related risk factors for gun violence that can be targeted for prevention strategies and social policy.

Sex Differences in Gun Violence

Prevalence and Risk Men represent more than 90 percent of the perpetrators of homicide in the United States and are also the victims of the large majority (78 percent) of that violence (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2008; Federal Bureau of Investigation [FBI], 2007). Homicide by gun is the leading cause of death among Black youth, the second leading cause of death among all male youth, and the second or third leading cause of death among female youth (depending on the specific age group) (e.g., Miniño, 2010; Webster, Whitehill, Vernick, & Curriero, 2012). In addition, roughly four times as many youths visit hospitals for gun-induced wounds as are killed each year (CDC, 2013a).

Even more common than homicide, suicide is another leading cause of death in the United States, and most suicides are completed with a firearm. Males complete the large majority of suicides; depending on the age group, roughly four to six times as many males as females kill themselves with firearms (CDC, 2013a). Among youth, suicide ranks especially high as a cause of death. It is the third leading cause of death of 15–24-year-olds and the sixth leading cause of death for 5–14-year-olds. However, the rate of suicide and firearm suicide gradually increases over the lifespan. In addition to gender and age differences in prevalence, sizable differences also exist among ethnic groups. Firearm suicide generally is at least twice as high among Whites than among Blacks and other racial groups from 1980 to 2010 (CDC, 2013a), and White males over the age of 65 have rates that far exceed all other major groups.

Perpetrator–Victim Relationship and Location The prevalence of gun violence strongly depends not only on the sex of the offender but also on the offender’s relationship to the victim and the location of the violence (Sorenson, 2006). Both men and women are more likely to be killed with firearms by someone they know than by a stranger. Specifically, men are most likely to be killed in a public place by an acquaintance, whereas women are most likely to be killed in the home by a current or former spouse or dating partner (i.e., “intimate partner”). Women compared with men are especially likely to be killed by a firearm used by an intimate partner.

Women are killed by current or former intimate partners four to five times more often than men (Campbell, Glass, Sharps, Laughon, & Bloom, 2007), including by firearm. These sex differences in victimization do not appear to hold in the limited data available on same-sex intimate partner homicide; it is more common for men to kill their male partners than for women to kill their female partners (Campbell et al., 2007). Notably, these sex differences in gun violence, as a function of the type of perpetrator–victim relationships, are also found in nonfatal gun violence when emergency room visits are examined (Wiebe, 2003).

A disproportionate number of gun homicides occur in urban areas. Conversely, a disproportionate number of firearm suicides occur in rural (compared with urban) areas (Branas, Nance, Elliott, Richmond, & Schwab, 2004). Although they are highly publicized, less than 2 percent of the homicides of children occur in schools (Borum, Cornell, Modzeleski, & Jimerson, 2010; CDC, 2008, 2013b). There are even fewer “random” or “mass” school shootings in which multiple victims are killed at the same time.

Gun Access and Possession A person must own or obtain a gun to be able to commit gun violence. Research shows that there are sex differences in access to and carrying a gun. Males are roughly two to four times as likely as females to have access to a gun in the home or to possess a gun (Swahn, Hamming, & Ikeda, 2002; Vaughn et al., 2012). In turn, gun carrying is a key risk factor for gun violence perpetration and victimization. For example, gun carrying is associated with dating violence victimization among adolescents, with boys more likely to be victimized than girls (Yan, Howard, Beck, Shattuck, & Hallmark-Kerr, 2010).

Conclusions based on sex differences in access to guns should be drawn with some caution, given that there also appear to be sex differences in the reporting of guns in the home. Men report more guns in the home than do women from the same household (e.g., Ludwig, Cook, & Smith, 1998; Sorenson & Cook, 2008), a sex difference that appears to stem specifically from the substantially higher level of contact with and experience in handling and using guns among boys than girls in the same household (Cook & Sorenson, 2006). Nonetheless, the presence of guns in the home remains predictive of gun violence.

Gender and Gun Violence

Robust sex and race differences in firearm violence have been established. Examined next is how the socialization of men as well as differences in living conditions and opportunities among diverse groups of boys and men help explain why these differences occur.

Making Gender Visible in the Problem of Gun Violence Gender remains largely invisible in research and media accounts of gun violence. In particular, gender is not used to explain the problem of “school shootings,” despite the fact that almost every shooting is perpetrated by a young male. Newspaper headlines and articles describe “school shooters,” “violent adolescents,” and so forth, but rarely call attention to the fact that nearly all such incidents are perpetrated by boys and young men. Studies of risk factors for school shootings may refer accurately to the perpetrators generally as “boys” but largely fail to analyze gender (e.g., Verlinden, Hersen, & Thomas, 2000).

The large sex differences in gun violence should not be overlooked simply because the vast majority of boys and men do not perpetrate gun violence or excused as “boys will be boys.” The size of sex differences in the prevalence of gun violence differs substantially within regions of the United States (Kaplan & Geling, 1998) and across countries (e.g., Ahn, Park, Ha, Choi, & Hong, 2012), which further suggests that gender differences in sociocultural environments are needed to explain sex differences in gun violence.

Masculinity, Power, and Guns Status as a “man” is achieved by the display of stereotypically masculine characteristics, without which one’s manhood is contested. Although the particular characteristics defining manhood and the markers of them can vary across subcultural contexts (Connell, 1995), masculinity has, historically, generally been defined by aggressive and risk-taking behavior, emotional restrictiveness (particularly the vulnerable emotions of fear and sadness, and excepting anger), heterosexuality, and successful competition (Brannon, 1976; Kimmel, 1994; O’Neil, 1981). Such normative characteristics of traditional masculinity are in turn directly related to numerous factors that are associated with gun violence. For example, risk taking is associated with adolescent males’ possession of and access to guns (Vittes & Sorenson, 2006).

Social expectations and norms, supported by social and organizational systems and practices, privilege boys who reject or avoid in themselves anything stereotypically feminine, act tough and aggressive, suppress emotions (other than anger), distance themselves emotionally and physically from other men, and strive competitively for power. Men of color, poor men, gay men, and men from other marginalized groups differ substantially in their access to opportunities to fulfill these manhood ideals and expectations in socially accepted ways. For example, men with less formal educational and economic opportunity, who in the United States are disproportionately Black and Latino, cannot fulfill expectations to be successful breadwinners in socially acceptable ways (e.g., paid, legal employment) as easily as White men, and gay men have less ability to demonstrate normative heterosexual masculinity where they cannot legally marry or have children.

At the same time, higher levels of some forms of violence victimization and perpetration (including suicide) are found among these disadvantaged groups. For example, gay youth are more likely than heterosexual males to commit suicide, and African American male youth are disproportionately the victims of gun violence. Such structural discrimination can be seen reflected in implicit cognitive biases against these group members. Virtual simulations of high-threat incidents, such as those used to train police officers, reliably demonstrate a “shooter bias” in which actors are more likely to shoot Black male targets than those from other race-gender groups (i.e., Black women, White men, and White women) (Plant, Goplen, & Kunstman, 2011).

Even to the extent that it is achieved, manhood status is theorized as precarious, needing to be protected and defended through aggression and violence, including gun violence, in order to avoid victimization from (mostly) male peers (Connell, 1995). Paradoxically, as in all competition, the more convincingly manhood is achieved, the more vulnerable it becomes to challenges or threats and thus requires further defending, often with increasing levels and displays of toughness and violence. The dynamic of these expectations of manhood and their enforcement is like a tight box (Kivel, 1998). Boys and men are either trapped inside this box or, in violating the expectations by stepping out of the box, risk being targeted by threats, bullying, and other forms of violence.

Adherence to stereotypic masculinity, in turn, is commonly associated with stress and conflict, poor health, poor coping and relationship quality, and violence (Courtenay 2000; Hong, 2000). Men’s gender role stress and conflict are directly associated with various forms of interpersonal aggression and violence, including the perpetration of intimate partner violence and suicide (Feder, Levant, & Dean, 2010; Moore & Stuart, 2005; O’Neil, 2008). Men with more restricted emotionality and more restricted affection with other men are more likely to be aggressive, coercive, or violent (O’Neil, 2008). These dimensions of masculinity also are related to a number of other harmful behaviors that are, in turn, associated directly with gun violence and other forms of aggression (see O’Neil, 2008, for a review). For example, the effect of alcohol consumption on intimate partner violence is greater among men than women (Moore, Elkins, McNulty, Kivisto, & Handsel, 2011), and alcohol consumption may be associated with lethal male-to-male violence at least partly because it is associated with carrying a gun (Phillips, Matusko, & Tomasovic, 2007).

In addition, accumulating research evidence indicates a relationship between gender and many of the factors that are associated with suicide (e.g., substance abuse, unemployment; Payne, Swami, & Stanistreet, 2008). Beliefs in traditional masculinity are related to suicidal thoughts, although differently across age cohorts (Hunt, Sweeting, Keoghan, & Platt, 2006). Men’s historic role as economic providers in heterosexual families typically ends with their retirement from the workforce. Suicide rates, including firearm suicide, increase dramatically at precisely this point in the life course (i.e., age 65 and older), whereas they decrease among women this age. The increase in suicide rates among White men at age 65 and older does not occur among Black men, who as a group have much higher levels of unemployment throughout their lives and consequently may not experience the same sense of loss of meaning or entitlement. Male firearm suicide also increases dramatically in adolescence and early adulthood, precisely the years during which young men’s sense of manhood is developing.

Beliefs about gender and sexual orientation also help explain sex differences in fatal hate crimes involving guns. Key themes in male gender role expectations are anti-femininity (Brannon, 1976) and homophobia (Kimmel, 1994). Boys are expected to rid themselves of stereotypically feminine characteristics (e.g., “you throw like a girl,” “big boys don’t cry”). Gun violence against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered persons can be understood in this context. One explanation of these hate crimes is that they are perpetrated to demonstrate heterosexual masculinity to male peer group members. These homicides, compared with violent crimes in which the victim is (or is perceived to be) heterosexual, often are especially brutal and are more commonly perpetrated by groups of men rather than individual men or women. However, such homicides appear to be perpetrated less often using firearms, which suggests motives beyond a desire to kill — for example, expressing intense hatred or transferring negative affect directly onto the victim (Gruenwald, 2012).

Male role expectations for achievement of success and power, combined with restricted emotionality, may have dangerous consequences, particularly for boys who suffer major losses and need help. A majority of the males who have completed homicides at schools had trouble coping with a recent major loss. Many had also experienced bullying or other harassment (Vossekuil et al., 2002). Such characteristics cannot and should not be used to develop risk profiles of attackers because school shootings are such rare events, and so many men who share these same characteristics never will perpetrate gun violence. However, when male gender and characteristics associated with male gender are highly common among attackers, it is responsible to ask how male gender contributes to school shootings and other forms of gun violence.

In their case studies of male-perpetrated homicide-suicides at schools, Kalish and Kimmel (2010) speculated that a sense of “aggrieved entitlement” may be common among the shooters. In this view, the young men see suicide and revenge as appropriate, even expected, responses for men to perceived or actual victimization. Related findings emerged from a similar analysis of all “random” school shootings (those with multiple, nontargeted victims) from 1982 to 2001 (Kimmel & Mahler, 2003). With a small number of exceptions, the vast majority were committed by White boys (26 of 28) in suburban or rural (not urban) areas (27 of 28). Many of these boys also had experienced homophobic bullying.

Masculinity and Beliefs About Guns Sex differences in beliefs about guns may begin at an early age as a function of parental socialization and attitudes. Fathers, particularly White fathers, are more permissive than mothers of their children, particularly sons, playing with toy guns (Cheng et al., 2003). Through the socialization of gender, boys and men may come to believe that displaying a gun will enhance their masculine power. Carrying a weapon is, in fact, instrumental in fulfilling male gender role expectations. Estimates of a person’s physical size and muscularity are greater when they display a gun (or large knife) than other similarly sized and shaped objects (e.g., drill, saw), even when the person is only described and not visible. This perception persists despite no apparent correlation between actual gun ownership and size or muscularity (Fessler, Holbrook, & Snyder, 2012). Guns symbolically represent some key elements of hegemonic masculinity — power, hardness, force, aggressiveness, coldness (Connell, 1995; Stroud, 2012).

Implications for Prevention and Policy

Sex Differences in Attitudes Toward Gun Policies Policies and laws addressing the manufacture, purchase, and storage of guns have been advocated in response to the prevalence of gun violence. Perhaps reflecting their differential access to firearms and differential perpetration and victimization rates, men and women hold different attitudes about such gun control policies. Females are generally much more favorable toward gun restriction and control policies (e.g., Vittes, Sorenson, & Gilbert, 2003).

Prevention Programs Addressing Gender The foregoing analysis of the link between gender and gun violence suggests the potential value of addressing gender in efforts to define the problem of gun violence and develop preventive responses. Preliminary evidence suggests that correcting and changing perceptions among men of social norms regarding beliefs about behaviors and characteristics that are associated with stereotypic masculinity may reduce the prevalence of intimate partner and sexual violence (Fabiano, Perkins, Berkowitz, Linkenbach, & Stark, 2003; Neighbors et al., 2010). However, the effect of such interventions in specifically reducing gun violence remains to be tested. The skills and knowledge of psychologists are needed to develop and evaluate programs and settings in schools, workplaces, prisons, neighborhoods, clinics, and other relevant contexts that aim to change gendered expectations for males that emphasize self-sufficiency, toughness, and violence, including gun violence.

Robert Kinscherff, PhD, JD; Arthur C. Evans Jr., PhD; Marisa R. Randazzo, PhD; and Dewey Cornell, PhD

A natural starting point for the prevention of gun violence is to identify individuals who are at risk for violence and in need of assistance. Efforts focused on at-risk individuals are considered secondary prevention because they are distinguished from primary or universal prevention efforts that address the general population. Secondary prevention strategies for gun violence can include such actions as providing prompt mental health treatment for an acutely depressed and suicidal person or conducting a threat assessment of a person who has threatened gun violence against a spouse or work supervisor.

To be effective, strategies to prevent gun violence should be tailored to different kinds of violence. One example is the distinction between acts of impulsive violence (i.e., violence carried out in the heat of the moment, such as an argument that escalates into an assault) and acts of targeted or predatory violence (i.e., acts of violence that are planned in advance of the attack and directed toward an identified target). The incidents of mass casualty gun violence that have garnered worldwide media attention, such as the shootings at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, Conn., at a movie theater Aurora, Colo., at the Fort Hood military base, and at a political rally in a shopping center in Tucson, Ariz., are all examples of targeted or predatory violence. Distinguishing between impulsive violence, targeted/predatory violence, and other types of violence is important because they are associated with different risk factors and require different prevention strategies.

Predicting and Preventing Impulsive Gun Violence

Research on impulsive violence has enabled scientists to develop moderately accurate predictive models that can identify individuals who are more likely than other persons to engage in this form of violence. These models cannot determine with certainty whether a particular person will engage in violence — just whether a person is at greater likelihood of doing so. This approach is known as a violence risk assessment or clinical assessment of dangerousness . A violence risk assessment is conducted by a licensed mental health professional who has specific training in this area. The process generally involves comparing the person in question with known base rates for those of the same age/gender who have committed impulsive violence and then determining whether the person in question has individual risk factors that would increase that person’s likelihood of engaging in impulsive violence. In addition, the process involves examining individual protective factors that would decrease the person’s overall likelihood of engaging in impulsive violence. Research that has identified risk and protective factors for impulsive violence is limited in that more research has been conducted on men than women and on incarcerated or institutionalized individuals than on those in the general population. Nevertheless, this approach can be effective for determining someone’s relative likelihood of engaging in impulsive violence.

Some risk factors for impulsive violence are static — for example, race and age — and cannot be changed. But those factors that are dynamic — for example, unmet mental health needs for conditions linked with violence to self (such as depression) or others (such as paranoia), lack of mental health care, abuse of alcohol — are more amenable to intervention and treatment that can reduce the risk for gun violence. Secondary prevention strategies to prevent impulsive gun violence can include having a trained psychologist or other mental health professional treat the person’s acute mental health needs or substance abuse needs. There must be a vigorous and coordinated response to persons whose histories include acts of violence, threatened or actual use of weapons, and substance abuse, particularly if they have access to a gun. This response should include a violence risk assessment by well-trained professionals and referral for any indicated mental health treatment, counseling and mediation services, or other forms of intervention that can reduce the risk of violence.

Youths and young adults who are experiencing an emerging psychosis should be referred for prompt assessment by mental health professionals with sufficient clinical expertise with psychotic disorders to craft a clinical intervention plan that includes risk management. In some cases, secondary prevention measures may include a court-ordered emergency psychiatric hospitalization where a person can receive a psychiatric evaluation and begin treatment. Criteria for allowing such involuntary evaluations vary by state but typically can occur only when someone is experiencing symptoms of a serious mental illness and, as a result, potentially poses a significant danger to self or others. There is an urgent need to improve the effectiveness of emergency commitment procedures because of concerns that they do not provide sufficient services and follow-up care.

Predicting and Preventing Targeted or Predatory Gun Violence

Acts of targeted or predatory violence directed at multiple victims, including crimes sometimes referred to as rampage shootings and mass shootings, 2 occur far less often in the United States than do acts of impulsive violence (although targeted violence garners far more media attention). Acts of targeted violence have not been subject to study that has developed statistical models like those used for estimating a person’s likelihood of impulsive violence. Although it seems appealing to develop checklists of warning signs to construct a profile of individuals who commit these kinds of crimes, this effort, sometimes described as psychological profiling, has not been successful. Research has not identified an effective or useful psychological profile of those who would engage in multiple casualty gun violence. Moreover, efforts to use a checklist profile to identify these individuals fail in part because the characteristics used in these profiles are too general to be of practical value; such characteristics are also shared by many nonviolent individuals.

Because of the limitations of a profiling approach, practitioners have developed the behavioral threat assessment model as an alternative means of identifying individuals who are threatening, planning, or preparing to commit targeted violence. Behavioral threat assessment also emphasizes the need for interventions to prevent violence or harm when a threat has been identified, so it represents a more comprehensive approach to violence prevention. The behavioral threat assessment model is an empirically based approach that was developed largely by the U.S. Secret Service to evaluate threats to the president and other public figures and has since been adapted by the U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education (Fein et al., 2002; Vossekuil et al., 2002) and others (Cornell, Allen, & Fan, 2012) for use in schools, colleges and universities, workplaces, and the U.S. military. Threat assessment teams are typically multidisciplinary teams that are trained to identify potentially threatening persons and situations. They gather and analyze additional information, make an informed assessment of whether the person is on a pathway to violence — that is, determine whether the person poses a threat of interpersonal violence or self-harm — and if so, take steps to intervene, address any underlying problem or treatment need, and reduce the risk for violence.

Behavioral threat assessment is seen as the emerging standard of care for preventing targeted violence in schools, colleges, and workplaces, as well as against government officials and other public figures. The behavioral threat assessment approach is the model currently used by the U.S. Secret Service to prevent violence to the U.S. president and other public officials, by the U.S. Capitol Police to prevent violence to members of Congress, by the U.S. State Department to prevent violence to dignitaries visiting the United States, and by the U.S. Marshals Service to prevent violence to federal judges (see Fein & Vossekuil, 1998). The behavioral threat assessment model also is recommended in two American national standards: one for higher education institutions (which recommends that all colleges and universities operate behavioral threat assessment teams; see ASME-Innovative Technologies Institute, 2010) and one for workplaces (which recommend s similar teams to prevent workplace violence; see ASIS International and Society for Human Resource Management, 2011). In addition, a comprehensive review conducted by a U.S. Department of Defense (2010) task force following the Fort Hood shooting concluded that threat assessment teams or threat management units (i.e., teams trained in behavioral threat assessment and management procedures) are the most effective tool currently available to prevent workplace violence or insider threats like the attack at Fort Hood.

Empirical research on acts of targeted violence has shown that many of those attacks were carried out by individuals motivated by personal problems who were at a point of desperation. In their troubled state of mind, these individuals saw no viable solution to their problems and could envision no future. The behavioral threat assessment model is used not only to determine whether a person is planning a violent attack but also to identify personal or situational problems that could be addressed to alleviate desperation and restore hope. In many cases, this includes referring the person to mental health services and other sources of support. In some of these cases, psychiatric hospitalization may be needed to address despondence and suicidality. Nonpsychiatric resources also can help alleviate the individual’s problems or concerns. Resources such as conflict resolution, credit counseling, job placement assistance, academic accommodations, veterans’ services, pastoral counseling, and disability services all can help address personal problems and reduce desperation. When the underlying personal problems are alleviated, people who may have posed a threat of violence to others no longer see violence as their best or only option.

Predicting and Preventing Violence by Those With Acute Mental Illness

When treating a person with acute or severe mental illness, mental health professionals may encounter situations in which they need to determine whether their patient (or client) is at risk for violence. Typically, they would conduct a violence risk assessment if the clinician’s concern is about risk for impulsive violence, as discussed previously. Clinicians also can conduct — or work with a team to help conduct — a threat assessment if their concern involves targeted violence. The available research suggests that mental health professionals should be concerned when a person with acute mental illness makes an explicit threat to harm someone or is troubled by delusions or hallucinations that encourage violence, but even in these situations, violence is far from certain. Although neither a violence risk assessment nor a threat assessment can yield a precise prediction of someone’s likelihood of violence, it can identify high-risk situations and guide efforts to reduce risk. It is important to emphasize that prevention does not require prediction; interventions to reduce risk can be beneficial even if it is not possible to determine who would or would not have committed a violent act.

When their patients (or clients) pose a risk of violence to others, mental health professionals have a legal and ethical obligation to take appropriate action to protect potential victims of violence. This obligation is not easily carried out for several reasons. First, mental health professionals have only a modest ability to predict violence, even when assisted by research-validated instruments. Mental health professionals who are concerned that a patient is at high risk for violence may be unable to convince their patient to accept hospitalization or some other change in treatment. They can seek involuntary hospitalization or treatment, but civil commitment laws (that vary from state to state) generally require convincing evidence that a person is imminently dangerous to self or others. There is considerable debate about the need to reform civil commitment laws in a manner that both protects individual liberties and provides necessary protection for society.

There is no guarantee that voluntary or involuntary treatment of a potentially dangerous individual will be effective in reducing violence risk, especially when the risk for violence does not arise from a mental illness but instead from intense desperation resulting from highly emotionally distressing circumstances or from antisocial orientation and proclivities for criminal misconduct. When individuals with prior histories of violence are released from treatment facilities, they typically need continued treatment and monitoring for potential violence until they stabilize in community settings. Jurisdictions vary widely in the resources available to achieve stability in the community and in the legal ability to impose monitoring or clinical care on persons who decline voluntary services.

Furthermore, if unable to obtain civil commitment to a protective setting, mental health professionals must consider other protective actions permitted in their jurisdictions, which may include warning potential victims that they are in danger or alerting local law enforcement, family members, employers, or others. Whether their particular jurisdiction mandates a response to “warn or protect” potential victims or leaves this decision to the discretion of the clinician, mental health professionals are often reluctant to take such actions because they are concerned that doing so might damage the therapeutic relationship with their patient and drive patients from treatment or otherwise render effective treatment impossible.

Another post-hospitalization strategy is to prohibit persons with mental illness from acquiring a firearm. The Gun Control Act of 1968 prohibited persons from purchasing a firearm if they had been involuntarily committed to a psychiatric inpatient unit. The Brady Handgun Violence Act (1994), known as the Brady Law, began the process of background checks to identify individuals who might attempt to purchase a firearm despite prohibitions. There is some evidence that rates of gun violence are reduced when these procedures are adequately implemented, but research, consistent implementation, and refinement of these procedures are needed (Webster & Vernick, 2013a).

Predicting and Preventing Gun-Based Suicide

Suicide accounts for approximately 61 percent of all firearm fatalities in the United States — 19,393 of the 31,672 firearm deaths reported by the CDC for 2010 (Murphy, Xu, & Kochanek, 2013). When there is concern that a person may be suicidal, mental health professionals can conduct suicide screenings and should rely on structured assessment tools to assess that person’s risk to self. Behavioral threat assessment also may be indicated in such situations if the potentially suicidal individual may also pose a threat to others.

More than half of suicides are accomplished by firearms and most commonly with a firearm from the household (Miller, Azrael, Hepburn, Hemenway, & Lippmann, 2006). More than 90 percent of persons who commit suicide had some combination of symptoms of depression, symptoms of other mental disorders, and/or substance abuse (Moscicki, 2001). Ironically, although depression is the condition most closely associated with attempted or completed suicide, it is also less likely than schizophrenia or other disorders to prompt an involuntary civil commitment or other legal triggers that can prevent some persons with mental illness from possessing firearms. As in behavioral threat assessment, suicide risk may be reduced through identifying and providing support in solving the problems that are driving a person to consider suicide. In many cases the person may need a combination of psychological treatment and psychiatric medication.

Tragic shootings like the ones at Sandy Hook Elementary School and the movie theater in Aurora, Colo., spark intense debate as to whether specific gun control policies would significantly diminish the number of mass shooting incidents. This debate includes whether or how to restrict access to firearms, especially with regard to persons with some mental illnesses. Another line of debate concerns whether to limit access to certain types of firearms (e.g., reducing access to high-capacity magazines). Empirical evidence documents the efficacy of some firearms restrictions, but because the restrictions often are not well implemented and have serious limitations, it is difficult to conduct the kind of rigorous research needed to fairly evaluate their potential for reducing gun violence.

The often-debated Brady Law (1994) does not consistently prevent persons with mental illness from acquiring a firearm. The prohibition applies only to persons with involuntary commitments and omits both persons with voluntary admissions and those with no history of inpatient hospitalization. The law does not prevent a person with a history of involuntary commitment from obtaining a previously owned firearm or one possessed by a friend or relative. Additional problems with implementing the Brady Law include incomplete records of involuntary commitments, background checks limited to purchases from licensed gun dealers, and exceptions from background checks for firearms purchased during gun shows.

Despite these limitations and gaps, there is some scientific evidence that background checks reduce the rate of violent gun crimes by persons whose mental health records disqualify them from legally obtaining a firearm. A study of one state (Connecticut) found that the risk of violent criminal offending among persons with a history of involuntary psychiatric commitment declined significantly after the state began reporting these individuals to the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (Swanson et al., 2013). This study supports the value of additional research to investigate strategies for limiting access to firearms by persons with serious mental illness.

In contrast, access to appropriate mental health treatment can work to reduce violence at the individual level. For example, one major finding of the MacArthur Risk Assessment study (Monahan et al., 2001) was that getting continued mental health treatment in the community after release from a psychiatric hospitalization reduced the number of violent acts by those who had been hospitalized. In other studies, outpatient mental health services, including mandated services, have been effective in preventing or reducing violent and harmful behavior (e.g., New York State Office of Mental Health, 2005; N.Y. Mental Hygiene Law [Kendra’s Law], 1999; O’Keefe, Potenza, & Mueser, 1997; Swanson et al., 2000).

There is abundant scientific research demonstrating the effectiveness of treatment for persons with severe mental illness such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. However, there are social, economic, and legal barriers to treatment. First, there is a persistent social stigma associated with mental illness that deters individuals from seeking treatment for themselves or for family members. Public education to increase understanding of and support for persons with serious mental illness and to encourage access to treatment is needed.

Second, mental health treatment, especially inpatient hospitalization, is expensive, and persons with mental illness often cannot access this level of care or afford it. Commercial insurers often have limitations on hospital care or do not cover intensive services that are alternatives to inpatient admission. Public sector facilities such as community mental health centers and state-operated psychiatric hospitals have experienced many years of shrinking government support; demand for their services exceeds their capacity. Many mental health providers limit their services to the most acute cases and cannot extend services after the immediate crisis has resolved.

Third, there are complex legal barriers to the provision of mental health services when an individual does not desire treatment or does not believe he or she is in need of treatment. A severe mental illness can impair an individual’s understanding of his or her condition and need for treatment, but a person with mental illness may make a rational decision to refuse treatment that he or she understandably regards as ineffective, aversive, or undesirable for some reason (e.g., psychiatric medications can produce unpleasant side effects and hospitalization can be a stressful experience).

When an individual refuses to seek treatment, it may be difficult to determine whether this decision is rational or irrational. To protect individual liberties, laws throughout the United States permit involuntary treatment only under stringent conditions, such as when an individual is determined to be imminently dangerous to self or others due to a mental illness. People who refuse treatment but are not judged to be imminently dangerous (a difficult and ambiguous standard) fall into a “gray zone” (Evans, 2013). Some individuals with serious mental illness pose a danger to self or others that is not imminent, and often it is not possible to monitor them adequately or determine precisely when they become dangerous and should be hospitalized on an involuntary basis. In other situations, the primary risk posed by the individual does not arise from mental illness but from his or her willingness to engage in criminal misconduct for personal gain.

Furthermore, when a person is committed to a psychiatric hospital on an involuntary basis, treatment is limited in scope. Once the person is no longer regarded as imminently dangerous (the criteria differ across states), he or she must be released from treatment even if not fully recovered; that person may be vulnerable to relapse into a dangerous state. In some cases of mass shootings, persons who committed the shooting were known to have a serious mental illness, but authorities could not require treatment when it was needed. In other cases, authorities were not aware of an individual’s mental illness before the attempted or actual mass shooting incident.

A related problem is that the onset or recurrence of serious mental illness can be difficult to detect. Symptoms of mental illness may emerge slowly, often in late adolescence or early adulthood, and may not be readily apparent to family members and friends. A person hearing voices or experiencing paranoid delusions may hide these symptoms and simply seem preoccupied or distressed but not seriously ill. A person who has been treated successfully for a serious mental illness may experience a relapse that is not immediately recognized. There is a great need for public education about the onset of serious mental illness, recognition of the symptoms of mental illness, and increased emphasis on the importance of seeking prompt treatment.

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2 The FBI (n.d.) defines mass murder as incidents that occur in one location (or in closely related locations during a single attack) and that result in four or more casualties. Mass murder shootings are much less common than other types of gun homicides. They are also not a new phenomenon. Historically, most mass murder shootings occurred within families or in criminal activities such as gang activity and robberies. Rampage killings is a term used to describe some mass murders that involve attacks on victims in unprotected settings (such as schools and colleges, workplaces, places of worship) and public places (such as theaters, malls, restaurants, public gatherings). However, these shootings are often planned well in advance and carried out in a methodical manner, so the term rampage is a misnomer.

Ellen Scrivner, PhD, ABPP; W. Douglas Tynan, PhD, ABPP; and Dewey Cornell, PhD

Prevention of violence occurs along a continuum that begins in early childhood with programs to help parents raise healthy children and ends with efforts to identify and intervene with troubled individuals who threaten violence. A comprehensive community approach recognizes that no single program is sufficient and there are many opportunities for effective prevention. Discussion of effective prevention from a community perspective should include identification of the community being examined. Within the larger community, many stakeholders are affected by gun violence that results in a homicide, suicide, or mass shooting.

Such stakeholders include community and public safety officials, schools, workplaces, neighborhoods, mental health and public health systems, and faith-based groups. When it comes to perpetrating gun violence, however, a common thread that exists across community groups is the recognition that someone, or possibly several people, may have heard something about an individual’s thoughts and/or plans to use a gun. Where do they go with that information? How do they report it so that innocent people are not targeted or labeled unfairly — and how can their information initiate a comprehensive and effective crisis response that prevents harm to the individual of concern and the community?

To date, there is little research to help frame a comprehensive and effective prevention strategy for gun violence at the community level. One of the most authoritative reviews of the body of gun violence research comes from the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences (see Wellford, Pepper, & Petrie, 2004). In reviewing a range of criminal justice initiatives designed to reduce gun violence, such as gun courts, enhanced sentencing, and problem-based policing, Wellford et al. concluded that problem-oriented policing, also known as place-based initiatives or target policing, holds promise, particularly when applied to “hot spots” — areas in the community that have high crime rates. They included studies on programs such as the Boston Gun Project (see Kennedy, Braga, & Piehl, 2001), more commonly known as Operation Ceasefire, in their review and concluded that although many of these programs may have reduced youth homicides, there is only modest evidence to suggest that they effectively lowered rates of crime and violence, given the confounding factors that influence those rates and are difficult to control. In other words, the variability in the roles of police, prosecutors, and the community creates complex interactions that can confound the levels of intervention and affect sustainability.

Wellford et al.’s (2004) conclusions were supported by the findings of the 2011 Firearms and Violence Research Working Group (National Institute of Justice, 2011), which also questioned whether rigorous evaluations are possible given the reliability and validity of the data. Wellford et al. advocated for continued research and development of models that include collaboration between police and community partners and for examination of different evaluation methodologies.

There are varied prevention models that address community issues. When it comes to exploring models that specifically address preventing the recent episodes of gun violence that have captured the nation’s attention, however, the inevitable conclusion is that there is a need to develop a new model that would bring community stakeholders together in a collaborative, problem-solving mode, with a goal of preventing individuals from engaging in gun violence, whether directed at others or self-inflicted. This model would go beyond a single activity and would blend several strategies as building blocks to form a workable systemic approach. It would require that community service systems break their tendencies to operate in silos and take advantage of the different skill sets already available in the community — for example:

• Police are trained in crisis intervention skills with a primary focus on responding to special populations such as those with mental illness.
• Community members are trained in skilled interventions such as Emotional CPR  and Mental Health First Aid — consumer-based initiatives that use neighbor-to-neighbor approaches that direct people in need of care to appropriate mental health treatment.
• School resource officers are trained to show a proactive presence in schools.

Each group may provide a solution to a piece of the problem, but there is nothing connecting the broad range of activities to the type of collaborative system needed to implement a comprehensive, community-based strategy to prevent gun violence. From a policy and practice perspective, no one skill set or one agency can provide the complete answer when it comes to developing a prevention methodology. However, some models developed through the community policing reform movement may be relevant because they are generally acknowledged to have been useful in reducing violence against women and domestic violence and in responding to children exposed to violence. These community policing models involve collaborative problem solving as a way to safeguard the community as opposed to relying only on arrest procedures. Moreover, they engage the community in organized joint efforts to produce public safety (Peak, 2013).

Another initiative, Project Safe Neighborhoods ( PSN ), is also relevant. PSN, a nationwide program that began in 2001 and was designed specifically to reduce gun violence, has some similarity to the community policing model. PSN involved the 94 U.S. attorneys in cities across the country in a prominent leadership role, ensured flexibility across jurisdictions, and required cross-agency buy-in, though there seems to have been less formalized involvement with mental health services. Nevertheless, it used a problem-solving approach that was aimed at getting guns off the streets, and the results of varied outcome assessments demonstrate that it was successful in reducing gun violence, particularly when the initiatives were tailored to the gun violence needs of specific communities (McGarrell et al., 2009).

A common approach used by PSN involved engaging the community to establish appropriate stakeholder partnerships, formulating strategic planning on the basis of identification and measurement of the community problem, training those involved in PSN, providing outreach through nationwide public service announcements, and ensuring accountability through various reporting mechanisms. The PSN problem-solving steps, with some adaptations, could provide a useful strategy for initiating collaborative problem solving with relevant community stakeholders in the interest of reducing gun violence and victimization through prevention.

The models discussed here illustrate how community engagement and collaboration helped break new ground in response to identified criminal justice problems, but they could be strengthened considerably by incorporating the involvement of professional psychology. The need for collaboration was again highlighted at a Critical Issues in Policing meeting (Police Executive Research Forum, 2012) as part of a discussion on connecting agency silos by building bridges across systems. Because police and mental health workers often respond to the same people, there is a need for collaboration on the best way to do this without compromising their roles. This emphasis takes the discussion beyond the student/school focus and expands it to include the use of crisis intervention teams (CIT) and community advocacy groups as additional resources for achieving the goal of preventing violence in the community.

The CIT model was another result of community policing reform that brought police and mental health services together to provide a more effective response to the needs of special populations, particularly mental health-related cases. Developed in Memphis in 1988 but now deployed in many communities across the country, the CIT model trains CIT officers to deescalate situations involving people in crises and to use jail diversion options, if available, rather than arrests. Although research on the effectiveness of CITs is generally limited to outcome studies in select cities, the model continues to gain prominence. In fact, the National Alliance on Mental Illness ( NAMI ) has established a NAMI CIT Center and is promoting the expansion of CIT nationwide. Studies by Borum (2000), Steadman, Deane, Borum, and Morrissey (2000), and Teller, Munetz, Gil, and Ritter (2006) have illustrated that high-risk encounters between individuals with mental illness and police can be substantially improved through CIT training, particularly when there are options such as drop-off centers, use of diversion techniques, and collaborations between law enforcement, mental health, and family members. Each plays a significant role in ensuring that city or county jails do not become de facto institutions for those in mental health crises.

Crisis intervention teams were also a major focus of a 2010 policy summit (International Association of Chiefs of Police [IACP], 2012). The summit, hosted by SAMHSA, the Bureau of Justice Assistance, and IACP, produced a 23-item action agenda. Although the summit focused on decriminalizing the response to persons with mental illness and was not directed specifically at dealing with people who perpetrate gun violence, some of their recommendations did apply. The central theme of the agenda encouraged law enforcement and mental health service systems to engage in mutually respectful working relationships, collaborate across partner agencies, and establish local multidisciplinary advisory groups. These partnerships would develop policy, protocols, and guidelines for informing law enforcement encounters with persons with mental illness who are in crisis, including a protocol that would enable agencies to share essential information about those individuals and whether the nature of the crisis could provoke violent behavior. They further recommended that these types of protocols be established and maintained by the multidisciplinary advisory group and that training be provided in the community to sensitize community members to signs of potential danger and how to intervene in a systematic way.

A Police Foundation (2013) roundtable on gun violence and mental health reported that some police departments have reached out to communities and offered safe storage of firearms when community members have concern about a family member’s access to firearms in the home. As a service to the community, the police would offer to keep guns secured in accessible community locations until the threat has subsided and the community member requests the return. The police would also confer with mental health practitioners regarding a designated family or community member on an as-needed basis. This strategy is consistent with a community threat assessment approach in which law enforcement authorities engage proactively with the community to reduce the risk of violence when an individual poses a risk.

Gun Violence in Schools

Gun violence in schools has been a national concern for more than two decades. Although school shootings are highly traumatic events and have brought school safety to the forefront of public attention, schools are very safe environments compared with other community settings (Borum et al., 2010). Less than 2 percent of homicides of school-aged children occur in schools. Over a 20-year period, there have been approximately 16 shooting deaths in U.S. schools each year (Fox & Burstein, 2010), compared with approximately 32,000 shooting deaths annually in the nation as a whole (Hoyert & Xu, 2012).

The Gun-Free Schools Act of 1994 made federal education funding contingent upon states requiring schools to expel for at least one year any student found with a firearm at school. This mandate strengthened the emerging philosophy of zero tolerance as a school disciplinary policy. According to the APA Zero Tolerance Task Force (2008), this policy was predicated on faulty assumptions that removing disobedient students would motivate them to improve their behavior, deter misbehavior by other students, and generate safer school conditions. The task force found no scientific evidence to support these assumptions and, on the contrary, concluded that the practice of school suspension had negative effects on students and a disproportionately negative impact on students of color and students with disabilities.

After the 1999 shooting at Columbine High School, both the FBI (O’Toole, 2000) and the U.S. Secret Service (Vossekuil et al., 2002) conducted studies of school shootings and concluded that schools should not rely on student profiling or checklists of warning signs to identify potentially violent students. They cautioned that school shootings were statistically too rare to predict with accuracy and that the characteristics associated with student shooters lacked specificity, which means that numerous nonviolent students would be misidentified as dangerous. Both law enforcement agencies recommended that schools adopt a behavioral threat assessment approach, which, as noted earlier, involves assessment of students who threaten violence or engage in threatening behavior and then individualized interventions to resolve any problem or conflict that underlies the threat. One of the promising features of threat assessment is that it provides schools with a policy alternative to zero tolerance. Many schools across the nation have adopted threat assessment practices. Controlled studies of the "Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines" have shown that school-based threat assessment teams are able to resolve student threats safely and efficiently and to reduce school suspension rates (Cornell et al., 2012; Cornell, Gregory, & Fan, 2011; Cornell, Sheras, Gregory, & Fan, 2009).

The Role of Health and Mental Health Providers in Gun Violence Prevention

The health care system is an important point of contact for families regarding the issue of gun safety. Physicians’ counseling of individuals and families about firearm safety has in some cases proven to be an effective prevention measure and is consistent with other health counseling about safety. According to the 2012 policy statement of the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP):

The AAP supports the education of physicians and other professionals interested in understanding the effects of firearms and how to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with their use. HHS should establish a program to support gun safety training and counseling programs among physicians and other medical professionals. The program should also provide medical and community resources for families exposed to violence.

The AAP’s Bright Futures practice guide urges pediatricians to counsel parents who possess guns that storing guns safely and preventing access to guns reduce injury by as much as 70 percent and that the presence of a gun in the home increases the risk for suicide among adolescents. A randomized controlled trial indicates that health care provider counseling, when linked with the distribution of cable locks, has been demonstrated to increase safer home storage of firearms (Barkin et al., 2008). The removal of guns or the restriction of access should be reinforced for children and adolescents with mood disorders, substance abuse (including alcohol), or a history of suicide attempts (Grossman et al., 2005). Research is needed to identify the best ways to avoid unintended consequences while achieving intended outcomes.

In recent years, legal and legislative challenges have emerged that test the ability of physicians and other medical professionals to provide guidance on firearms. For example, in 2011 the state of Florida enacted the Firearm Owners’ Privacy Act, which prevented physicians from providing such counsel under threat of financial penalty and potential loss of licensure. The law has been permanently blocked from implementation by a U.S. district court. Similar policies have been introduced in six other states: Alabama, Minnesota, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and West Virginia. The fundamental right of all health and mental health care providers to provide counseling to individuals and families must be protected to mitigate risk of injury to people where they live, work, and play.

It is apparent that long before the events at Sandy Hook Elementary School, many public health and public safety practitioners were seeking strategies to improve responses to violence in their communities and have experienced some success through problem-solving projects such as PSN and CIT. Yet there is still a need to rigorously evaluate and improve these efforts. In the meantime, basic safety precautions must be emphasized to parents by professionals in health, education, and mental health.

Public health messaging campaigns around safe storage of firearms are needed. The practice of keeping firearms stored and locked must be encouraged, and the habit of keeping loaded, unlocked weapons available should be recognized as dangerous and rendered socially unacceptable. To keep children and families safe, good safety habits have to become the only socially acceptable norm.

Susan B. Sorenson, PhD, and Daniel W. Webster, ScD, MPH

The use of a gun greatly increases the odds that violence will result in a fatality. In 2010, the most recent year for which data are available, an estimated 17.1 percent of the interpersonal assaults with a gunshot wound resulted in a homicide, and 80.7 percent of the suicide attempts in which a gun was used resulted in death (CDC, 2013a). By contrast, the most common methods of assault (hands, fists, and feet) and suicide attempt (ingesting pills) in 2010 resulted in death in only 0.009 percent and 2.5 percent of the incidents, respectively (CDC, 2013a). 3

As shown in Figure 1, in the past 30 years, the percentage of deaths caused by gunfire has stabilized to about 68 percent for homicides and, as drug overdoses have increased, dropped to 50 percent for suicide. There are more gun suicides than gun homicides in the United States. In 2010, 61.2 percent (19,392) of the 31,672 gun deaths in the United States were suicides (CDC, 2013a).

Figure 1. Deaths Attributed to Firearms, 1981–2010

Note: Data are from the Web-Based Injury Statistics Query and Reporting System (WISQARS™), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/injury/wisqars/fatal.html.

Much of the public concern about guns and gun violence focuses on interpersonal violence, and public policy mirrors this emphasis. Although there is no standard way to enumerate each discrete gun law, most U.S. gun laws focus on the user of the gun. Relatively few focus on the design, manufacture, distribution, advertising, or sale of firearms (Teret & Wintemute, 1993). Fewer yet address ammunition.

The focus herein is on the lifespan of guns — from design and manufacture to use — and the policies that could address the misuse of guns. It is critical to understand how policies create conditions that affect access to and use of guns. Because they constitute the largest portion of guns used in homicides (FBI, 2012a), handguns are the focus of most laws. Despite the substantial human and economic costs of gun violence in the United States and the ongoing debate about the effectiveness of gun regulations, scientifically rigorous evaluations are not available for many of these policies (Wellford et al., 2004). The dearth of such research on gun policies is due, in part, to the lack of government funding on this topic because of the political influences of the gun lobby (e.g., Kellermann & Rivara, 2013).

Design and Manufacture

The type of handguns manufactured in the United States has changed. Pistols overtook revolvers in manufacturing in the mid-1980s. In addition, the most widely sold pistol went from a .22 caliber in 1985 to a 9 mm or larger (e.g., .45 caliber pistols) by 1994 (Wintemute, 1996), with smaller, more concealable pistols favored by permit holders as well as criminals. This shift has been described as increasing the lethality of handguns, although, according to our review, no research has examined whether the change in weapon design has led to an increased risk of death. Such research may not be feasible given that the aforementioned weapons — that is, small, concealable pistols — still likely constitute a small portion of the estimated 283 million guns in civilian hands in the United States (Hepburn, Miller, Azrael, & Hemenway, 2007). The disproportionate appearance of such pistols among guns that were traced by law enforcement following their use in a crime has been attributed to the ease with which smaller guns can be concealed and their low price point (Koper, 2007; Wright, Wintemute, & Webster, 2010).

Ammunition, by contrast, is directly related to lethality. Hollow-point bullets are used by hunters because, in part, they are considered a more humane way to kill. The physics of hollow-point bullets are such that, upon impact, they will tumble inside the animal and take it down. Some bullets have been designed to be frangible, that is, to break apart upon impact and thus cause substantial internal damage. By contrast, the physics of full metal jacket bullets are such that, unless they hit a bone, they are likely to continue on a straight trajectory and pass through the animal, leaving it wounded and wandering. Hollow-point bullets are used by law enforcement to reduce over-penetration (i.e., when a bullet passes through its intended target and, thus, risks striking others).

Some design features would substantially reduce gun violence. One of the most promising ideas is that of “smart guns” that can be fired only by an authorized user. For example, young people, who are prohibited due to their age from legally purchasing a firearm, typically use a gun from their own home to commit suicide (Johnson, Barber, Azrael, Clark, & Hemenway, 2010; Wright, Wintemute, & Claire, 2008) and to carry out a school shooting (CDC, 2003). If personalized to an authorized adult in the home, the gun could not be operated by the adolescent or others in the home, thus rendering it of little use to the potential suicide victim or school shooter. During the Clinton administration, the federal government made a modest investment in the research and development of personalized firearms. There also was considerable private investment in technologies that would prevent unauthorized users from being able to fire weapons. Efforts to create these “smart guns” have resulted in multiple patent applications. Armatix GmbH, a German company, has designed and produced a personalized pistol that is being sold in several Western European nations and has been approved for importation to the United States. Although the cost of this new personalized gun is very high, it is believed that personalized guns can be produced at a cost that would be affordable by many (Teret & Merritt, 2013).

The assault weapons ban (the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act), enacted for a 10-year period beginning in 1994, provided a good opportunity to assess the effectiveness of restricting the manufacturing, sale, and possession of a certain class of weapons. “Assault weapons,” however, are difficult to conceal and are used rarely in most street crime or domestic violence. Assault weapons are commonly used in mass shootings in which ammunition capacity can determine the number of victims killed or wounded. Because multiple bullets are not an issue in suicide, one would not expect changes in such deaths either. Perhaps not surprisingly, an effect of the ban could not be detected on total gun-related homicides (Koper, 2013; Koper & Roth, 2001).

Unfortunately, prior research on the effects of the federal assault weapons ban did not focus on the law’s effects on mass shootings or the number of persons shot in such shootings. Assault weapons or guns with large-capacity ammunition feeding devices account for half of the weapons used in mass shootings such as at Sandy Hook Elementary School (see Follman & Aronson , 2013). Mass shootings with these types of weapons result in about 1.5 times as many fatalities as those committed with other types of firearms (Roth & Koper, 1997).

Distribution

The distribution of guns is largely the responsibility of a network of middlemen between gun manufacturers and gun dealers. When a gun is recovered following its use (or suspected use) in a crime, law enforcement routinely requests that the gun be traced — that is, the serial number is reported to the manufacturer, who then contacts the distributor and/or dealer who, in turn, reviews records to determine the original purchaser of a specific weapon. The number of gun traces is such that the manufacturers get many calls about their guns each day. One researcher estimated that Smith and Wesson, with about 10 percent of market share, received a call every seven to eight minutes about one of their guns (Kairys, 2008). Thus, one could reasonably expect that manufacturers would have some knowledge of which distributors sell guns that are disproportionately used in crime, and distributors would, in turn, know which retailers disproportionately sell guns used in crime.

Following in the footsteps of cities and states that had successfully sued the tobacco industry under state consumer protection and antitrust laws for costs the public incurred in caring for smokers, beginning in the late 1990s cities and states began to file claims against firearm manufacturers in an attempt to recover the costs of gun violence they incurred. In response, in 2005, Congress enacted and President George W. Bush signed the Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act, which prohibits civil liability lawsuits against “manufacturers, distributors, dealers, or importers of firearms or ammunition for damages, injunctive or other relief resulting from the misuse of their products by others” ( 15 U.S.C. §§ 7901-7903 ). Thus, the option of using litigation, a long-standing and sometimes controversial tool by which to address entrenched public health problems (e.g., Lytton, 2004), was severely restricted.

Advertising

Advertisements for guns have largely disappeared from classified ads in newspapers. By contrast, advertising in magazines, specifically gun magazines, is strong (Saylor, Vittes, & Sorenson, 2004). Such advertising is subject to the same Federal Trade Commission (FTC) regulations as other consumer products. In 1996, several organizations filed a complaint with the FTC after documenting multiple cases of what they asserted to be false and misleading claims about home protection (for specific examples, see Vernick, Teret, & Webster, 1997). As of November 1, 2013, the FTC had not ruled on the complaint. However, the firearm industry changed its practices such that by 2002, self-protection was an infrequent theme in advertisements for guns (Saylor et al., 2004). To our knowledge, current advertising has not been studied. New issues relevant to the advertising of guns include online advertisements by private sellers who are not obligated to verify that purchasers have passed a background check, online ads from prohibited purchasers seeking to buy firearms, the marketing of military-style weapons to civilians, and the marketing of firearms to underage youth (for examples and more information, see Kessler & Trumble, 2013; Mayors Against Illegal Guns, 2013; McIntire, 2013; Violence Policy Center, 2011).

Sales and Purchases

Gun sales have been increasing in the United States. The FBI reported a substantial jump in background checks (a proxy for gun sales) in the days following the Sandy Hook Elementary School shootings. In fact, of the 10 days with the most requests for background checks since the FBI started monitoring such information, 7 of them were within 8 days of Sandy Hook (FBI, 2013). Guns can be purchased from federally licensed firearm dealers or private, unlicensed sellers in a variety of settings, including gun shows, flea markets, and the Internet.

Responsible sales practices (for examples, see Mayors Against Illegal Guns, n.d.) rely heavily on the integrity of the seller. And usually that responsibility is well placed: Over half (57 percent) of the guns traced (i.e., submitted by law enforcement, usually in association with a crime, to determine the original purchaser of the weapon) were originally sold by only 1.2 percent of federally licensed firearm dealers (Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms [ATF], 2000). However, there are problems. Sometimes a person who is prohibited from purchasing a gun engages someone else, who is not so prohibited, to purchase a gun for him or her. The person doing the buying is called a “straw purchaser.” Straw purchase attempts are not uncommon; in a random sample of 1,601 licensed dealers and pawnbrokers in 43 states, two thirds reported experiencing straw purchase attempts (Wintemute, 2013b).

Two studies tested the integrity of licensed firearm dealers by calling the dealers and asking whether they could purchase a handgun on behalf of someone else (in the studies, a boyfriend or girlfriend), a straw purchase transaction that is illegal. In the study of a sample of gun dealers listed in telephone directories of the 20 largest U.S. cities, the majority of gun dealers indicated a willingness to sell a handgun under the illegal straw purchase scenario (Sorenson & Vittes, 2003). In a similar study of licensed gun dealers in California, a state with relatively strong regulation and oversight of licensed gun dealers, one in five dealers expressed a willingness to make the illegal sale (Wintemute, 2010). Programs such as the ATF and National Sports Shooting Council’s “Don’t Lie for the Other Guy,” which provides posters and educational materials to display in gun stores as well as tips for gun dealers on how to identify and respond to straw purchase attempts, have not been evaluated.

It is important to be able to identify high-risk dealers because, in 2012, the ATF had insufficient resources to monitor federally licensed gun dealers (Horwitz, 2012); there were 134,997 unlicensed gun dealers in April 2013 (ATF, 2013). Some states have recognized the limited capacity of the ATF and the weaknesses of federal laws regulating gun dealers and enacted their own laws requiring the licensing, regulation, and oversight of gun dealers (Vernick, Webster, & Bulzacchelli, 2006) and, when enforced, these laws appear to reduce the diversion of guns to criminals shortly after a retail sale (Webster, Vernick, & Bulzacchelli, 2009). Undercover stings and lawsuits against gun dealers who facilitate illegal straw sales have also been shown to reduce the diversion of guns to criminals (Webster, Bulzacchelli, Zeoli, & Vernick, 2006; Webster & Vernick, 2013b).

To help ensure that guns are not sold to those who are prohibited from purchasing them, the National Instant Criminal Background Check System ([NICS], part of the Brady Law) was developed so that the status of a potential purchaser could be checked immediately by a federally licensed firearm dealer. Prohibited purchasers include, but are not limited to, convicted felons, persons dishonorably discharged from the military, those under a domestic violence restraining order, and, in the language of the federal law, persons who have been adjudicated as mentally defective or have been committed to any mental institution (see 18 U.S.C. § 922(g) (1)-(9) and (n)). About 0.6% of sales have been denied on the basis of these criteria since NICS was established in 1998 (FBI, 2012b).

A substantial portion of firearm sales and transfers, however, is not required to go through a federally licensed dealer or a background check requirement; this includes, in most U.S. states, private party sales including those that are advertised on the Internet and those that take place at gun shows where licensed gun dealers who could process background checks are steps away. Some evidence suggests that state policies regulating private handgun sales reduce the diversion of guns to criminals (Vittes, Vernick, & Webster, 2013; Webster et al., 2009; Webster, Vernick, McGinty, & Alcorn, 2013).

The ability to check the background of a potential purchaser nearly instantly means that in many states, someone who is not a prohibited purchaser can purchase a gun within a matter of minutes. Ten states and the District of Columbia have a waiting period (sometimes referred to as a “cooling-off” period) for handguns ranging from 3 (Florida and Iowa) to 14 (Hawaii) days (Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence, 2012). The efficacy of waiting periods has received little direct research attention.

With the exception of misdemeanor domestic violence assault, federal law and laws in most states prohibit firearm possession of those convicted of a crime only if the convictions are for felony offenses in adult courts. Research has shown that misdemeanants who were legally able to purchase handguns committed crimes involving violence following those purchases at a rate 2–10 times higher than that of handgun purchasers with no prior convictions (Wintemute, Drake, Beaumont, & Wright, 1998). Wintemute and colleagues (Wintemute, Wright, Drake, & Beaumont, 2001) examined the impact of a California law that expanded firearm prohibitions to include persons convicted of misdemeanor crimes of violence. In their study of legal handgun purchasers with criminal histories of misdemeanor violence before and after the law, denial of handgun purchases due to a prior misdemeanor conviction was associated with a significantly lower rate of subsequent violent offending.

Persons who are legally determined to be a danger to others or to themselves as a result of mental illness are prohibited by federal law from purchasing and possessing firearms. A significant impediment to successful implementation of this law is that the firearm disqualifications due to mental illness often are not reported to the FBI’s background check system. As mentioned earlier, in 2007 Connecticut began reporting these disqualifications to the background check system. In a ground-breaking study, Swanson and colleagues (2013) studied the effects of this policy change on individuals who would most likely be affected — that is, those who were legally prohibited from possessing firearms due solely to the danger posed by their mental illnesses. They found that the rate of violent crime offending was about half as high among those whose mental illness disqualification was reported to the background system compared with those whose mental illness disqualification was not reported.

Federal law allows an individual to buy several guns, even hundreds, at once; the only requirement is that a multiple-purchase form be completed (18 U.S.C. § 923(g)(3)(A)(2009)). Large bulk purchases have been linked to gun trafficking (Koper, 2005). Policies such as one-handgun-a-month have rarely been enacted. Evaluations of these laws document mixed findings (Webster et al., 2009, 2013;Weil & Knox, 1996).

The United States was one of the signers of the Geneva Convention, which prohibits the use of hollow-point bullets in war (the goal being to wound but not kill wartime enemies), but hollow-point bullets are available to civilians in the United States. A hunting license is not a prerequisite for the purchase of hollow-point bullets in the United States. California passed a law requiring a thumbprint for ammunition purchases; the law was ruled “unconstitutionally vague” by a Superior Court judge in 2011, but some municipalities (e.g., Los Angeles, Sacramento) have similar local ordinances in effect.

In 2004, a national survey found that 20 percent of the U.S. adult population reported they own one or more long-guns (shotguns or rifles), and 16 percent reported they own a handgun (Hepburn et al., 2007). Self-protection was the primary reason for owning a gun. Most people who have a gun have multiple guns, and half of gun owners reported owning four or more guns. In fact, 4 percent of the population is estimated to own 65 percent of the guns in the nation.

Nationally representative studies suggest that the mental health of gun owners is similar to that of individuals who do not own guns (Miller, Barber, Azrael, Hemenway, & Molnar, 2009; Sorenson & Vittes, 2008). However, gun owners are more likely to binge drink and drink and drive (Wintemute, 2011).

In perhaps the methodologically strongest study to date to examine handgun ownership and mortality, Wintemute and colleagues found a strong association between the purchase of a handgun and suicide: “In the first year after the purchase of a handgun, suicide was the leading cause of death among handgun purchasers, accounting for 24.5 percent of all deaths” (Wintemute, Parham, Beaumont, Wright, & Drake, 1999). The risk of suicide remained elevated (nearly twofold and sevenfold, respectively, for male and female handgun purchasers) at the end of the 6-year study period. Men’s handgun purchase was associated with a reduced risk of becoming a homicide victim (0.69); women’s handgun purchase, by contrast, was associated with a 55 percent increase in risk of becoming a homicide victim. A waiting period may reduce immediate risk but appears not to eliminate short- or long-term risk for suicide.

Risk can extend to others in the home. Efforts to educate children about guns (largely to stay away from them), when tested with field experiments, indicate they are generally ineffective (e.g., Hardy, 2002). Child Access Prevention (CAP) laws focus on the responsibilities of adults; adults are held criminally liable for unsafe storage of firearms around children. CAP laws have been associated with modest decreases in unintentional shootings of children and the suicides of adolescents (Webster & Starnes, 2000; Webster, Vernick, Zeoli, & Manganello, 2004).

Most gun-related laws focus on the user of the gun (e.g., increased penalties for using a gun in the commission of a crime). Some research suggests that having been threatened with a gun, as well as the perpetrator’s having access to a gun and using a gun during the fatal incident, is associated with increased risk of women becoming victims of intimate partner homicide (Campbell et al., 2003). Regarding sales, note that persons with a domestic violence misdemeanor or under a domestic violence restraining order are prohibited by federal law from purchasing and possessing a firearm and ammunition. Research to date indicates that firearm restrictions for persons subject to such laws have reduced intimate partner homicides by 6 percent to 19 percent (Vigdor & Mercy, 2006; Zeoli & Webster, 2010).

As with initial discussions about motor vehicle safety, which focused on what was then referred to as the “nut behind the wheel,” current discussions about gun users sometimes involve terms such as “good guys” and “bad guys.” Although intuitively appealing, such categories seem to assume a static label and do not take into account the fact that “good guys” can become “bad guys” and “bad guys” can become “good guys.” One way an armed “good guy” can become a “bad guy” is to use a gun in a moment of temporary despondence or rage (Bandeira, 2013; Wintemute, 2013a).

Research on near-miss suicide attempts among young adults indicates that impulsivity is of concern. About one fourth of those whose suicide attempt was so severe they most likely would have died reported first thinking about suicide five minutes before attempting it (Simon et al., 2001). Although an estimated 90 percent of those who attempt suicide go on to die of something else (i.e., they do not subsequently kill themselves; for a review, see Bostwick & Pankratz, 2000), for those who use a gun, as noted in opening paragraph of this chapter, there generally is not a second chance.

Given the complexity of the issue, a multifaceted approach will be needed to reduce firearm-related violence (see, for example, Chapman & Alpers, 2013). Not all ideas that on the surface seem to be useful actually are. For example, gun buyback programs may raise awareness of guns and gun violence in a community but have not been shown to reduce mortality (Makarios & Pratt, 2012). Such data can inform policy. President Obama’s January 2013 executive orders about gun violence include directing the CDC to research the causes and prevention of gun violence. The federal government has since announced several funding opportunities for research related to gun violence. And the recent Institute of Medicine and National Research Council (2013) report called for lifting access restrictions on gun-related administrative data (e.g., data related to dealers’ compliance with firearm sales laws, gun trace data) that could be used to identify potential intervention and prevention points and strategies. So perhaps more data will be available to inform and evaluate policies designed to reduce gun violence.

The focus of this section has largely been on mortality. The scope of the problem is far greater, however. For every person who dies of a gunshot wound, there are an estimated 2.25 people who are hospitalized or receive emergency medical treatment for a nonfatal gunshot wound (Gotsch, Annest, Mercy, & Ryan, 2001). And guns are used in the street and in the home to intimidate and coerce (e.g., Sorenson & Wiebe, 2004; Truman, 2011).

Single policies implemented by themselves have been shown to reduce certain forms of gun violence in the United States. Adequate implementation and enforcement as well as addressing multiple intervention points simultaneously may improve the efficacy of these laws even more. After motor vehicle safety efforts expanded to include the vehicle, roadways, and other intervention points (vs. a focus on individual behavior), motor vehicle deaths dropped precipitously and continue to decline (CDC, 1999, 2013a). A multifaceted approach to reducing gun violence will serve the nation well.

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APA Panel of Experts

Dewey Cornell, PhD Clinical Psychologist and Professor of Education Curry School of Education University of Virginia

Arthur C. Evans Jr., PhD Commissioner Department of Behavioral Health and Intellectual disAbility Services Philadelphia, Pa.   Nancy G. Guerra, EdD (Coordinating Editor) Professor of Psychology Associate Provost for International Programs Director, Institute for Global Studies University of Delaware   Robert Kinscherff, PhD, JD Associate Vice President for Community Engagement Massachusetts School of Professional Psychology Senior Associate National Center for Mental Health and Juvenile Justice   Eric Mankowski, PhD Professor of Psychology Department of Psychology Portland State University

Marisa R. Randazzo, PhD Managing Partner SIGMA Threat Management Associates Alexandria, Va.   Ellen Scrivner, PhD, ABPP Executive Fellow Police Foundation Washington, D.C.   Susan B. Sorenson, PhD Professor of Social Policy / Health & Societies Senior Fellow in Public Health University of Pennsylvania

W. Douglas Tynan, PhD, ABPP Professor of Pediatrics Jefferson Medical College Thomas Jefferson University   Daniel W. Webster, ScD, MPH Professor and Director Center for Gun Policy and Research Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health

We are grateful to the following individuals for their thoughtful reviews and comments on drafts of this report:   Louise A. Douce, PhD Special Assistant, Office of Student Life Adjunct Faculty, Department of Psychology The Ohio State University   Joel A. Dvoskin, PhD, ABPP Department of Psychiatry University of Arizona   Ellen G. Garrison, PhD Senior Policy Advisor American Psychological Association   Melissa Strompolis, MA Doctoral Candidate University of North Carolina at Charlotte   Mathilde Pelaprat, PsyD , provided writing and research assistance on Chapter 2.

Rhea Farberman, APR Executive Director Public and Member Communications American Psychological Association

Editorial and Design Services Deborah C. Farrell, Editor │ Elizabeth F. Woodcock, Designer

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Home » 500+ Criminal Justice Research Topics

500+ Criminal Justice Research Topics

Criminal justice is a complex and critical field that encompasses various aspects of crime prevention, law enforcement, legal proceedings, and punishment. Research plays a crucial role in understanding and addressing the challenges and opportunities in this field. From studying the causes and consequences of crime to exploring the effectiveness of policies and interventions, there is a wide range of fascinating and important criminal justice research topics to explore. Whether you are a student, a scholar, a practitioner, or a curious citizen, delving into the world of criminal justice research can deepen your knowledge, sharpen your critical thinking skills, and contribute to creating a safer and fairer society. In this post, we will introduce some of the most compelling and relevant criminal justice research topics that you may find intriguing and informative.

Criminal Justice Research Topics

Criminal Justice Research Topics are as follows:

• The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime rates
• The impact of body-worn cameras on police accountability and public trust
• The causes and consequences of police use of excessive force
• The role of race and ethnicity in police-citizen interactions and perceptions
• The effectiveness of diversion programs in reducing recidivism among juvenile offenders
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing on crime rates and prison populations
• The challenges and opportunities of restorative justice as an alternative to punitive justice
• The role of mental health and substance abuse treatment in reducing criminal behavior
• The ethics and implications of using predictive policing algorithms
• The impact of private prisons on the criminal justice system and society
• The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation in reducing the harm of crime
• The prevalence and causes of wrongful convictions and the implications for justice
• The role of media in shaping public perceptions of crime and justice
• The effectiveness and fairness of the death penalty as a form of punishment
• The role of international law in addressing transnational crimes such as terrorism and human trafficking
• The impact of the War on Drugs on drug use, drug-related crime, and public health
• The effectiveness of gun control laws in reducing gun violence and crime rates
• The role of technology in enhancing or challenging the criminal justice system, such as DNA analysis or facial recognition software
• The prevalence and causes of domestic violence and the effectiveness of intervention programs
• The impact of sentencing disparities based on race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status
• The role of plea bargaining in the criminal justice system and the implications for justice
• The effectiveness of sex offender registries and notification laws in reducing sex crimes
• The impact of pretrial detention on defendants’ rights and outcomes
• The role of community-based corrections in reducing recidivism and promoting reentry
• The ethics and implications of using unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) for surveillance and law enforcement
• The effectiveness and implications of using risk assessment tools in pretrial decision-making
• The prevalence and impact of hate crimes and the challenges of prosecuting them
• The role of eyewitness testimony in criminal trials and the reliability of memory
• The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related crime and improving outcomes for offenders
• The impact of race and ethnicity on the administration of the death penalty
• The role of juries in the criminal justice system and the factors that affect their decisions
• The effectiveness and ethics of using informants in criminal investigations and prosecutions
• The prevalence and impact of cybercrime and the challenges of investigating and prosecuting it
• The effectiveness of juvenile justice reforms in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
• The impact of community-based policing on police-citizen relations and trust
• The role of social media in shaping perceptions of crime and justice
• The effectiveness of prison education and vocational training programs in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
• The prevalence and impact of human rights abuses in the criminal justice system, such as torture or discrimination
• The effectiveness of gang prevention and intervention programs in reducing gang-related crime
• The role of implicit bias in the criminal justice system and its impact on outcomes
• The impact of solitary confinement on mental health, behavior, and reentry outcomes
• The impact of police body cameras on public trust and police accountability.
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for juvenile offenders.
• The impact of community policing on crime reduction
• The use of predictive policing in law enforcement
• The impact of decriminalizing marijuana on crime rates
• The role of mental health professionals in the criminal justice system
• The effectiveness of de-escalation training for police officers
• The impact of technology on police surveillance practices
• The relationship between gender and sentencing disparities in the criminal justice system
• The relationship between poverty and crime
• The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing recidivism
• The impact of the War on Drugs on mass incarceration
• The use of cognitive-behavioral therapy in offender rehabilitation
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for people with substance use disorders
• The role of implicit bias in jury selection
• The impact of police officer stress on use of force incidents
• The use of big data in criminal investigations and decision-making
• The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in school disciplinary policies
• The relationship between mental illness and homelessness in the criminal justice system
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on juvenile offenders
• The role of drug courts in the criminal justice system
• The effectiveness of offender reentry programs for people with disabilities
• The impact of restorative justice programs on victims of crime
• The use of therapeutic jurisprudence in the criminal justice system
• The relationship between race and ethnicity and the use of force by private security personnel
• The effectiveness of educational programs in correctional facilities
• The impact of eyewitness identification procedures on wrongful convictions
• The role of community-based policing in reducing crime rates
• The use of predictive analytics in bail decisions
• The effectiveness of correctional education programs on recidivism
• The impact of immigration enforcement policies on immigrant communities’ trust in law enforcement
• The relationship between mental health and juvenile detention
• The use of biometrics in criminal investigations and identification
• The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing recidivism among people with co-occurring disorders
• The impact of gender and sexuality on hate crime victimization and reporting
• The role of cultural competence in police training
• The use of risk assessment tools in pretrial detention decisions
• The effectiveness of community supervision programs for people with substance use disorders
• The impact of social and economic policies on criminal justice outcomes
• The relationship between race and ethnicity and criminal case outcomes
• The use of therapeutic communities in correctional facilities
• The effectiveness of specialized courts for domestic violence cases
• The impact of gun violence on public safety and crime rates
• The role of eyewitness memory and recall in criminal investigations and trials
• The use of DNA evidence in criminal investigations and exoneration
• The effectiveness of probation and parole programs for people with disabilities
• The impact of victim impact statements on sentencing decisions
• The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial and ethnic disparities in incarceration rates
• The use of unmanned aerial vehicles in law enforcement
• The effectiveness of community-based restorative justice programs for juvenile offenders
• The impact of public defender workload on criminal case outcomes
• The role of community activism and advocacy in criminal justice reform
• The use of risk assessment tools in school disciplinary policies
• The effectiveness of family-focused interventions in reducing juvenile recidivism
• The impact of police officer race and ethnicity on use of force incidents
• The relationship between race and ethnicity and prosecutorial decision-making
• The use of virtual reality simulations in police training
• The effectiveness of mental health diversion programs for people with traumatic brain injuries
• The impact of juvenile life without parole sentences on individuals and society.
• The use of drones in criminal investigations
• The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to incarceration for nonviolent offenders
• The impact of wrongful convictions on the criminal justice system
• The role of implicit bias in criminal justice decision-making
• The use of risk assessment tools in child welfare investigations
• The effectiveness of offender reentry programs in reducing recidivism
• The impact of hate crimes on marginalized communities
• The relationship between mental health and the use of force by police officers
• The use of body language analysis in criminal interrogations
• The effectiveness of community policing strategies in building trust between police and communities
• The impact of race on police use of force and police brutality
• The role of prosecutorial discretion in the criminal justice system
• The use of algorithms in pretrial detention decisions
• The effectiveness of victim-centered approaches to sexual assault investigations
• The impact of domestic violence on child custody decisions
• The relationship between social media and cybercrime
• The use of facial recognition technology in law enforcement
• The effectiveness of police officer training programs on cultural sensitivity and bias reduction
• The impact of the school-to-prison pipeline on youth
• The role of mental health courts in diversion programs
• The use of virtual reality technology in criminal justice education and training
• The effectiveness of crisis intervention teams in responding to mental health crises
• The impact of immigration policies on crime reporting and victimization rates in immigrant communities
• The relationship between police department size and use of force incidents
• The use of predictive analytics in parole and probation supervision
• The effectiveness of juvenile justice system diversion programs for LGBTQ+ youth
• The impact of bail reform on pretrial detention rates and recidivism
• The role of trauma-informed care in the criminal justice system
• The use of artificial intelligence in forensic investigations
• The effectiveness of prison entrepreneurship programs in reducing recidivism
• The impact of COVID-19 on the criminal justice system
• The relationship between mental health and incarceration rates
• The use of social network analysis in criminal investigations
• The effectiveness of drug testing and monitoring programs for probationers and parolees
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on drug offenses
• The role of the media in shaping public perceptions of crime and the criminal justice system
• The use of body-worn cameras in courtroom proceedings
• The effectiveness of mental health diversion programs for veterans involved in the criminal justice system
• The impact of race and ethnicity on the plea bargaining process
• The relationship between police department diversity and community trust
• The use of crime mapping in law enforcement strategies
• The effectiveness of animal therapy programs in correctional facilities
• The impact of the death penalty on families of victims and offenders
• The role of prosecutorial misconduct in wrongful convictions.
• Racial disparities in the use of capital punishment
• The effectiveness of electronic monitoring as an alternative to incarceration
• The role of restorative justice in reducing recidivism
• The relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior
• The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related offenses
• The impact of body-worn cameras on police behavior and citizen complaints
• The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing and release decisions
• The effectiveness of boot camp programs for juvenile offenders
• The use of eyewitness testimony in criminal trials
• The impact of victim-offender mediation on the criminal justice system
• The relationship between education level and criminal behavior
• The effectiveness of parole and probation in reducing recidivism
• The use of artificial intelligence in criminal justice decision-making
• The role of public defenders in the criminal justice system
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on the prison population
• The effectiveness of therapeutic courts for individuals with substance abuse disorders
• The impact of social media on the reporting of crimes and public perception of crime
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in reducing recidivism
• The impact of mental health courts on the criminal justice system
• The role of community service in reducing recidivism
• The relationship between domestic violence and gun ownership
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with mental illnesses
• The impact of sentencing guidelines on judicial discretion
• The use of police body language in detecting deception during interviews
• The relationship between incarceration and employment opportunities post-release
• The effectiveness of community-based supervision programs for released offenders
• The impact of the war on drugs on the criminal justice system
• The role of race and ethnicity in plea bargaining decisions
• The use of risk assessment tools in juvenile justice
• The effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy in correctional facilities
• The impact of restorative justice on the victims of crime
• The relationship between gun laws and gun violence rates
• The effectiveness of pretrial diversion programs for individuals with mental illnesses
• The role of reentry programs in reducing recidivism
• The impact of mandatory arrest policies in domestic violence cases
• The use of polygraph tests in criminal investigations
• The relationship between gang membership and criminal behavior
• The effectiveness of drug treatment courts in reducing recidivism
• The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and behavior
• The role of gun buyback programs in reducing gun violence
• The relationship between substance abuse and child abuse
• The effectiveness of victim impact panels in reducing drunk driving
• The impact of juvenile detention on mental health and behavior
• The use of forensic science in criminal investigations
• The relationship between race and wrongful convictions
• The effectiveness of prison education programs in reducing recidivism
• The impact of police militarization on community trust and safety
• The relationship between race, ethnicity, and police use of force.
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing laws on incarceration rates.
• The effectiveness of community policing in reducing crime rates.
• The relationship between mental illness and criminal behavior.
• The role of gender in criminal justice sentencing and outcomes.
• The impact of the war on drugs on incarceration rates and drug use.
• The effectiveness of restorative justice programs in reducing recidivism.
• The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and rehabilitation.
• The relationship between poverty and crime rates.
• The role of technology in modern policing and criminal justice.
• The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing drug-related crime.
• The relationship between immigration and crime rates.
• The impact of mandatory arrest policies in cases of domestic violence.
• The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation in reducing recidivism.
• The role of social media in modern crime and policing.
• The impact of police militarization on community trust and safety.
• The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs for incarcerated individuals.
• The relationship between gun ownership and violent crime.
• The impact of wrongful convictions on individuals and the criminal justice system.
• The role of race and ethnicity in jury selection and decision-making.
• The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing recidivism.
• The relationship between education and crime rates.
• The impact of body-worn cameras on police officer behavior and decision-making.
• The effectiveness of drug treatment programs in reducing recidivism.
• The relationship between domestic violence and gun ownership.
• The impact of the death penalty on deterrence and sentencing outcomes.
• The role of implicit bias in policing and criminal justice decision-making.
• The effectiveness of community-based reentry programs for formerly incarcerated individuals.
• The relationship between crime rates and social inequality.
• The impact of predictive policing on crime rates and community trust.
• The effectiveness of probation and parole programs in reducing recidivism.
• The relationship between mental health and policing.
• The impact of police unions on police accountability and reform efforts.
• The role of the media in shaping public perceptions of crime and justice.
• The effectiveness of pretrial diversion programs in reducing incarceration rates.
• The relationship between police use of force and police training.
• The impact of mandatory minimum drug sentences on racial disparities in the criminal justice system.
• The effectiveness of juvenile detention alternatives in reducing recidivism.
• The relationship between mass incarceration and economic inequality.
• The impact of police body language on civilian compliance.
• The role of community organizations in crime prevention and intervention.
• The effectiveness of reentry programs for people with disabilities.
• The relationship between mental health and criminal justice reform.
• The impact of immigration policies on community safety and trust.
• The role of prosecutorial discretion in the criminal justice system.
• The effectiveness of job training programs for formerly incarcerated individuals.
• The relationship between race and drug policy.
• The impact of pretrial detention on case outcomes and incarceration rates.
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with mental health issues
• The prevalence and impact of police corruption and the challenges of rooting it out
• The role of victim impact statements in the criminal justice system and their impact on sentencing
• The impact of social inequality on crime rates and the criminal justice system
• The role of political ideology in shaping criminal justice policy and practice
• The effectiveness of rehabilitation and reentry programs for adult offenders
• The prevalence and impact of sexual harassment and assault within the criminal justice system
• The role of the Fourth Amendment in regulating police searches and seizures
• The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in addressing campus sexual assault
• The impact of mass incarceration on families and communities
• The ethics and implications of using artificial intelligence in criminal justice decision-making
• The role of bail reform in promoting justice and reducing pretrial detention
• The prevalence and impact of police misconduct and accountability mechanisms
• The effectiveness of drug policy reform in reducing drug-related harm and promoting public health
• The impact of globalization on transnational crimes and the challenges of international cooperation
• The role of prosecutorial discretion in shaping criminal justice outcomes
• The prevalence and impact of white-collar crime and the challenges of prosecution
• The role of public defenders in ensuring access to justice for indigent defendants
• The effectiveness of mental health courts in diverting mentally ill offenders from the criminal justice system
• The impact of the criminal justice system on immigrant communities and the challenges of immigrant detention and deportation
• The role of forgiveness in restorative justice and its implications for healing and reconciliation
• The effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution in reducing court congestion and promoting justice
• The prevalence and impact of hate speech and the challenges of regulating it
• The role of public opinion in shaping criminal justice policy and practice
• The effectiveness of community supervision in reducing recidivism and promoting reentry
• The impact of the criminalization of homelessness on vulnerable populations
• The role of community activism and advocacy in promoting criminal justice reform
• The effectiveness of therapeutic jurisprudence in promoting rehabilitation and well-being
• The prevalence and impact of police militarization and its implications for public safety and civil liberties
• The role of eyewitness identification procedures in criminal investigations and the reliability of identification evidence
• The effectiveness of harm reduction strategies in reducing drug-related harm and promoting public health
• The impact of the criminal justice system on Indigenous communities and the challenges of decolonizing justice
• The role of hate crime legislation in promoting justice and reducing hate-motivated violence
• The effectiveness of police training programs in reducing racial and ethnic bias and promoting cultural competence
• The prevalence and impact of gun violence and the challenges of gun control policy
• The role of the Eighth Amendment in regulating cruel and unusual punishment
• The effectiveness of problem-solving courts in addressing complex social issues and promoting justice
• The impact of the criminal justice system on LGBTQ+ communities and the challenges of achieving equality and inclusivity
• The role of victim services in promoting healing and well-being for crime victims
• The effectiveness of drug testing and monitoring programs in promoting rehabilitation and reducing recidivism
• The prevalence and impact of prison gangs and the challenges of managing them
• The role of implicit bias in eyewitness identification and the implications for justice
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with substance abuse issues
• The impact of social media on crime reporting and law enforcement
• The role of mental health diversion programs in reducing mass incarceration and promoting treatment
• The prevalence and impact of wrongful convictions of innocent people and the challenges of exoneration
• The relationship between immigration and crime rates
• The impact of drug courts on drug-related offenses and recidivism rates
• The use of restorative justice practices in the criminal justice system
• The effectiveness of reentry programs for people released from prison
• The use of polygraph tests in criminal investigations and court proceedings
• The impact of bail amounts on pretrial detention and case outcomes
• The relationship between gun ownership and crime rates
• The effectiveness of mental health screening and assessment for individuals involved in the criminal justice system
• The use of virtual courtrooms in criminal proceedings
• The impact of juvenile detention on mental health and future criminal behavior
• The relationship between poverty and crime rates
• The use of eyewitness identification procedures in criminal investigations and court proceedings
• The effectiveness of community service programs as a sentencing alternative
• The role of racial profiling in law enforcement practices
• The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing and parole decisions
• The impact of mandatory reporting laws on child abuse and neglect cases
• The relationship between parental incarceration and children’s wellbeing
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for drug-related offenses
• The use of cognitive-behavioral therapy in offender rehabilitation programs
• The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and recidivism rates
• The relationship between social capital and crime rates
• The use of DNA evidence in criminal investigations and court proceedings
• The effectiveness of crisis response teams in reducing police use of force incidents
• The role of race and ethnicity in jury selection and decision-making
• The impact of court fines and fees on individuals involved in the criminal justice system
• The relationship between education and crime rates
• The use of risk assessment tools in domestic violence cases
• The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with substance use disorders
• The impact of court-appointed attorneys on case outcomes and access to justice
• The role of victim impact statements in sentencing decisions
• The use of mental health courts for individuals with co-occurring disorders
• The effectiveness of court-mandated treatment programs for drug offenders
• The impact of gender on the sentencing and treatment of offenders
• The relationship between drug policy and crime rates
• The use of forensic psychology in criminal investigations and court proceedings
• The effectiveness of cognitive interviewing techniques in witness testimony
• The impact of the media on public perceptions of the criminal justice system
• The relationship between neighborhood characteristics and crime rates
• The use of body-worn cameras in police-community interactions
• The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with intellectual disabilities
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on sentencing disparities
• The role of mental health providers in prisons and jails
• The use of civil asset forfeiture in law enforcement practices
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with mental illness involved in the criminal justice system
• The impact of police militarization on community trust and police accountability
• The relationship between unemployment and crime rates
• The use of artificial intelligence in identifying and preventing human trafficking
• The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with traumatic brain injuries
• The impact of community-based alternatives to policing on public safety and crime rates.
• The impact of the militarization of police on community relations
• The effectiveness of restorative justice practices in reducing recidivism
• The relationship between socioeconomic status and juvenile delinquency
• The impact of police department culture on officer behavior
• The role of community courts in addressing low-level offenses
• The effectiveness of reentry programs for people who were formerly incarcerated
• The impact of body-worn cameras on police officer behavior and community perceptions
• The relationship between mental illness and police use of force
• The use of neuroscience in criminal sentencing
• The effectiveness of gun control policies in reducing gun violence
• The role of alternative dispute resolution in the criminal justice system
• The use of biometrics in criminal investigations
• The effectiveness of gang prevention and intervention programs
• The impact of domestic violence on employment and economic stability
• The use of artificial intelligence in criminal investigations and sentencing
• The role of implicit bias in eyewitness identification
• The use of drug courts in addressing drug addiction and drug-related crimes
• The effectiveness of reentry programs for juvenile offenders
• The impact of social media on crime and victimization
• The relationship between mental health and incarceration of women
• The use of surveillance technologies in correctional facilities
• The effectiveness of victim-offender mediation programs
• The impact of prosecutorial discretion on plea bargaining outcomes
• The role of mental health assessments in competency to stand trial determinations
• The use of biographical information in criminal investigations
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for people with mental illness
• The impact of police body language on community perceptions
• The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial disparities in healthcare
• The use of geospatial analysis in predicting crime patterns
• The effectiveness of community service programs in reducing recidivism
• The impact of court fines and fees on people with low incomes
• The role of neuroscience in detecting deception
• The use of technology in victim advocacy and support services
• The effectiveness of juvenile justice diversion programs for LGBTQ+ youth
• The impact of parental incarceration on children and families
• The relationship between race and juvenile justice system involvement
• The use of facial recognition technology in correctional facilities
• The effectiveness of community-based mental health services in reducing incarceration rates
• The impact of prison labor on employment opportunities for formerly incarcerated people
• The role of community-based restorative justice in addressing hate crimes
• The use of predictive analytics in child welfare investigations
• The effectiveness of alternative sentencing programs for drug-related offenses
• The impact of immigration enforcement policies on crime reporting in immigrant communities
• The relationship between implicit bias and jury decision-making
• The use of technology in improving language access in the criminal justice system.
• The impact of police body language on citizen perceptions and trust
• The effectiveness of police academy training on officer decision-making in high-pressure situations
• The role of technology in the spread of human trafficking
• The relationship between mental health and probation and parole revocation rates
• The use of community courts in addressing quality of life offenses
• The effectiveness of prisoner reentry programs on family reunification and support systems
• The impact of public defender caseloads on the quality of legal representation
• The role of implicit bias in jury selection and decision-making
• The use of diversion programs for juveniles involved in prostitution
• The effectiveness of community supervision programs for offenders with serious mental illness
• The impact of immigration enforcement policies on the criminal justice system
• The relationship between recidivism rates and prison education and vocational programs
• The use of body-worn cameras in prison settings
• The effectiveness of alternative dispute resolution in reducing court congestion
• The impact of prison labor on reentry and recidivism rates
• The role of risk assessment tools in parole and probation decision-making
• The effectiveness of drug courts in addressing substance abuse and recidivism
• The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and behavior in prison
• The relationship between domestic violence and firearm possession
• The use of mental health diversion programs for veterans involved in the criminal justice system
• The effectiveness of juvenile drug court programs on reducing recidivism
• The impact of private prisons on inmate rehabilitation and public safety
• The role of implicit bias in pretrial detention decisions
• The use of GPS monitoring in pretrial release and probation supervision
• The effectiveness of offender education and job training programs in reducing recidivism
• The impact of collateral consequences on reentry and recidivism rates
• The use of crisis intervention teams in responding to mental health emergencies
• The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to detention for juveniles
• The role of public opinion in shaping criminal justice policy
• The effectiveness of police body-worn cameras in reducing police misconduct and excessive use of force
• The impact of incarceration on family dynamics and relationships
• The relationship between access to legal representation and case outcomes
• The use of community supervision and support programs for individuals with substance use disorders
• The impact of pretrial detention on case outcomes and recidivism rates
• The role of prosecutorial discretion in plea bargaining and sentencing
• The use of facial recognition technology in criminal investigations and surveillance
• The effectiveness of problem-solving courts in addressing specialized criminal cases
• The impact of prison privatization on inmate rights and access to services
• The relationship between race, gender, and criminal justice outcomes
• The use of mental health courts in diversion programs
• The effectiveness of community policing strategies in building trust and reducing crime rates
• The impact of police militarization on community perceptions and police-citizen interactions
• The role of forensic evidence in criminal investigations and court proceedings
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting criminal behavior and recidivism.
• The use of restorative justice in the criminal justice system
• The impact of police militarization on community policing efforts
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with substance use disorders
• The relationship between economic inequality and crime rates
• The use of artificial intelligence in pretrial risk assessment
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentences on non-violent drug offenses
• The impact of the War on Drugs on communities of color
• The relationship between mental health and probation violations
• The effectiveness of drug courts in reducing recidivism rates
• The role of eyewitness testimony in wrongful convictions
• The use of facial recognition technology in criminal investigations and prosecutions
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for juvenile offenders
• The impact of probation and parole supervision on recidivism rates
• The relationship between police use of force and mental health disorders
• The use of predictive analytics in criminal sentencing
• The effectiveness of reentry programs for individuals with mental illness
• The impact of bail systems on low-income individuals and communities
• The role of implicit bias in sentencing decisions
• The use of social media in criminal investigations
• The impact of mandatory sentencing on judicial discretion
• The relationship between drug addiction and property crime
• The use of predictive analytics in risk assessment for pretrial release
• The effectiveness of substance abuse treatment programs in correctional facilities
• The impact of police body-worn cameras on police-citizen interactions
• The role of forensic evidence in wrongful convictions
• The use of drones in border patrol and immigration enforcement
• The effectiveness of community supervision programs for individuals with mental illness
• The impact of mandatory sentencing on the prison population and corrections costs
• The relationship between gang activity and violent crime
• The use of artificial intelligence in criminal investigations and evidence collection
• The effectiveness of juvenile diversion programs for first-time offenders
• The impact of prosecutorial misconduct on wrongful convictions
• The role of implicit bias in police use of force incidents
• The use of risk assessment tools in pretrial detention decisions for juvenile defendants
• The effectiveness of prison education programs in reducing recidivism rates
• The impact of racial profiling on policing practices and community trust
• The relationship between homelessness and criminal behavior
• The use of predictive analytics in identifying and preventing cybercrime
• The effectiveness of mental health treatment programs for incarcerated individuals
• The impact of the school-to-prison pipeline on students of color
• The role of community-based programs in reducing crime rates and recidivism
• The use of neuroscience in criminal investigations and sentencing decisions
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for individuals with co-occurring disorders
• The impact of solitary confinement on mental health and recidivism rates.
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for offenders with substance use disorders
• The impact of judicial discretion on sentencing outcomes
• The relationship between access to legal representation and sentencing disparities
• The use of body-worn cameras in reducing police misconduct and brutality
• The impact of bail practices on pretrial detention and racial disparities
• The relationship between police unions and police accountability
• The effectiveness of community supervision in reducing recidivism
• The impact of solitary confinement on mental health outcomes for inmates
• The relationship between criminal justice policies and racial wealth inequality
• The use of risk assessment tools in sentencing decisions
• The effectiveness of mandatory minimum sentences in reducing crime rates
• The impact of victim impact statements on sentencing outcomes
• The relationship between criminal justice policies and environmental justice
• The use of unmanned aerial vehicles (drones) in law enforcement
• The effectiveness of juvenile justice diversion programs for at-risk youth
• The impact of police militarization on community relations
• The relationship between immigration enforcement and public safety
• The use of artificial intelligence in predicting recidivism risk
• The effectiveness of police training on de-escalation tactics
• The relationship between the criminal justice system and income inequality
• The use of geographic profiling in criminal investigations
• The effectiveness of mental health courts in reducing incarceration rates
• The impact of mandatory arrest policies on domestic violence victims
• The relationship between criminal justice policies and public health outcomes
• The use of body-worn cameras in reducing false accusations against police officers
• The effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy in reducing domestic violence recidivism
• The impact of race and ethnicity on police use of force during traffic stops
• The use of predictive analytics in parole and probation revocation decisions
• The effectiveness of offender treatment programs for intimate partner violence offenders
• The impact of prison education programs on post-release employment and recidivism
• The relationship between prison labor and modern-day slavery
• The use of predictive modeling to prevent child abuse and neglect
• The effectiveness of community courts in reducing recidivism rates
• The impact of community-based organizations on crime prevention
• The relationship between mental health and substance use disorders in the criminal justice system
• The use of mobile forensic technology in criminal investigations
• The effectiveness of gender-responsive programming in reducing female recidivism rates
• The impact of anti-immigrant sentiment on policing in immigrant communities
• The relationship between police legitimacy and public trust
• The use of data analytics in law enforcement resource allocation
• The effectiveness of reentry programs for people with disabilities
• The impact of police misconduct on wrongful convictions
• The relationship between restorative justice and school discipline
• The use of location tracking technology in the criminal justice system
• The effectiveness of anti-bias training for law enforcement officers
• The impact of drug decriminalization on public safety and health.

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428 Criminology Research Topics & Questions for Students

As you might already know, criminology is the study of crime. To be more precise, criminology studies crime as a social trend, including its origin, various manifestations, and its impact on society.

Criminology research influences how the police work, how society treats criminals, and how the community maintains law and order. In this article, you’ll find top criminology research topics for your inspiration. We’ll also look into the main criminology theories and research methods and explain the difference between criminology and criminal justice.

🔝 Top-10 Criminology Research Topics

🔤 what is criminology.

• 🔎 Criminology Research Methods
• 📝 Research Topics for Assignments

🦹‍♂️ Crime Research Topics

• 🚔 Topics in Law Enforcement
• 🕵️ Criminal Investigation Topics

⚖️ Criminal Law Research Topics

• 🔒 Topics to Research in Crime Prevention

🧑‍⚖️ Criminal Justice Research Topics

• 🆚 Criminology Vs Criminal Justice

❓ Criminology Topics: FAQ

🔗 references.

• Criminology as a science: criminology theories.
• The importance of eyewitness evidence.
• The issue of racial bias in the investigation.
• Crime propaganda on social media.
• The leading causes of college violence.
• The benefits of private prisons.
• The debate around gun control.
• The analysis of power abuse among police officers.
• Drunk driving and how to prevent it.
• The importance of forensic psychology in the investigation.

Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, supported by the principles of sociology and other sciences, including economics, statistics, and psychology.

Criminologists study a variety of related areas, including:

• Characteristics of people who commit crimes.
• Reasons behind committing different crimes.
• Impact of crime on individuals and communities.
• Measures for preventing crimes.

Criminology Theories

Criminology theories have appeared as an attempt to answer the question, “What is criminal behavior, and what causes it?” The answer to this question affects how society responds to and prevents crime. Proposing new theories and testing existing ones is essential for criminologists to continue working toward understanding the causes of criminal behavior.

Let’s consider the most relevant criminology theories.

🔎 Research Methods Used in Criminology

There are many research methods used within criminology. Usually, they are divided into two groups: primary and secondary research methods.

Primary Research Methods in Criminology

Primary research in criminology is any type of research that you collect yourself rather than based on secondary sources, such as articles or books. Examples of primary research methods in criminology include the following:

• Surveys and questionnaires. Survey research collects information from individuals through their responses to questions. It is considered one of the most widely used research tools in criminology.
• Experiments. For experiments , researchers take large samples of people who might become or have already been involved in crimes as victims or offenders. Then, they divide these samples into two groups, each receiving a different treatment.
• Interviews. An interview requires participants to answer a set of open-ended questions, often on sensitive topics, such as victimization or criminal behaviors. This method allows criminologists to gain more valuable insights into the research topic.
• Focus groups. A focus group is a small number of demographically similar people gathered to discuss a particular crime-related topic. This method allows criminologists to analyze people’s views, attitudes, and perceptions concerning crime.
• Observations. Observations involve a researcher studying groups or individuals in their natural setting without interfering. It is a common research method within the social learning theory.

Secondary Criminology Research Methods

Secondary research methods use information that was collected by someone else so that you can analyze it and identify the trends. Here are the two leading types of secondary research in criminology:

• Secondary analysis of data. A secondary analysis occurs when a researcher uses data collected by other researchers. You can obtain secondary data from surveys, official crime statistics, or official records.
• Literature review. A literature review involves reading, analyzing, evaluating, and summarizing literature about a specific criminology topic. It helps scholars identify research gaps and problems that need to be addressed.

📝 Criminology Research Topics for Assignments

To write an outstanding research paper on criminology, choose a topic that will spark your interest. Below you’ll find excellent criminology topic ideas for college students.

Criminology Research Paper Topics

• Criminology theory and its main elements.
• Criminology discipline and theories .
• American crime trends and criminological theories.
• The significance of criminological studies in the US.
• Criminology: legal rights afforded to the accused .
• The impact of violence and crime on the tourism industry.
• How did US crime rates change over the last 20 years?
• Classical and positivist schools of criminology .
• Should abortion be treated as a crime?
• Official and unofficial instruments within the criminal investigation.
• Criminology: femininity and the upsurge of ladettes .
• Criminal rehabilitation programs and their significance.
• Shoplifting and how to prevent it.
• Emerging technologies in criminology .
• The effects of illegal immigrants on crime rates.
• Drug trafficking by organized crime groups.
• Criminology and victimology: victim stereotypes in criminal justice .
• Can genetics lead to crime?
• The procedures of crime scene investigation.
• Labeling theory and critical criminology: sociological research .
• Hate crimes in modern society.
• The phenomenon of white-collar crime and its causes.
• How to prevent crimes in the workplace?
• Criminology: the social control theory .
• Stereotypes that surround serial killers and their crimes.
• The comparison of organized crime in New York and Chicago.
• Prevention strategies for small business crimes.
• Criminology: four types of evidence .
• Relations between crime, justice, and the media.

Criminology Research Proposal Topics

• How to prevent intellectual property crimes in cyberspace?
• Identity theft and cybercrime in modern society.
• Contemporary theories in criminology .
• The problem of racial profiling in the US.
• How has criminology contributed to the study of terrorism ?
• Possible solutions to the issue of street harassment .
• Postmodern criminology: the violence of the language .
• Gender bias in the investigation: pink-collar criminals.
• The phenomenon of digital terrorism and how to prevent it.
• How do immigration services help fight against terrorism?
• Green criminology: environmental harm in the Niger Delta .
• How has marijuana legalization influenced crime rates?
• Tools for collecting and analyzing crime evidence.
• How does international law manage war crimes ?
• The due process: criminology .
• What are victimless crimes ?
• The relation between crime rates and poverty.
• National system for missing and unidentified persons.
• Three case briefs in criminology .
• The impact of mental illness on criminal behavior.
• The effectiveness of rehabilitation programs in reducing crime rates.
• The use of AI technology in crime prevention and investigation.
• Sexual assault: criminology .
• The role of media coverage in public perception of crime.
• The impact of community policing on reducing crime rates.
• The impact of mass shootings on gun control laws.
• The impact of automation technology on criminology .

Criminology Thesis Topics

• The role of juvenile justice in preventing future criminal behavior.
• Feminism and criminology in the modern justice system .
• The effectiveness of mandatory minimum sentencing in the US.
• Drug laws : fighting crime or fueling it?
• Police brutality : a systemic problem in criminal justice.
• Criminology: USA Patriot Act overview .
• The impact of hate crimes on marginalized communities.
• How does organized crime affect the global economy?
• The significance of DNA evidence for criminal investigations.
• Use of statistics in criminal justice and criminology .
• The ethics of plea bargaining in criminal cases.
• Mental illness and criminal behavior: breaking the stigma.
• The impact of social media on cyberbullying and harassment.
• Robert Merton’s strain theory in criminology .
• Causes and consequences of police corruption .
• The role of restorative justice in repairing harm caused by crime.
• The effectiveness of treatment programs in reducing drug-related crimes.
• Hernando Washington case: criminology .
• The negative effects of human trafficking on global communities.
• The role of forensic science in crimes investigation.
• The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to imprisonment.
• Integrity as a key value: criminology and war .
• The relationship between poverty, education, and crime rates.
• Cybercrime : the dark side of the digital age.
• Hate crimes: motivations and impact on modern society.
• Feminist perspectives’ contribution to criminology .
• The impact of incarceration on families and communities.

Criminology Research Questions for Dissertation

• Can criminal profiling accurately predict offender behavior?
• How do hate crimes affect individuals and communities?
• How were the US Constitution and the Bill of Rights influenced by the classical school of criminology ?
• What are the psychological effects of cyberbullying on victims?
• What factors contribute to domestic violence , and how can it be prevented?
• How have organized crime groups evolved over time?
• How is statistics used in criminology and criminal justice ?
• Is the death penalty an effective crime deterrent?
• What motivates individuals to engage in white-collar crime?
• What are the consequences of police corruption for society?
• What is variance analysis in criminal justice and criminology ?
• How does drug addiction contribute to criminal behavior?
• How does gender influence criminal behavior and justice outcomes?
• What drives individuals to commit mass shootings?
• What is the broken window theory in criminology ?
• What are the biggest challenges facing criminal justice reform efforts?
• How do urban gangs perpetuate violence and criminal activity?
• How do criminal law and procedures protect individual rights and liberties?
• What is the impact of corporate fraud ?
• What challenges do individuals with mental health issues face in the criminal justice system?
• How can society combat human trafficking and exploitation?
• What measures can be taken to enhance cybersecurity and protect against cybercrime?
• What is the aboriginal crisis from a criminology perspective ?
• How can victimology help us better understand the experience of crime victims?
• What are effective crime prevention strategies for different types of crime?
• What is legal insanity in criminology ?
• How does environmental crime impact communities and the environment?
• How is the peace-making model applied in criminology ?

A significant part of criminology research is dedicated to various types of crimes and their reasons. Consider our crime topic ideas that will spark instant interest in your readers:

• The psychological impact of kidnapping on victims and their families.
• The racialization of crime and cultural panic .
• The ethical considerations surrounding ransom payments in kidnapping cases.
• The effect of burglary on small businesses and their ability to recover.
• The impact of race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on homicide rates and patterns.
• Shoplifting: a crime of convenience .
• The effectiveness of different types of anti-theft devices in preventing motor vehicle theft.
• The role of forensic science in investigating arson cases, including the use of accelerant detection dogs.
• The concept of natural legal crime .
• The psychological profiles of white-collar criminals and their motivations.
• The psychological effects of burglary on victims and their sense of security.
• The concept of juvenile crime .
• The role of social media in facilitating and preventing kidnappings.
• The use of forensic evidence in homicide investigations and the challenges of prosecuting homicide cases.
• Sex crime recidivism rates.
• Illegal immigrantion and its effects on crime .
• The effectiveness of international efforts to combat money laundering .
• The efficacy of community watch programs in reducing burglary rates.
• The role of corporate culture in facilitating or preventing white-collar crime.
• Crimes in America: the 9/11/01 terrorist attacks .
• Technology in motor vehicle theft: GPS tracking and remote disabling systems.
• Human trafficking and the exploitation of vulnerable populations.
• Crime and criminals: general characteristics .
• The ethical and moral implications of capital punishment as a response to homicide.
• The effectiveness of fire prevention and education programs in reducing instances of arson.
• US gun control measures and crime rates reduction .
• The use of cryptocurrency in money laundering and illegal activities.
• White-collar crime and the abuse of power in corporate and financial settings.
• Cargo crimes and threats: government accountability office .
• The rise of cyberstalking and its impact on victims’ mental health.
• The effects of pollution on communities and the legal response to environmental crimes.
• Cyber-bullying and cyber-stalking as crimes .
• The effects of society’s reaction to crime.
• The use of technology in financial fraud schemes .
• Crimes against property and their characteristics .
• The intersection of racism and hate crimes against Asian Americans.
• The impact of deforestation on indigenous communities and wildlife.
• Crime types and their harm to society .
• The prevalence of domestic violence and the legal response to it.
• The exploitation of child labor in the fashion industry .
• Race and crime among minorities in the US .
• The ethical implications of using artificial intelligence in law enforcement.
• The psychological effects of hate crimes on victims and their communities.
• How does local television news viewing relate to fear of crime ?
• The evolution of cybercrime and its most common types.
• Parental responsibility for children’s crimes.
• The sex crime: influence of childhood experiences .
• Prostitution : a victimless crime.
• Sociology and media representation of crime.
• The profile of a crime victim .
• A theory of gendered criminology: women’s crime.

🚔 Research Topics in Law Enforcement

Another exciting area within criminology to investigate is law enforcement and police jobs. Have a look at the list of burning and controversial topics we came up with:

• The impact of community policing on crime rates and public trust.
• Law enforcement: online crimes and social media .
• Do body-worn cameras reduce police misconduct?
• The effects of implicit bias on the police use of force.
• Law enforcement cameras as an invasion of privacy .
• The impact of police militarization on community relations.
• Why is mental health training essential for police officers in crisis situations?
• Law enforcement officers’ attitudes regarding body-worn cameras .
• The role of police in addressing hate crimes and bias incidents.
• The effectiveness of community-based alternatives to traditional policing.
• Organizational changes in law enforcement agencies .
• The efficacy of police-community partnership in addressing gang violence.
• The impact of police officer diversity on community relations and trust.
• Local, state, and federal law enforcement in the US .
• The role of police in addressing cybercrime and online harassment.
• The effects of police body language and nonverbal cues on public perceptions.
• Cumulative career traumatic stress in law enforcement .
• Social media and its role in shaping public perceptions of police behavior.
• The role of police discretion in enforcing drug laws and addressing addiction.
• Mindfulness practice in law enforcement .
• The effectiveness of hot spot policing in reducing crime rates.
• Organizational culture in the police department.
• Stress in law enforcement officers and available programs .
• The role of police leadership in promoting ethical behavior and accountability.
• The effectiveness of community-based justice programs for juvenile offenders.
• Law enforcement in colonial America .
• Police-community partnerships for addressing domestic violence.
• The role of police in addressing human trafficking and exploitation.
• Misrepresentation of law enforcement by media .
• School safety and the police.
• How does stress affect the performance of law enforcement officers?
• The law enforcement: verbal communication as the best form of interaction .
• The significance of federal and state law enforcement mechanisms.
• The adverse effects of toxic leadership in quality law enforcement.
• Balance between effective law enforcement and personal liberty .
• The importance of discipline in public services.
• The connection between police salary and rates of police brutality.
• Role of police agencies in law enforcement .
• Police investigative questioning and techniques.
• The issue of corruption in law enforcement.
• Significance of computer forensics to law enforcement .
• Case study: police response to the Ningbo protest.
• Police actions to stop school bullying .
• Law enforcement position in society .
• New technological advances within the police department.
• Do law enforcement cameras violate privacy right?
• Different types of evaluation designs in law enforcement .
• Recognition of women’s right to work as police officers.
• The effectiveness of foot and bike patrols of the streets.
• Firearms types and usage in law enforcement .
• The competencies of international law enforcement authorities.
• Comparison of police brutality statistics for different genders.
• Ethical theories in law enforcement practice .

🕵️ Criminal Investigation Research Topics

The criminal investigation process is another criminology area worth discussing in your research paper. Below you’ll find the most intriguing criminal investigation topics:

• The history and evolution of criminal investigation techniques.
• Crime scene investigation in media and real life .
• The role of forensic science in criminal investigations.
• How does technology impact modern criminal investigations?
• The importance of preserving crime scenes and evidence.
• Crime scene investigation effect in the justice system .
• The ethics of interrogation techniques used in criminal investigations.
• Eyewitness testimony in criminal investigations.
• The role of criminal profiling in solving crimes.
• Organized business crime prosecution and investigation .
• How does media coverage affect criminal investigations?
• The use of informants in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating white-collar crimes.
• Undercover police investigations in drug-related crimes .
• The role of private investigators in criminal investigations.
• The impact of false confessions on criminal investigations.
• How is DNA evidence collected in criminal investigations?
• Importance of toxicology in crime investigation .
• The role of the FBI in national criminal investigations.
• The use of undercover operations in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating organized crime.
• Crime level investigation in the United States .
• Witness protection programs in criminal investigations.
• The impact of plea bargaining on criminal investigations.
• Surveillance techniques in criminal investigations.
• Investigating crime with age and mental illnesses factors .
• How are cybercrimes investigated?
• The role of international cooperation in criminal investigations.
• How do racial biases influence criminal investigations?
• Drug trafficking: investigation on Frank Lucas .
• Polygraph tests in criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating terrorism-related crimes.
• Homicide investigations and forensic evidence .
• The role of victim advocacy in criminal investigations.
• Lie detector tests in criminal investigations.
• The role of forensic psychology in the investigation .
• The effects of community involvement on criminal investigations.
• The problem of false accusations in criminal investigations.
• Approaches in criminal investigation .
• The use of forensic accounting in financial crime investigations.
• How does the media shape public perception of criminal investigations?
• Key rulings on the conduct of investigators at the scene of a fire .
• The impact of political pressure on criminal investigations.
• The main challenges of investigating human trafficking.
• The Breonna Taylor case and criminal investigation .
• The role of victim compensation in criminal investigations.
• Behavioral analysis in criminal investigations.
• Procedures within crime scene investigation .
• Crime scene reconstruction in criminal investigations.

Criminology goes hand-in-hand with legal studies. If you’re interested in both areas, you should definitely write a research paper on one of the criminal law research topics:

• The evolution of criminal law in the US .
• Criminal law: stolen valor .
• The difference between criminal and civil law.
• Human trafficking and criminal law.
• Types of criminal offenses and the elements of crime.
• International criminal law and measures .
• The role of the burden of proof in criminal cases.
• Criminal defenses and their validity.
• The insanity defense in criminal law.
• Actus reus in English criminal law .
• The controversies around the death penalty.
• Juvenile delinquency and criminal law.
• Cybercrime and its legal implications.
• Criminal law – is graffiti a crime or not ?
• Domestic violence and criminal law.
• Hate crimes and their legal consequences.
• Restitution for victims in criminal law.
• Civil vs. criminal law and differences between them .
• Forensic evidence and its admissibility in court.
• Sexual assault and criminal law.
• The rights of the accused in criminal cases.
• Regulatory criminal laws in the criminal justice system .
• Receiving immunity for testimony in a criminal law case.
• The legal classification of criminal offenses.
• Self-defense in criminal law cases.
• How Canadian criminal law regulates deviant conduct .
• Sentencing guidelines and their impact on society.
• The use of DNA evidence in criminal cases.
• Eyewitness testimony and its reliability in court.
• Fundamental aspects of Canadian criminal law .
• The role of the media in criminal trials.
• The impact of social inequality on criminal justice outcomes.
• The future of criminal law and its impact on society.
• Criminal law in India and access to justice .
• International criminal law and its enforcement.
• Extradition and its legal implications.
• The impact of globalization on criminal law.
• Juvenile vs. adult criminal law .
• The importance of victim rights in criminal cases.
• Restorative justice and its benefits for society.
• Alternatives to incarceration for non-violent offenders.
• Automatism as a defence in criminal law .
• The role of defense attorneys in criminal trials.
• The role of prosecutors in criminal trials.
• The right to a public trial in a criminal law case.
• Civil and criminal law penalties and differences .
• Car searches in criminal investigations by law enforcement.

🔒 Criminology Topics for Research in Crime Prevention

Researching crime prevention allows you to learn more about the strategies for reducing criminal behavior. Have a look at our outstanding crime prevention topic ideas:

• Understanding and explaining crime prevention.
• Theories that explain criminal activities and criminology .
• The effectiveness of community policing in preventing crime.
• The benefits and drawbacks of crime prevention in the US.
• How can education reduce crime rates?
• Crime prevention programs and criminal rehabilitation .
• Technological innovations and their impact on crime prevention.
• The importance of early childhood interventions in preventing criminal behavior.
• The relationship between poverty and crime prevention strategies.
• Youth crime prevention and needs assessment .
• The use of restorative justice in reducing recidivism.
• The effectiveness of gun control laws in preventing gun-related crimes.
• The impact of social media on crime prevention and awareness.
• Crime prevention program in Australia .
• The use of CCTV cameras in preventing crime.
• Evidence for crime prevention programs in developing countries.
• The role of mental health services in preventing criminal behavior.
• Crime prevention practices: overview .
• The effectiveness of community-based programs in reducing juvenile delinquency.
• The use of environmental design in preventing crime by shaping space and behavior.
• Victim support programs for lowering crime rates.
• Situational and social crime prevention approaches .
• The effectiveness of after-school programs in preventing juvenile offenses.
• Techniques for preventing situational and social crime.
• The impact of citizen participation in crime prevention.
• Computer crime prevention measures .
• The efficacy of community watch programs in preventing neighborhood crimes.
• The use of community centers for preventing gang-related crimes.
• The impact of sentencing policies on crime prevention.
• Biometrics recognition and crime prevention .
• The relationship between video game violence and youth crime .
• Social media and cybercrime prevention.
• The role of social workers in crime prevention.
• Three-strikes law for preventing violent crimes .
• Decreasing crime rates through education and medicine.
• The use of animal-assisted therapy for reducing criminal behavior.
• The effectiveness of aftercare programs in reducing recidivism.
• Capital punishment as ineffective crime deterrence .
• The main strategies for proactive crime prevention.
• The impact of domestic violence prevention programs on crime rates.
• The use of probation and parole in preventing criminal behavior.
• Juvenile weapon crimes and strategies to address .
• The role of faith-based organizations in crime prevention.
• The use of diversion programs in juvenile crime prevention.
• The distinctions between crime prevention and community safety.
• Preventing crime victimization in international students .
• The impact of agriculture and rural development on crime prevention.

Criminal justice might be a challenging research topic, but it is worth the time and effort. Consider our unique topic ideas for your successful research:

• The effectiveness of community policing.
• The use of statistics in criminal justice and criminology .
• Rehabilitation programs offered in prisons and their efficacy.
• The importance of defense attorneys in the criminal justice system.
• The code of ethics in the Texas Department of Criminal Justice .
• The significance of restorative justice programs.
• The impact of mandatory minimum sentencing laws.
• Criminal justice process: felony criminal charge .
• The role of judges in the criminal justice system.
• Probation and parole in the criminal justice system.
• Veterans in the criminal justice system .
• The comparison of prison privatization in the US and UK.
• The main issues women experience in the prison system.
• US terrorism and criminal justice decision-making model .
• The prison system in a democratic society.
• The role of psychologists in the criminal justice system.
• Transgender offenders in the criminal justice system .
• The impact of private prisons on crime rates.
• The effectiveness of victim compensation programs.
• The successes and failures to reform punishment in the criminal justice system .
• Community involvement in the criminal justice system.
• The main challenges of long-term prisoner rehabilitation.
• Technology application in criminal justice .
• The role of victim-offender mediation in the criminal justice system.
• Gender disparity in the criminal justice system.
• Recidivism in criminal justice: the American prison system .
• How does solitary confinement impact people in prisons?
• Legal and ethical issues in international intervention.
• Racial and ethnic disparities in the criminal justice system .
• Do mandatory minimum sentences help or hurt?
• The effects of prison on children of incarcerated individuals.
• Psychopathy in the criminal justice system .
• The importance of mental health professionals in the criminal justice system.
• Techniques for influencing criminal justice system change.
• Non-inclusiveness of the criminal justice system .
• The impact of racial profiling on the criminal justice system.
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for veterans.
• False confessions in the US criminal justice system .
• Racism in the criminal justice system of the US.
• People with disabilities and criminal justice.
• Ethical dilemmas in the criminal justice system .
• Forensic psychology guidelines for criminal justice.
• The impact of technology on jury selection .
• Effective writing and criminal justice .
• The effectiveness of mandatory drug testing for probationers and parolees.
• The effect of wrongful executions on the criminal justice system.
• Discontinuity of care in the criminal justice system .
• The influence of media on criminal justice and community.
• The impact of cybercrime on the global criminal justice system.
• Criminal justice: coerced confessions .
• The role of private prisons in the criminal justice system.
• The effectiveness of diversion programs for people without housing.
• Criminal justice system and the problem of racism .
• What can be learned from the history of criminal courts?
• Comparison between American and British legislative frameworks.
• Criminal justice case: types of sentences, probation, and final decision .
• The overview of the modern justice system.
• The ethical issue of unwarranted arrests.
• Civil liability in criminal justice .
• The risk groups of juvenile recidivism .

🆚 Difference between Criminology and Criminal Justice

Students often confuse criminology with criminal justice because both areas study crime and criminal behavior. Understanding their main differences is essential before conducting research in any of these areas.

Is Criminology a Science?

Criminology can be considered as a science because it uses the scientific method. The scientific method involves five steps: stating the problem, forming the hypothesis, collecting the data, interpreting these data, and drawing conclusions. Within criminology, scientists use standard research methods, such as surveys, experiments, interviews, etc.

What Does Criminology Study?

Criminology studies crime, including its causes, methods of prevention, and responses from law enforcement. It relies on other non-legal studies, such as sociology, psychology, and statistics, to examine the characteristics of people who commit crimes and the effects of criminality on individuals and society.

What Are the Principal Areas of Criminology Research?

Four significant criminology areas include:

• The history of criminology . This area focuses on criminology founders and theories of crime and punishment development.
• Theory of crime causation . This aspect explores if a criminal’s behavior is determined by their social environment.
• Typologies of crime . This field describes different types of crimes and the reasons for committing them.
• Crime prevention efforts . This area studies crime measures that can curb crimes before they occur.

What Are the Principal Types of Research Methods in Criminology?

Criminology uses quantitative (analyzing measurements and statistics) and qualitative (analyzing non-numerical data) research methods to gain valuable insights. The most common scientific methods in criminology are surveys, experiments, secondary data analysis, interviews, historical/comparative research, and ethnography.

• Criminology and Criminal Justice: Pick a Topic | Marquette University
• Criminology Questions & Topics | David H. Kessel
• Topics | Ghent University
• Emergent Issues in Crime & Justice | University of Maryland
• Qualitative Research in Criminal Justice | University of North Texas
• Criminology, Law & Society | UCI Libraries
• What the Data Says (and Doesn’t Say) about Crime in the United States | Pew Research Center
• Types of Criminal Offenses | Justia
• Criminal Justice and Criminology Theses | East Tennessee State University
• Research Overview | The University of Alabama
• Criminology Research | University of Portsmouth
• Research | Arizona State University
• Research Themes | University of Surrey, Centre for Criminology
• Advanced Criminology & Criminal Justice Research Guide | Mardigian Library
• Criminology – Research Guide: Getting Started | PennLibraries
• Law and Criminology | University of Plymouth
• Topics for a Criminology Research Paper | Classroom
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Top 110 Criminal Justice Research Topics

Table of contents

• 1 What is a research paper in criminal justice?
• 2 Basic Criminal Justice Research Topics
• 3 Controversial Criminal Justice Research Topics
• 4 Criminal Justice Research Topics to Provoke Debate
• 5 Criminology Research Topics
• 6 Criminal Justice System Research Topics
• 7 International Crimes Research Topics
• 8 Racism and Discrimination Criminal Justice Research Topics
• 9 Court Cases Research Topics
• 10 Crime and victimization Research Topics
• 11 Criminology Theories Research Topics
• 12.1 Conclusion

What is a research paper in criminal justice?

The best way to gain more data or information is via research. Research is an important tool that can be used in the subject one is studying and criminal justice research paper topics. A paper in criminal justice is comprehensive writing by scholars to argue for a situation, usually criminal. This paper is different from other types of research papers It requires an investigation of case studies and real-life situations. Many research paper topics on criminal justice can help students write their essays.

Research on criminal justice helps students and professionals alike to gain an in-depth understanding of the field. It also helps government officials who work in law enforcement, discipline, and crime prevention to do their job well.

In-depth study or research on criminal justice helps bridge the rift between the existing practice within the profession. The progression in recent knowledge.

Criminal justice research enables students to become critical thinkers. This makes them evaluate policies based on evidence and facts.

Criminal justice research topic ideas also inspire scholars to challenge intrinsic prejudice. Also, assumptions by cross-checking data objectively. Students may not always have the time to write their research papers by themselves. This can be due to loads of other assignments and impending deadlines. They can easily buy a research paper for their coursework in such situations. This article looks at many paper topics in criminal justice.

Here is a list of captivating and provoking criminal justice research proposal topics that students can work on. PapersOwl experts can help with choosing the best topic and writing a stunning paper.

Basic Criminal Justice Research Topics

When it comes to choosing research topics , students can easily run out of ideas. These are easy criminal justice research topics for college students.

• How reliable is eyewitness testimony? Should eyewitness statements be allowed in court? Who should be considered an eyewitness?
• The relationship between police and people of different races. Does the media present police violence against people of colour appropriately?
• Methods for preventing international drug trafficking. How should law enforcement agencies handle trafficking cases? What should be the punishment for drug trafficking?
• Crime during emergencies. Do public emergencies give room for criminal activities?
• Gender disparity in the criminal justice system. How can both genders be treated fairly? To what extent can gender equality be exercised?
• Solitary confinement. What is the impact of solitary confinement on prisoners?
• The efficiency of drug courts. Do drug courts help or hurt addicts?
• Domestic violence. Why are women more likely to be victims? What should happen to minors of abusive parents?
• Capital punishment. Is capital punishment a violation of human rights? What crimes deserve capital punishment?
• Bail. What criminal offenses should be granted bail? What is the maximum that can be charged as bail?

Controversial Criminal Justice Research Topics

Certain topics lead to controversies in the field. Controversial topics should be able to lead to extensive discussions on the situation. Students who have a tough time choosing a topic can find research papers for sale online. Some controversial criminal justice topics include:

• Cyberbullying. Where should the line be drawn between freedom of speech and cyberbullying?
• Jail structures. Why and how should female jails differ from male ones? What are the dangers of mixed prisons?
• Hate crime. What is the history of hate crime in the United States of America? How severe should the punishment for hate crimes be?
• Serial killers. Should serial killers be tried as mentally unstable? Should serial killers be charged with capital punishment?
• Juvenile crimes. Should minors be sent to jail? Should minors be charged with the death penalty? Is an 18-year-old an adult?
• Pornography. Can pornography be considered sexual abuse? Can porn sites be sued for pop-up pornographic images and ads?
• Police shootings. In what situations are the police allowed to shoot? What is the punishment for shooting an innocent person?
• Carrying concealed weapons. Should there be punishment for carrying weapons? What is considered self-defence?
• Murder and homicide. What is the difference between murder and homicide? Should the punishment for murder and homicide be equal?
• Reform vs. punishment: which one has more benefits?

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Criminal Justice Research Topics to Provoke Debate

There are research topics for criminal justice topic ideas that lead to debate and analysis. Such topics make sense from different angles, depending on your perspective. Examples of topics that spring debates are:

• Self-defense. Where to draw the line between self-defense and premeditated crime. Should there be a punishment for self-defense?
• Prostitution. Should prostitution be considered a crime? Should there be a minimum wage for prostitutes?
• Stalking. Should stalking be considered a violation of human rights? Should stalking punishable by the law?
• Child abuse. What is the line between discipline and child abuse? Should the state take minors away from abusive parents?
• Sexual abuse. Should BDSM be considered sexual abuse? Can sexual abuse occur between a married couple?
• The impact of prison on children of incarcerated individuals. Who cares for the children of incarcerated people? How does foster and kinship care affect these children?
• Media. To what extent should the media show domestic violence?
• Drunk driving is a serious offense. What should be the penalty for driving when inebriated? Should an intoxicated driver be charged with first-degree murder in the event of a tragic accident?
• Body camera. Is the use of body cams by the police an intrusion of privacy?
• Homicide and murder. Is homicide murder?

Criminology Research Topics

Criminology topic ideas will help students understand crime theories better. Below are topics are drawn from different areas of criminology.

• What have ex-convicts to say about criminology for convicts? Is the state prepared to assist ex-convicts who have completed their sentences?
• Is punishment a deterrence to crime in criminal justice theory?
• False conceptions about crime and criminal justice are debunked through media criminology. Fake news and how to handle it.
• Criminality is a result of culture, according to cultural criminology. What kinds of cultural traditions are compatible with criminal behaviour?
• According to cultural transmission theory, how are criminal norms conveyed in social contact?
• Does fear of penalty deter individuals from committing crimes? Is that anything that should be taken into account in a court of law?
• The rational choice theory explains how the perpetrator’s personal goals are connected with their criminal behaviour.
• How prevalent criminal theories marginalize women, according to feminist criminology.
• Minorities and people who deviate from social norms are negatively branded.
• Life-course criminology is the study of how events in one’s life influence criminal behaviour.

Criminal Justice System Research Topics

This criminal justice research topic enables students to investigate the judicial system and evaluate the current policies. Some of these criminal justice research questions include:

• Firing gun: how to determine whether it was deliberate or happened by accident? On what grounds should the police fire a gun.
• Cybercrime: what is the legal perspective of cybercrime? Is cyberbullying a cybercrime?
• Internet vigilantism: can revenge leaks be considered a criminal offence.
• Hate crime on the Internet: what are the policies against revenge leaks, trolling, and defamation?
• Crime and justice in mass media. How does the media influence the system?
• Kidnapping and ransom: what are common features and behaviour patterns?
• Sex offender registry: what are the pros and cons?
• The theories of deterrence rational choice: are they relevant in the modern justice system?
• Sexual assault. What is the punishment for sexual assault in schools and workplaces?
• Jury selection: how is it performed? What is the requirement for selecting members?

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International Crimes Research Topics

This criminal justice research topic has to do with domestic criminal laws and international crimes. Here are examples of international crimes topics for criminal justice research.

• International Criminal Court (ICC): The role of the ICC in the fight against crimes against humanity.
• International intervention. Define and analyze the effectiveness of intervention with examples.
• War crimes. How are other states tried for committing a crime against humanity in another state?
• Plea bargaining in international criminal law.
• International justice and peace. How can countries and international organizations make the world more just and peaceful? How should international organizations intervene in countries’ situations?
• International justice and human rights violations. What is a just society in the global context?
• International criminal law. What are the history, source, and objectives of international criminal laws?
• Feminism. A feminist’s point of view of international criminal laws.
• Child soldiers in Africa. Discuss the facts, history, and why they become soldiers at that age.
• International criminal laws treaties. Research various international criminal laws treaties and tell your reader what they entail.

Racism and Discrimination Criminal Justice Research Topics

The issues of racism and discrimination are still prevalent in society. The following topics can be researched to investigate the situation appropriately.

• Systemic bias. How does it affect criminal justice as well as the system?
• Minority groups. How is criminal justice affected by the discriminatory depiction of minorities in the media?
• Racial profiling: how minority groups are targeted based on ethnicity and race.
• African-Americans: how are racism and discrimination more towards them?
• Racial profiling: The disadvantages.
• The UK Court System. Is the UK court system discriminatory?
• The US Court System. Is the US court system discriminatory?
• Class Discrimination. What is societal class discrimination?
• Does the crime rate depend on the neighbourhood?
• Corporate crime: who constitutes the ruling class? What are corporate crimes?

Court Cases Research Topics

There are common criminal cases that are tried in court. Some topics about include:

• What is the difference between civil and criminal cases?
• Felony: when do disenfranchisement laws apply?
• Are organized crime and corruption the same thing?
• Victim services: can crime victims get any help?
• Prison rape and violence: how can sexual and domestic violence be prevented in prison?
• Forensics: how effective is forensics science in modern criminal justice.
• Shoplifting: how serious are shoplifting cases?
• Protection Program: who is eligible, and what type of protection is offered?
• Date rape: what type of legal assistance is available to victims?
• Substance use, abuse, and crime: does one cause a trigger for the other?

Crime and victimization Research Topics

Crime And victimization are captivating aspects of criminology. Several research and surveys have been done better to understand this field over the last few years. Below are some intriguing crime and victimization research topics for college students to consider.

• Crime and victimization among ethnic minorities: this paper will take an interesting look into how minor ethnicities experience crime and victimization in society.
• The victimization of females in the workplace: researchers explore the treatment of females in an especially male-dominated workspace and how it affects them.
• Political opposition: how the oppositions are victimized. Political oppositions in many countries are seen as threats by the ruling powers.
• Criminal victimization of the elderly – the elderly are mostly defenseless and, as a result, the targets of criminals.
• Victimization on campus – how college students are victimized on campus.
• Victimization in prisons and correctional facilities – are inmates subject to harassment and various form of physical abuse?
• Racial profiling and victimization – is racial profiling a thing? How does it affect the individuals of the race?
• Domestic violence: the victimization of romantic partners physically or emotionally.
• Sexual harassment and stalking.
• Cyberbullying, cybercrime, and victimization.

Criminology Theories Research Topics

Several criminology theories exist. This research covers how these theories are interpreted, used, and discovered. Some topics that cover this include:

• Theoretical integration of criminology theories – two criminology theories are better than one and how they can be integrated.
• Biological theory; how biological factors affect crime – Are some individuals more predisposed to cringe than others, and do biological factors play an important role.
• Deterrence theory: crime and the fear of punishment – are crimes with severe punishments less rampant than those with less punishment; how the freezer of punishment deters crime.
• Theory of rational choice – people restore to criminal behaviour because it is the best option.
• Advancement of criminology theories – how knowledge of criminal theories could be furthered.
• Social theory: how good socialization affects crime – are people around criminals predisposed to crime?
• How criminal behaviours are learned through observation: social learning theory: are criminal behaviours learned through observation of criminals or not?
• Self-control theory: how effective self-control affects crime rate – are individuals with better self-control less likely to be involved in crime? Is crime a resume of a lack of self-control?
• Theory of Routine activities- do daily routines affect criminal behaviours.
• Ownership of arms. Is this regarded as a law violation?

Reasonable Criminology Research Topics

Other reasonable criminology topics for students to explore are:

• Criminology as a social science – how criminology Is a social science because it deals with social science issues.
• Implications of hate crime: hate crime and how it affects the victims and society. Are the punishments effective in deterring hate crimes?
• Tracing the roots of criminology from ancient times – a history of criminology.
• Of crimes among age groups: how criminal behaviours vary among ages.
• Effects of childhood upbringing on the crime rate in society – does a child’s upbringing affect the crime rate in society? Are criminals a result of a bad childhood upbringing?
• The Portrayal of Serial killers in media – how serial killers are portrayed in the media and how it affects serial killers.
• Crime vs punishment – how punishment relates to crime and its deterrence.
• How does society affect drug abuse – is society to be blamed for drug abuse?
• Literacy vs Illiteracy and its effect on criminal behaviour: does literacy or Illiteracy affect criminals? Are literates less likely to commit crimes than illiterates?
• Gender bias in investigations. Does one gender receive better judgment than the other?

There are quite a number of areas you can conduct research in criminal justice. You may choose to focus on one particular area, or even multiple areas, depending on your research paper’s requirements. You will, however, need to ensure you do sufficient research for your work to be relevant. To make the research process easier, you can enlist the help of a professional writing service to write a research paper for you . They can provide you with the necessary resources and expertise to ensure that your paper is well-researched and accurate.

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Criminal Law Research Paper Topics

This page presents a comprehensive collection of criminal law research paper topics tailored for students studying law and tasked with writing research papers. Within this resource, readers will find an abstract overview of the content, followed by an extensive list of criminal law research paper topics divided into ten distinct categories, each containing ten topics. Additionally, an article exploring the nuances of criminal law and its range of research paper topics is provided to offer students valuable insights and inspire their academic pursuits. Furthermore, readers will discover valuable guidance on how to choose appropriate criminal law research paper topics, with ten practical tips to ensure a compelling and relevant focus for their research. Moreover, the page outlines the essential elements for effectively writing a criminal law research paper and provides ten useful tips to aid students throughout the writing process. The subsequent section introduces iResearchNet’s custom writing services, offering expert assistance for students seeking to order a custom criminal law research paper on any subject.

100 Criminal Law Research Paper Topics

Criminal law is a multifaceted field that delves into various aspects of society, from the fundamental principles of justice to the intricacies of criminal proceedings. To aid law students in their research endeavors, we present a comprehensive list of criminal law research paper topics, thoughtfully organized into ten distinct categories, each encompassing ten topics. This diverse collection covers a wide spectrum of criminal law subjects, allowing students to explore different dimensions and hone their expertise in specific areas.

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Criminal Law Fundamentals

• The Concept of Criminal Liability: A Comparative Analysis
• The Evolution of Criminal Law: From Ancient Codes to Modern Statutes
• Criminal Intent and Actus Reus: Evaluating the Elements of a Crime
• The Role of Mens Rea in Criminal Law: Intent vs. Recklessness
• Causation in Criminal Law: Establishing a Link between Action and Consequence
• Criminal Defenses: Justifications, Excuses, and Necessity
• The Principle of Double Jeopardy: Protection against Multiple Prosecutions
• The Presumption of Innocence: Ensuring Fair Trials and Due Process
• Criminal Sanctions: An Analysis of Punishment and Deterrence
• Criminal Responsibility of Legal Entities: Corporate Liability in Criminal Law

Types of Crimes

• Homicide Offenses: Murder, Manslaughter, and Their Degrees
• Robbery and Burglary: Assessing Theft Crimes and Their Variations
• Assault and Battery: Differentiating Between Physical and Verbal Assault
• Fraud and White-Collar Crimes: Examining Financial Deception in Business
• Drug Offenses: Analyzing Drug Trafficking, Possession, and Legalization
• Cybercrimes: The Rise of Digital Offenses and Cybersecurity Challenges
• Hate Crimes and Discrimination: Addressing Bias-Motivated Offenses
• Human Trafficking: Unraveling the Complexities of Modern-Day Slavery
• Environmental Crimes: Criminal Liability for Ecological Violations
• Organized Crime: Studying Criminal Syndicates and Their Impact on Society

Criminal Justice System Reforms

• Bail Reform: Rethinking Pretrial Detention and Bail Practices
• Mandatory Minimum Sentences: Evaluating the Controversial Sentencing Approach
• Alternatives to Incarceration: Assessing Probation, Parole, and Community Service
• Restorative Justice: Balancing Punishment and Rehabilitation
• Wrongful Convictions: Analyzing Causes and Remedies for Miscarriages of Justice
• Mental Health and Criminal Justice: Diversion Programs and Treatment Courts
• Racial Disparities in the Criminal Justice System: Challenges and Solutions
• Police Accountability and Use of Force: Balancing Law Enforcement Powers
• Drug Decriminalization: Exploring the Effects of Drug Policy Reforms
• Technology and Criminal Justice: Examining the Use of AI, Surveillance, and Body Cameras

International Criminal Law

• The Principle of Universal Jurisdiction: Prosecuting International Crimes
• War Crimes and Crimes Against Humanity: The Role of International Tribunals
• The International Criminal Court: Challenges and Achievements
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing: Addressing Mass Atrocities in International Law
• Terrorism and International Law: Defining and Combating Transnational Threats
• Extraterritorial Application of Criminal Law: Crossing Borders in Criminal Prosecutions
• Immunity and State Responsibility: Navigating Legal Implications for States and Leaders
• International Extradition: Procedures and Challenges in Transferring Offenders
• Transnational Organized Crime: Networks, Prosecutions, and Challenges
• The Impact of Human Rights Law on International Criminal Justice

Technology’s Impact on Criminal Law

• Digital Evidence and E-Discovery: Challenges in Handling Technological Data
• Cybercrimes and Cybersecurity: Analyzing Legal Responses to Digital Offenses
• Online Privacy and Surveillance: Balancing National Security and Individual Rights
• The Role of Social Media in Criminal Investigations: Admissibility and Authentication
• Internet Freedom and Censorship: Addressing Legal and Ethical Dilemmas
• Cryptocurrencies and Criminal Law: Unraveling the Legal Landscape of Virtual Currency
• AI and Criminal Justice: The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Law Enforcement
• Digital Copyright Infringement: Legal Perspectives on Piracy and Intellectual Property
• Online Defamation and Hate Speech: Exploring Legal Liability in the Digital Sphere
• The Right to be Forgotten: Balancing Privacy and Freedom of Information Online

Juvenile Justice and Youth Offenders

• Juvenile Delinquency Prevention Programs: Assessing Effectiveness and Challenges
• The Evolution of Juvenile Courts: From Parens Patriae to Due Process
• Juvenile Waiver to Adult Court: Determining Transfer Criteria and Implications
• Restorative Justice for Juveniles: Building Accountability and Empathy
• Juvenile Gangs and Crime: Understanding the Root Causes and Solutions
• Youth Mental Health and Criminal Behavior: Intervention and Rehabilitation
• Educational Rights of Juvenile Offenders: Ensuring Access to Quality Education
• Juvenile Detention Centers: Reforms and Alternatives for Incarcerated Youth
• The Impact of Socioeconomic Factors on Juvenile Crime Rates
• The Role of Family in Juvenile Delinquency: Family Structure and Influence on Behavior

Criminal Sentencing and Punishment

• Sentencing Guidelines: Balancing Judicial Discretion and Consistency
• The Death Penalty: Ethical, Legal, and Practical Perspectives
• Life Imprisonment: Examining Long-Term Incarceration and Parole Eligibility
• Capital Punishment and Innocence: Addressing Wrongful Executions
• Mandatory Sentences for Nonviolent Offenders: Assessing Efficacy and Fairness
• Alternatives to Incarceration: Diversion Programs and Community-Based Sentencing
• Sentencing Disparities: The Impact of Race, Gender, and Socioeconomic Status
• Rehabilitation Programs in Prisons: Assessing Effectiveness and Recidivism Rates
• The Role of Victim Impact Statements in Sentencing: Balancing Justice and Empathy
• Restorative Justice Sentencing: Building Community Engagement and Healing

Criminal Procedure and Evidence

• The Fourth Amendment: Search and Seizure Laws in Criminal Investigations
• Exclusionary Rule: Analyzing the Consequences of Illegally Obtained Evidence
• Eyewitness Testimony: Reliability, Identification, and Challenges in Court
• Confessions and Interrogations: The Admissibility of Self-Incriminating Statements
• Expert Witnesses: Their Role and Admissibility in Criminal Trials
• Hearsay Rule: Evaluating Exceptions and Limitations in the Admission of Statements
• DNA Evidence in Criminal Proceedings: Advancements and Challenges
• Criminal Procedure in the Digital Age: Electronic Surveillance and Privacy Concerns
• Plea Bargaining: Weighing Benefits and Concerns for the Accused and the Justice System
• Criminal Appeals: The Process and Grounds for Challenging Convictions

Criminal Law and Ethics

• Ethical Dilemmas in Criminal Defense: Balancing Advocacy and Conscience
• Prosecutor’s Ethics: Obligations and Conflicts of Interest in Pursuit of Justice
• The Role of Ethics in Law Enforcement: Upholding Integrity and Accountability
• Criminal Law and Mental Health Ethics: The Treatment of Mentally Ill Offenders
• The Ethical Implications of Capital Punishment: A Moral and Legal Debate
• Whistleblowers and Criminal Law: Legal Protections and Social Impact
• Corporate Crime and Ethical Responsibilities: Balancing Business Interests and Accountability
• The Ethics of Plea Bargaining: Ensuring Fairness and Transparency
• Legal Ethics in the Digital Age: Navigating Online Communication and Social Media
• The Role of Ethics in Criminal Sentencing: Weighing Punishment and Rehabilitation

Comparative Criminal Law

• Comparative Criminal Justice Systems: Analyzing Different Legal Approaches
• Criminal Law in Civil Law Countries: Contrasting Inquisitorial and Adversarial Systems
• Common Law vs. Civil Law Traditions: Divergent Approaches to Criminal Law
• Criminal Law in Sharia Jurisdictions: Exploring Islamic Legal Principles and Punishments
• The Influence of International Law on National Criminal Justice Systems
• Legal Traditions in Colonial and Post-Colonial Countries: Impact on Criminal Law
• Criminal Law Reforms in Transitional Democracies: Challenges and Progress
• Indigenous Legal Systems and Criminal Justice: Preserving Culture and Rights
• Comparative Corporate Criminal Liability: Aligning Business Practices Globally
• Criminal Law and Human Rights: Balancing Sovereignty and International Obligations

This comprehensive list of criminal law research paper topics provides an extensive and diverse range of subjects for law students to explore and investigate. From foundational principles to contemporary issues, the field of criminal law offers numerous avenues for in-depth research and analysis. As students embark on their research endeavors, they can delve into various categories, each presenting unique challenges and opportunities to contribute to the advancement of criminal law scholarship. Whether one’s interest lies in criminal justice reform, international law, ethical dilemmas, or comparative legal systems, this list aims to inspire students in their pursuit of knowledge and excellence in the realm of criminal law research.

Criminal Law: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

Criminal law is a dynamic and complex field that plays a pivotal role in maintaining societal order and upholding justice. As an integral part of the legal system, criminal law governs how individuals who violate the law are investigated, prosecuted, and punished. It encompasses a vast array of topics, each offering unique opportunities for research and analysis. This section aims to explore the diverse range of research paper topics within criminal law, providing students with insights into the multifaceted nature of this discipline and inspiring them to embark on meaningful and impactful research endeavors.

The Evolution of Criminal Law: From Ancient Codes to Modern Systems

A captivating topic within criminal law research is the historical development of legal codes and systems throughout civilizations. Researchers can delve into ancient codes, such as Hammurabi’s Code in Mesopotamia or the Twelve Tables in ancient Rome, and explore how they shaped the foundations of contemporary criminal law. Comparing historical legal principles with modern criminal justice systems can shed light on the evolution of societal norms and the progression of legal thought.

Criminal Responsibility: From Mens Rea to Strict Liability

Understanding the concept of criminal responsibility is fundamental in criminal law. Researchers can delve into the various mental states that form the basis of criminal liability, ranging from intent (mens rea) to negligence and even strict liability. Analyzing landmark cases and legislative changes can provide insights into how the legal system navigates the complexities of holding individuals accountable for their actions.

Criminal Law and Technology: Addressing Challenges and Opportunities

In the digital age, technological advancements present new challenges and opportunities for criminal law. Topics in this area could explore the implications of cybercrime, the use of artificial intelligence in law enforcement, or the legal considerations surrounding digital evidence. Researchers may also delve into the ethics of surveillance technologies and their impact on privacy rights.

Criminal Law and the Constitution: Analyzing Constitutional Protections

The interaction between criminal law and constitutional protections is an intriguing area of research. Researchers can explore how the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments of the United States Constitution, for instance, safeguard individuals’ rights during criminal investigations and trials. Comparing constitutional protections in different jurisdictions can also provide valuable insights into the balance between law enforcement powers and individual liberties.

Criminal Sentencing: Balancing Punishment and Rehabilitation

Sentencing is a critical aspect of criminal law, where the court determines the appropriate punishment for offenders. Research topics in this area could delve into the principles of proportionality, rehabilitation, and deterrence. Analyzing sentencing guidelines and exploring alternatives to incarceration, such as restorative justice programs, can offer valuable insights into the goals and challenges of criminal sentencing.

White-Collar Crime: Investigating Corporate Misconduct

White-collar crime, involving non-violent offenses committed by individuals in business and government, presents unique challenges in the criminal justice system. Research topics in this area could explore the complexities of prosecuting corporate executives, the effectiveness of regulatory measures, and the impact of white-collar crime on society and the economy.

Juvenile Justice: Balancing Rehabilitation and Accountability

The juvenile justice system focuses on rehabilitating young offenders rather than imposing harsh punishments. Research in this area could examine the history and development of juvenile justice, the effectiveness of rehabilitation programs, and the ethical considerations surrounding the treatment of juvenile offenders.

International Criminal Law: Seeking Accountability for Atrocity Crimes

International criminal law aims to hold individuals accountable for the most serious crimes, such as genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity. Research topics in this area could explore the evolution of international criminal tribunals, the challenges of prosecuting individuals in absentia, and the impact of international criminal law on promoting global justice and accountability.

Criminal Law and Mental Health: Addressing the Insanity Defense

The insanity defense is a contentious and complex topic in criminal law. Researchers can explore the historical development of the insanity defense, its application in high-profile cases, and the ethical considerations surrounding mental health assessments in criminal proceedings.

Criminal Law and Law Enforcement: Examining Police Practices

The relationship between criminal law and law enforcement is critical in ensuring the fair and just administration of justice. Research topics in this area could investigate issues of police misconduct, the use of force by law enforcement, and the impact of body-worn cameras on accountability and transparency.

Criminal law encompasses a wide range of topics, each offering unique insights into the complexities of the legal system and its impact on society. From historical developments to contemporary challenges, researchers in this field have the opportunity to contribute to the advancement of criminal justice, legal reform, and the protection of individual rights. By exploring the diverse range of research paper topics within criminal law, students can gain a deeper understanding of this dynamic discipline and engage in meaningful research that addresses pressing issues in the pursuit of justice and the rule of law.

How to Choose Criminal Law Research Paper Topics

Selecting an appropriate research paper topic is a crucial first step in the journey of conducting meaningful and impactful research in the field of criminal law. With the vast array of issues and complexities within criminal law, it can be challenging for students to identify a topic that is both engaging and academically relevant. This section provides valuable insights and practical tips to help students navigate the process of choosing criminal law research paper topics that align with their interests, academic goals, and the ever-evolving legal landscape.

• Identify Your Interests and Passion : Passion and genuine interest in a subject can significantly impact the quality and motivation behind your research. Take some time to reflect on your personal interests within criminal law. Are you drawn to topics related to white-collar crime, human rights, or criminal sentencing? Identifying your passions will make the research process more enjoyable and increase the likelihood of producing a compelling paper.
• Stay Updated on Current Legal Issues : Criminal law is a dynamic field influenced by ongoing legal developments and societal changes. Stay updated on recent court decisions, legislative reforms, and emerging legal issues. Reading legal journals, attending seminars, and following reputable legal news outlets will provide you with insights into the latest debates and controversies within criminal law, inspiring potential research paper topics.
• Consult with Professors and Peers : Reach out to your professors, academic advisors, or fellow students to discuss potential research paper topics. They may offer valuable suggestions, recommend relevant literature, or share their experiences in tackling similar research inquiries. Collaborating with peers can also provide a supportive environment for brainstorming and refining research ideas.
• Consider Timeliness and Relevance : Choosing a topic that is timely and relevant is essential for making an impact with your research. Consider current societal concerns, legal reforms, or high-profile criminal cases that have generated public interest. Addressing contemporary issues will not only enhance the significance of your research but also contribute to ongoing legal discussions.
• Narrow Down Broad Topics : Criminal law covers a wide range of subjects, such as criminal procedure, substantive criminal law, criminology, and more. While broad topics can be intriguing, they may lack the depth required for a comprehensive research paper. Narrow down your focus by selecting a specific aspect or area within criminal law. For instance, instead of exploring “Criminal Sentencing,” you could delve into “The Impact of Restorative Justice Programs on Criminal Sentencing Outcomes.”
• Analyze Available Resources : Ensure that sufficient resources, such as academic articles, books, and case law, are available on your chosen topic. Conduct a preliminary literature review to ascertain the availability of credible sources that will support your research and analysis. Access to relevant resources is crucial for building a strong and well-supported argument.
• Assess the Feasibility of Research : Before finalizing your research topic, consider the feasibility of conducting the research within your available time and resources. Complex topics may require extensive research and data collection, while more straightforward topics may lack depth. Strike a balance between ambitious research goals and practicality.
• Brainstorm Research Questions : Formulate specific research questions that will guide your investigation and analysis. Well-crafted research questions will direct your research efforts and provide a clear focus for your paper. Consider the legal implications, ethical considerations, and potential policy implications of your research questions.
• Consider a Comparative Approach : Comparative research allows you to analyze criminal law issues across different jurisdictions or legal systems. A comparative approach can offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of certain legal practices and identify potential areas for legal reform.
• Seek Inspiration from Legal Literature : Review published legal literature and academic papers to gain inspiration for your research paper topics. Analyze the approaches taken by other researchers, identify gaps in existing literature, and explore areas where your contribution can make a significant impact.

Choosing a criminal law research paper topic is an exciting yet challenging endeavor. By identifying your interests, staying updated on current legal issues, and seeking inspiration from legal literature, you can select a topic that is intellectually stimulating and academically rewarding. Careful consideration of timeliness, relevance, and feasibility will ensure that your research contributes meaningfully to the field of criminal law and addresses pertinent legal challenges. Embrace the opportunity to explore diverse aspects of criminal law, and embark on a journey that not only expands your legal knowledge but also shapes the future of criminal justice.

How to Write a Criminal Law Research Paper

Writing a criminal law research paper requires a systematic and disciplined approach to effectively address complex legal issues and present well-structured arguments. This section provides valuable guidance on the various stages of writing a criminal law research paper, from formulating a strong thesis statement to presenting a coherent and compelling conclusion. Following these essential steps will help you create a well-researched and impactful paper that showcases your understanding of criminal law and its intricacies.

• Understand the Assignment Requirements : Before delving into the research and writing process, thoroughly review the assignment guidelines provided by your instructor. Pay close attention to the scope, formatting style, word count, and any specific requirements for citations and references. Understanding the assignment parameters will help you stay focused and ensure that your research paper meets the necessary criteria.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : Criminal law research papers demand thorough research to support your arguments and analysis. Utilize various resources, including academic journals, law reviews, books, and reputable online databases. Take detailed notes and organize your research to streamline the writing process. Keep track of the sources you use to facilitate proper citation and to avoid unintentional plagiarism.
• Develop a Strong Thesis Statement : A well-crafted thesis statement is the foundation of your research paper. It should be concise, specific, and clearly state the main argument you intend to make. Your thesis should guide the entire paper and provide a roadmap for your readers to understand the scope and purpose of your research.
• Outline Your Paper : Creating an outline is a critical step in organizing your ideas and arguments. Divide your research paper into distinct sections, such as introduction, literature review, methodology (if applicable), main body, analysis, and conclusion. Each section should have a clear purpose and flow logically from one to the next.
• Craft a Compelling Introduction : The introduction sets the tone for your research paper and should capture the reader’s attention. Begin with a hook or engaging statement to pique interest. Provide essential background information on the topic and its significance. End the introduction with a clear and concise thesis statement that outlines your main argument.
• Conduct a Thorough Literature Review : Incorporate a comprehensive literature review that showcases your understanding of existing research on the chosen topic. Analyze and critically evaluate the key findings of relevant studies, highlighting any gaps or areas where your research adds value. A well-structured literature review strengthens the credibility of your research and demonstrates your knowledge of the subject matter.
• Organize Your Main Body : Divide the main body of your research paper into subsections, each focusing on a specific aspect of your argument. Present evidence and examples to support your points, and use logical transitions to ensure a smooth flow between paragraphs. Avoid presenting irrelevant information that can distract readers from your central thesis.
• Analyze and Interpret Legal Principles : In the context of criminal law research, your analysis plays a pivotal role in establishing the coherence and persuasiveness of your argument. Analyze relevant legal principles, statutes, and case law to support your thesis. Consider counterarguments and address them effectively to strengthen your position.
• Use Clear and Precise Language : Criminal law research papers demand clarity and precision in language. Avoid excessive jargon and ensure that your writing is accessible to readers from various backgrounds. Clearly define any technical terms or concepts that may be unfamiliar to your audience.
• Craft a Convincing Conclusion : In the conclusion, restate your thesis and summarize the key points of your research paper. Avoid introducing new information at this stage. Instead, emphasize the significance of your findings and suggest potential avenues for future research. Leave readers with a lasting impression of your work and its relevance to the field of criminal law.

Writing a criminal law research paper requires dedication, meticulous research, and thoughtful analysis. By following these essential steps, you can produce a well-structured and persuasive paper that contributes meaningfully to the understanding of criminal law issues. Remember to adhere to proper citation guidelines, proofread your work carefully, and seek feedback from peers or professors to refine your research paper further. Embrace the opportunity to explore and analyze criminal law topics, and let your passion for justice shine through your research and writing.

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• In-Depth Research : Thorough research is essential in crafting a compelling criminal law research paper. Our writers delve into a wide range of reputable sources, including legal databases, academic journals, and official legal documents, to ensure your paper is well-grounded in authoritative and current information.
• Custom Formatting : Proper formatting is crucial in academic writing, especially in the legal field. Our writers are well-versed in various formatting styles, such as APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard, ensuring that your criminal law research paper adheres to the specific style mandated by your institution.
• Top Quality : Quality is our utmost priority. Our writers undergo a rigorous selection process, and each paper is thoroughly reviewed by our quality assurance team before delivery. This meticulous approach ensures that your research paper is of the highest standard and reflects the depth of your knowledge in criminal law.
• Customized Solutions : We understand that every research paper has unique requirements. Our custom approach allows us to tailor our services to meet your specific needs. Whether you need assistance with topic selection, research, writing, or editing, we have the flexibility to provide the support you require.
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109 Organized Crime Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best organized crime topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good research topics about organized crime, 📌 most interesting organized crime topics to write about, ❓ organized crime questions.

• International Organized Crime: The 14K Triads in Hong Kong Being one of the largest transnational criminal organizations globally, the 14K does not depend on the strict structure, operates according to the principles of secrecy, and it is rather difficult to bring the organization to […]
• Organized Crime Investigation in Different Countries Such tools and strategies cover investigations into the organized crimes and operations, strategies to thwart planned crimes operations and preventions of the effecting, netting of criminals and affiliates of the groups as well as facilitating […]
• Organized Crime – John Gotti’s Analyze He argues that the American social structure and its structure of wealth distribution and that dream of achieving the ‘American dream’ all require crime to maintain social stability in the face of structural inequality.
• Extortion in Organized Crime Groups Blackmailing is a standard tool in organized crime, as it relies on one’s ability to threaten with severe consequences for non-compliance.
• Terrorism and Transnational Organized Crime as Threats to Homeland Security The US is among the nations that have suffered some of the worst terrorist attacks worldwide and it is also a hub of international criminal activities due to its wealth of resources and powerful economic […]
• Transnational Organized Crime in the United States The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia’s and the Taliban’s engagement in the narcotic business is essential to their position to uphold terrorist activities.
• Department of Justice Project on Organized Crime Organized crime is one of the forms of offenses that groups of people conduct. Still, there are leaders and subordinates in international crimes, and it is similar to all organized crime groupings.Mr.
• Main Aspects of Organized Crime Models The form of management adopted by an organization, whether legal or unlawful, is determined by the nature of its activities the management experience of its officials.”A patron-client organization is a group of criminal patron’s who […]
• Affect of the Organized Crime in Australia The strategies that the police use to fight crime must be able to respond to the needs of law enforcement in the 21st century.
• Criminal Street Gangs as Organized Crime Groups The states elaborate and adopt the laws meant to fight organized crime and gangs and prevent their violence. As well as in the criminal organizations, the gangs are constituted of leaders and their subordinates.
• Comparison Between Organized Crime And Terrorism Organized crime refers to unlawful activities conducted by members of highly organized gangs and associations. Its defined by members and activities of a group.
• Models of Organized Crime Executive Summary The creation of a bureaucratic structure usually becomes important when the activities expand and the necessity to control the enterprise through the use of rules, hierarchy, specialization and the desirable means of communication while the […]
• Causes of Organized Crime Analysis In order to assess what are the causes of organized crime, we have to begin by assessing what organized crime is.
• Globalization and the Internet: Change of Organized Crime Everyone is aware that the emergence of the Internet is a contributor to the break of national boundaries and the improvement of interpersonal and intercultural relationships.
• Organized Crime in the United States Maranzano, the winner of the war, came up with a new structure of the mafia that is still there to the present, which had bosses and those below bosses for all the cities in New […]
• Organized Crime in New York and Chicago Organized crime refers to an enterprise that is non-ideological and consists of several people who interact closely, being organized on the basis of a hierarchy consisting not less than three ranks with prospects of gaining […]
• Transnational Organized Crime: Counterstrategy However, this has seen several priority policies put in place by the President to combat the transnational organized crime networks that stance a deliberate danger to the United States and to the American populace.
• Economics of Organized Crime and Drug Trafficking Three major conditions associated with the development and origins of mafias include the abdication of legitimate government power, excessive bureaucratic power, and the financial potential of illegal markets.
• Organized Crime in the Balkans Trade in contraband goods is also a form of Balkans’ crime that the government of the United States is trying to deal with in the recent past.
• National Impact on Organized Crime In a short time, most of the country’s factories and other valuable pieces of industry were in the hands of Russian OC members.
• Organized Crime and Current Laws The main idea of the Act was to ban the production, distribution, and consumption of alcohol. The Act shaped the culture of the 1920s and changed the relationships between politicians and criminal leaders.
• Transnational Organized Crime and Its Factors According to Best, the position of the United States as the leading economy in the world, and as the world’s only Superpower makes it a major target of organized terror groups.
• La Cosa Nostra Organized Crime Available criminology scholarship demonstrates that La Cosa Nostra, also referred to as the mafia, the mob, the outfit, the office, and the family, was by any standards the most prominent criminal organization in the United […]
• Organized Crime in Japan and the US However, the perpetrators of organized crimes capitalize on the vulnerable members of the society, who live below or slightly above the poverty line. In the US and Japan, the organized crime gangs differ in terms […]
• Controlling Organized Crime In some instances, law enforcement officers have to get court orders first before they are allowed to search the premises of criminal suspects and this makes it difficult for them to stop different criminal incidents […]
• Effects of Transnational Organized Crime on Foreign Politics In particular, he discusses the features of criminals, who engage in human trafficking, which is one of the types of transnational organized crimes. Review of Literature Shows that transnational organized crime is the new threat […]
• Transnational Organized Crime In the subsequent section, the paper suggests a method that would be utilized in understanding the effects of organized crime on the economic policies of states.
• Transnational Organized Crime: Prevalence, Factors and Impacts Moreover, the role of labour unions in the advanced democracies is minimal implying that organized groups cannot commit crime in the name of advocating for the rights of the marginalized.
• Transnational Organized Crime Network: Definition and Aspects Basically, the difference between traditional organized crime and transnational organized crime networks is insignificant in essence, but considerable in the sphere of influence.
• Organized Crime in Labor and Drug Trade The organized crime groups in the above mentioned countries will also be compared and contrasted with those found in the US.
• Global Threat of Russian Organized Crime The transition of Russia from communism to capitalism is said to be a setback due to the shift from use of black market to improve the economy to use of black markets in promoting criminal […]
• Perception of Organized Crime For example, it has been assumed that a single offender has no capacity to plan and execute organized crime, that there must be a form of rational planning for organized crime to be successfully executed, […]
• To What Extent Are New Technologies and Organized Crime Linked? There are three major issues in the assessment of the crime and technology which will form the basis of our argument in this research paper; the level of information technology that is used by the […]
• Prohibition and the Rise of Organized Crime In the 1920s, the United States was facing worrying rates of crime that called for the intervention of the Congress to avert the situation.
• The Effect of Prohibition on Organized Crime The high level of organized crimes, made the court and the prisons working system overworked making the police and the public officials to practice corruption.
• A Comparison of Organized Crime Around the World In fact, the federal government is on the hunt to fight down all these groups that are perceived to be a strain in the economy and integrity of the American nation.
• The Difference Between Organized Crime and Terrorism
• The Origins and History of Organized Crime in the US
• Organized Crime: Power from the Needs of Society
• Differences Between Drug Related and Organized Crime in America
• Industrial Clusters, Organized Crime and Productivity Growth in Italian SMEs
• Formal Employment and Organized Crime: Regression Discontinuity Evidence from Colombia
• Enumerating the Factors Causing Organized Crime in the World
• Organized Crime, Phishing Attacks, Check Processing and Identity Theft
• The Knapp Commission: Organized Crime and Police Corruption
• Organized Crime and Women in Politics: Evidence From a Quasi-Experiment in Southern Italy
• Understanding Transnational Organized Crime Criminology
• The Storm Before the Calm? Adverse Effects of Tackling Organized Crime
• Organized Crime, Foreign Investment and Economic Growth
• Organized Crime and South Ossetian De Facto Independence
• Controlling Organized Crime Analysis
• The United Nations’ Impact on Organized Crime
• Organized Crime and Political, Economic, and Social Structure
• The Relationship Between Organized Crime and Drugs
• The Effects and Issues of Organized Crime and Terrorism in the United States and the Rest of the World
• Illegal Immigration, Human Trafficking, and Organized Crime
• Japanese, Russian, Chinese, And Mexican Organized Crime
• Organized Crime And The Problem Of Social Disorganization
• Legal Agriculture: Farmland Confiscated from Organized Crime
• Prohibition and the Advancement of Organized Crime
• Similarities Between Terrorism and Organized Crime
• Prohibition and the Rise of Organized Crime
• The Two Major Figure That Played Role in Expansion of Organized Crime after the 1920s
• Trafficking and Organized Crime During Latin America
• African American Gangs and the Italian Organized Crime Groups
• Gun Control and Organized Crime in America
• Basic Requirements Enter Organized Crime
• Crime and Organized Crime of the White Collar
• How the Economic Downturn and Prohibitions of the 1920s in America Lead to the Rise of Organized Crime
• How Government Coordination Controlled Organized Crime
• Military Counterintelligence Versus Countering Transnational Organized Crime
• Organized Crime Syndicates and Commercial Burglaries
• Bootlegging and Organized Crime During the Time of Prohibition in the United States in the 1920s
• Organized Crime: Profits from Pornography and Prostitution
• Organized Crime and its Growth During Prohibition
• Drug Trafficking, Organized Crime, and Terrorism Interactions
• How Civil Wars Help Explain Organized Crime and How They Do Not?
• What Organized Crime Examples?
• Who Investigates Organized Crime?
• How Has Organized Crime Laid a Foundation for Our Country?
• How the 1990 Martin Scorsese Directed Movie Goodfellas Depicts Organized Crime?
• What Is the Organized Crime Theory?
• How Does the Criminal Justice System Respond to Organized Crime Within Our Society?
• What Are the Eight Attributes of Organized Crime?
• How the Economic Downturn and Prohibitions of the 1920S in America Lead to the Rise of Organized Crime?
• What Are Legal Tools Now Available to Cope With the Organized Crime Problem?
• Who Killed Kennedy Organized Crime?
• Why Are Informants Necessary to Effectively Combat Organized Crime?
• What Are the Five Types of Organized Crime?
• What Is the Biggest Organized Crime?
• Does Organized Crime Still Exist?
• What Are the Nine Features of Organized Crime?
• What Does Organized Crime Do?
• How Does Organized Crime Make Money?
• How Can Organized Crime Be Prevented?
• What Is the Most Common Organized Crime?
• How Did Prohibition Lead To Organized Crime?
• How Government Coordination Controlled Organized Crime?
• What Is One of the Main Reasons Why Organized Crime Is So Brutal to Eliminate?
• What Is the Primary Goal of Organized Crime?
• Is Organised Crime Criminal or Deviant?
• How Does Organized Crime Affect Society?
• Who Is the Most Significant Organized Crime Family in the World?
• Who Started Organized Crime?
• What Is the Importance of Organized Crime?
• What Is Organized Crime’s Simple Definition?
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The Best True Crime to Stream: Truly Random Crimes

Four picks across television, film and podcasting that highlight a fundamental human fear: complete lack of control.

By Maya Salam

The amount of true crime that Maya Salam has watched and listened to in her life might itself be a crime.

Watch or listen to any amount of true crime, and it quickly becomes evident that some of the most disturbing cases involve wrongdoers who know their victims. At times, that might be simply an acquaintance, a co-worker, a classmate or a neighbor.

But most often it’s someone much closer, like a partner, former partner, friend, parent or child. Truly random crimes, in which the perpetrators have no relationship to the victims, are relatively rare, which is comforting — until it isn’t. Hearing about such crimes, where any sense of perceived control is stripped away, can prey on our greatest fears.

Here are four offerings across television, podcast and film that examine these dark, disconcerting fringes.

Documentary Film

‘American Nightmare’

This three-part 2024 Netflix docuseries about the abduction of Denise Huskins could easily top a streaming list about shockingly botched investigations. It’s stunning how quickly she and her husband, Aaron Quinn (her boyfriend at the time), were dismissed and labeled liars by law enforcement, then mocked by the news media after they had endured a horrific attack. But just as astonishing is how bizarre the crime was.

The documentary, from the filmmakers behind “The Tinder Swindler,” Felicity Morris and Bernadette Higgins, incorporates interrogation footage and new interviews to illustrate the widespread reluctance to believe the victims. We witness Quinn being pressed as though he were a suspect and Huskins being branded the “real-life Gone Girl,” referring to Gillian Flynn’s 2012 novel about a woman who stages her own kidnapping and frames her husband for her disappearance.

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