computer networks term paper topics

Term paper topics

Open to non-cs majors only.

Current allocation strategies for IP addresses . Say something about the market for IP-address blocks.
History and current status of Internet governance . Discuss the IETF, ICANN, domain registries, top-level domains, and the UN. What are the consequences for other countries of US "control" of the Internet? What, exactly, does the US control?
Business issues facing Internet Service Providers . Discuss "peering" agreements that both large (ie backbone) and medium-sized ISPs would have to negotiate, and the traffic-carriage arrangements that non-backbone providers would need to negotiate.
Technical issues for high-performance Internet Service Providers . What would an ISP have to do to be able to offer better service? What ISPs use BGP MED entries to route traffic more quickly into their own networks? What else can an ISP do to improve service?
Technical issues for high-performance web providers . What is involved in a high-performance server? What large-scale network issues are related to high-performance web services? What is distributed hosting? Look at what akamai and related companies are doing.
Technical and policy problems surrounding VOIP . How do real-time voice-traffic requirements get achieved? What are some of the non-technical issues?
Threats to net neutrality . What are the big ISPs up to here? What sorts of routing favoritism are likely? Is this just a plan to legalize kickbacks, or are there legitimate business interests at stake here?
Optical switching . Where is this technology? What about optical routers?

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Computer Networking Dissertation Topics

Published by Carmen Troy at January 5th, 2023 , Revised On May 16, 2024

A dissertation is an essential aspect of completing your degree program. Whether you are pursuing your master’s or are enrolled in a PhD program, you will not be awarded a degree without successfully submitting a thesis. To ensure that your thesis is submitted successfully without any hindrances, you should first get your topic and dissertation outline approved by your professor. When approving, supervisors focus on a lot of aspects.

However, relevance, recency, and conciseness play a huge role in accepting or rejecting your topic.

As a computer networking student, you have a variety of networking topics to choose from. With the field evolving with each passing day, you must ensure that your thesis covers recent computer networking topics and explores a relevant problem or issue. To help you choose the right topic for your dissertation, here is a list of recent and relevant computer networking dissertation topics.

List Of Trending Ideas For Your Computer Networking Dissertation

Machine learning for proactive network anomaly detection
The role of software-defined-networking (SDN) for network performance and security
Applications and challenges of 6G technologies
How to ensure fairness and efficiency in Multi-Access Edge Computing (MEC)
Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks in the Age of Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attacks
Applications and rise of Low-Power Wide Area Networks (LPWANs)
Efficient Resource Allocation and Quality-of-Service (QoS) Management
Ethical Implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Network Management
The best ways to use Blockchain for Tamper-Proof Evidence Collection and Storage
Role of Network Operators in Cloud Gaming

Computer Networking Dissertation Topics For Your Research

Topic 1: an evaluation of the network security during machine to machine communication in iot.

Research Aim: The research aims to evaluate the network security issues associated with M2M communication in IoT.

Objectives:

To evaluate the factors affecting the network security of IoT devices.
To determine the methods for increasing data integrity in M2M communication against physical tampering and unauthorised monitoring.
To evaluate the network security issues associated with M2M communication in IoT and offer suitable recommendations for improvement.

Topic 2: An analysis of the cybersecurity challenges in public clouds and appropriate intrusion detection mechanisms.

Research Aim: The aim of the research is to analyse the cybersecurity challenges in public clouds and the appropriate intrusion detection mechanisms.

Objectives:

To analyse the types of cybersecurity threats impacting public clouds.
To determine some of the competent intrusion detection techniques that can be used in cloud computing.
To investigate the cybersecurity challenges in public clouds and offer mitigating with appropriate intrusion detection techniques.

Topic 3: Investigating the impact of SaaS cloud ERP on the scalability and cost-effectiveness of business.

Research Aim: The research aims to investigate the impact of SaaS cloud ERP on the scalability and cost-effectiveness of business.

To analyse the benefits of SaaS ERP over traditional ERP.
To evaluate the characteristics of SaaS architecture in cloud computing and determine its varieties.
To investigate how SaaS cloud ERP impacts business scalability and cost-effectiveness.

Topic 4: An evaluation of the requirements of cloud repatriation and the challenges associated with it.

Research Aim: The research aims to evaluate the requirements of cloud repatriation in organisations and the associated challenges

To analyse the key factors of cloud repatriation.
To determine the challenges associated with cloud repatriation from public clouds.
To evaluate the need for cloud repatriation in organisations and the associated complexities

Topic 5: An examination of the security mechanisms in decentralised networks and the ways of enhancing system robustness

Research Aim: The research aims to investigate the security mechanisms in decentralised networks and the ways of enhancing system robustness.

To analyse the concept of decentralised networks and understand their difference from centralised networks.
To analyse the security mechanisms in decentralised networks to determine how it offers visibility and traceability.
To investigate the security mechanisms in decentralised networks and how system robustness can be increased for better privacy and security.

Latest Computer Networking Dissertation Topics

Exploring the importance of computer networking in today’s era.

Research Aim: Even though computer networking has been practised for a few years now, its importance has increased immensely over the past two years. A few main reasons include the use of technology by almost every business and the aim to offer customers an easy and convenient shopping experience. The main aim of this research will be to explain the concepts of computer networking, its benefits, and its importance in the current era. The research will also discuss how computer networking has helped businesses and individuals perform their work and benefit from it. The research will then specifically state examples where computer networking has brought positive changes and helped people achieve what they want.

Wireless Networks in Business Settings – An Analysis

Research Aim: Wireless networks are crucial in computer networking. They help build networks seamlessly, and once the networks are set up on a wireless network, it becomes extremely easy for the business to perform its daily activities. This research will investigate all about wireless networks in a business setting. It will first introduce the various wireless networks that can be utilised by a business and will then talk about how these networks help companies build their workflow around them. The study will analyse different wireless networks used by businesses and will conclude how beneficial they are and how they are helping the business.

Understanding Virtual Private Networks – A Deep Analysis of Their Challenges

Research Aim: Private virtual networks (VPN) are extremely common today. These are used by businesses and individuals alike. This research aims to understand how these networks operate and how they help businesses build strong and successful systems and address the challenges of VPNs. A lot of businesses do not adopt virtual private networks due to the challenges that they bring. This research will address these challenges in a way that will help businesses implement VPNs successfully.

A Survey of the Application of Wireless Sensor Networks

Research Aim: Wireless sensor networks are self-configured, infrastructure-less wireless networks to pass data. These networks are now extremely popular amongst businesses because they can solve problems in various application domains and possess the capacity to change the way work is done. This research will investigate where wireless sensor networks are implemented, how they are being used, and how they are performing. The research will also investigate how businesses implement these systems and consider factors when utilising these wireless sensor networks.

Computer Network Security Attacks – Systems and Methods to Respond

Research Aim: With the advent of technology today, computer networks are extremely prone to security attacks. A lot of networks have security systems in place. However, people with nefarious intent find one way to intrude and steal data/information. This research will address major security attacks that have impacted businesses and will aim to address this challenge. Various methods and systems will be highlighted to protect the computer networks. In addition to this, the research will also discuss various methods to respond to attacks and to keep the business network protected.

Preventing a Cyberattack – How Can You Build a Powerful Computer Network?

Research Aim: Cyberattacks are extremely common these days. No matter how powerful your network is, you might be a victim of phishing or hacking. The main aim of this research will be to outline how a powerful computer network can be built. Various methods to build a safe computer network that can keep data and information will be outlined, and the study will also highlight ways to prevent a cyberattack. In addition to this, the research will talk about the steps that should be taken to keep the computer network safe. The research will conclude with the best way and system to build a powerful and safe computer network.

Types of Computer Networks: A Comparison and Analysis

Research Aim: There are different types of computer networks, including LAN, WAN, PAN, MAN, CAN, SAN, etc. This research will discuss all the various types of computer networks to help readers understand how all these networks work. The study will then compare the different types of networks and analyse how each of them is implemented in different settings. The dissertation will also discuss the type of computer networks that businesses should use and how they can use them for their success. The study will then conclude which computer network is the best and how it can benefit when implemented.

Detecting Computer Network Attacks by Signatures and Fast Content Analysis

Research Aim: With technological advancement, today, many computer network attacks can be detected beforehand. While many techniques are utilised for detecting these attacks, the use of signatures and fast content analysis are the most popular ones. This research will explore these techniques in detail and help understand how they can detect a computer network attack and prevent it. The research will present different ways these techniques are utilised to detect an attack and help build powerful and safe computer networks. The research will then conclude how helpful these two techniques are and whether businesses should implement them.

Overview of Wireless Network Technologies and their Role in Healthcare

Research Aim: Wireless network technologies are utilised by several industries. Their uses and benefits have helped businesses resolve many business problems and assisted them in conducting their daily activities without any hindrance. This networking topic will help explore how wireless network technologies work and will talk about their benefits. This research aims to find out how wireless technologies help businesses carry out their daily routine tasks effortlessly. For this research, the focus will be on the healthcare industry. The study will investigate how wireless network technology has helped the healthcare sector and how it has benefited them to perform their daily tasks without much effort.

Setting up a Business Communication System over a Computer Network

Research Aim: Communication is an essential aspect of every business. Employees need to communicate effectively to keep the business going. In the absence of effective communication, businesses suffer a lot as the departments are not synchronised, and the operations are haphazard. This research will explore the different ways through which network technologies help conduct smooth and effective communication within organisations. This research will conclude how wireless networks have helped businesses build effective communication systems within their organisation and how they have benefited from it. It will then conclude how businesses have improved and solved major business problems with the help of these systems.

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How to find computer networking dissertation topics.

To find computer networking dissertation topics:

Follow industry news and emerging technologies.
Investigate unresolved networking challenges.
Review recent research papers.
Explore IoT, cybersecurity , and cloud computing.
Consider real-world applications.
Select a topic aligned with your expertise and career aspirations.

Computer Science Thesis Topics

This page provides a comprehensive list of computer science thesis topics , carefully curated to support students in identifying and selecting innovative and relevant areas for their academic research. Whether you are at the beginning of your research journey or are seeking a specific area to explore further, this guide aims to serve as an essential resource. With an expansive array of topics spread across various sub-disciplines of computer science, this list is designed to meet a diverse range of interests and academic needs. From the complexities of artificial intelligence to the intricate designs of web development, each category is equipped with 40 specific topics, offering a breadth of possibilities to inspire your next big thesis project. Explore our guide to find not only a topic that resonates with your academic ambitions but also one that has the potential to contribute significantly to the field of computer science.

1000 Computer Science Thesis Topics and Ideas

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, browse computer science thesis topics:, artificial intelligence thesis topics, augmented reality thesis topics, big data analytics thesis topics, bioinformatics thesis topics, blockchain technology thesis topics, cloud computing thesis topics, computer engineering thesis topics, computer vision thesis topics, cybersecurity thesis topics, data science thesis topics, digital transformation thesis topics, distributed systems and networks thesis topics, geographic information systems (gis) thesis topics, human-computer interaction (hci) thesis topics, image processing thesis topics, information system thesis topics, information technology thesis topics.

Internet Of Things (IoT) Thesis Topics

Machine Learning Thesis Topics

Neural networks thesis topics, programming thesis topics, quantum computing thesis topics, robotics thesis topics, software engineering thesis topics, web development thesis topics.

Ethical Implications of AI in Decision-Making Processes
The Role of AI in Personalized Medicine: Opportunities and Challenges
Advances in AI-Driven Predictive Analytics in Retail
AI in Autonomous Vehicles: Safety, Regulation, and Technology Integration
Natural Language Processing: Improving Human-Machine Interaction
The Future of AI in Cybersecurity: Threats and Defenses
Machine Learning Algorithms for Real-Time Data Processing
AI and the Internet of Things: Transforming Smart Home Technology
The Impact of Deep Learning on Image Recognition Technologies
Reinforcement Learning: Applications in Robotics and Automation
AI in Finance: Algorithmic Trading and Risk Assessment
Bias and Fairness in AI: Addressing Socio-Technical Challenges
The Evolution of AI in Education: Customized Learning Experiences
AI for Environmental Conservation: Tracking and Predictive Analysis
The Role of Artificial Neural Networks in Weather Forecasting
AI in Agriculture: Predictive Analytics for Crop and Soil Management
Emotional Recognition AI: Implications for Mental Health Assessments
AI in Space Exploration: Autonomous Rovers and Mission Planning
Enhancing User Experience with AI in Video Games
AI-Powered Virtual Assistants: Trends, Effectiveness, and User Trust
The Integration of AI in Traditional Industries: Case Studies
Generative AI Models in Art and Creativity
AI in LegalTech: Document Analysis and Litigation Prediction
Healthcare Diagnostics: AI Applications in Radiology and Pathology
AI and Blockchain: Enhancing Security in Decentralized Systems
Ethics of AI in Surveillance: Privacy vs. Security
AI in E-commerce: Personalization Engines and Customer Behavior Analysis
The Future of AI in Telecommunications: Network Optimization and Service Delivery
AI in Manufacturing: Predictive Maintenance and Quality Control
Challenges of AI in Elderly Care: Ethical Considerations and Technological Solutions
The Role of AI in Public Safety and Emergency Response
AI for Content Creation: Impact on Media and Journalism
AI-Driven Algorithms for Efficient Energy Management
The Role of AI in Cultural Heritage Preservation
AI and the Future of Public Transport: Optimization and Management
Enhancing Sports Performance with AI-Based Analytics
AI in Human Resources: Automating Recruitment and Employee Management
Real-Time Translation AI: Breaking Language Barriers
AI in Mental Health: Tools for Monitoring and Therapy Assistance
The Future of AI Governance: Regulation and Standardization
AR in Medical Training and Surgery Simulation
The Impact of Augmented Reality in Retail: Enhancing Consumer Experience
Augmented Reality for Enhanced Navigation Systems
AR Applications in Maintenance and Repair in Industrial Settings
The Role of AR in Enhancing Online Education
Augmented Reality in Cultural Heritage: Interactive Visitor Experiences
Developing AR Tools for Improved Sports Coaching and Training
Privacy and Security Challenges in Augmented Reality Applications
The Future of AR in Advertising: Engagement and Measurement
User Interface Design for AR: Principles and Best Practices
AR in Automotive Industry: Enhancing Driving Experience and Safety
Augmented Reality for Emergency Response Training
AR and IoT: Converging Technologies for Smart Environments
Enhancing Physical Rehabilitation with AR Applications
The Role of AR in Enhancing Public Safety and Awareness
Augmented Reality in Fashion: Virtual Fitting and Personalized Shopping
AR for Environmental Education: Interactive and Immersive Learning
The Use of AR in Building and Architecture Planning
AR in the Entertainment Industry: Games and Live Events
Implementing AR in Museums and Art Galleries for Interactive Learning
Augmented Reality for Real Estate: Virtual Tours and Property Visualization
AR in Consumer Electronics: Integration in Smart Devices
The Development of AR Applications for Children’s Education
AR for Enhancing User Engagement in Social Media Platforms
The Application of AR in Field Service Management
Augmented Reality for Disaster Management and Risk Assessment
Challenges of Content Creation for Augmented Reality
Future Trends in AR Hardware: Wearables and Beyond
Legal and Ethical Considerations of Augmented Reality Technology
AR in Space Exploration: Tools for Simulation and Training
Interactive Shopping Experiences with AR: The Future of Retail
AR in Wildlife Conservation: Educational Tools and Awareness
The Impact of AR on the Publishing Industry: Interactive Books and Magazines
Augmented Reality and Its Role in Automotive Manufacturing
AR for Job Training: Bridging the Skill Gap in Various Industries
The Role of AR in Therapy: New Frontiers in Mental Health Treatment
The Future of Augmented Reality in Sports Broadcasting
AR as a Tool for Enhancing Public Art Installations
Augmented Reality in the Tourism Industry: Personalized Travel Experiences
The Use of AR in Security Training: Realistic and Safe Simulations
The Role of Big Data in Improving Healthcare Outcomes
Big Data and Its Impact on Consumer Behavior Analysis
Privacy Concerns in Big Data: Ethical and Legal Implications
The Application of Big Data in Predictive Maintenance for Manufacturing
Real-Time Big Data Processing: Tools and Techniques
Big Data in Financial Services: Fraud Detection and Risk Management
The Evolution of Big Data Technologies: From Hadoop to Spark
Big Data Visualization: Techniques for Effective Communication of Insights
The Integration of Big Data and Artificial Intelligence
Big Data in Smart Cities: Applications in Traffic Management and Energy Use
Enhancing Supply Chain Efficiency with Big Data Analytics
Big Data in Sports Analytics: Improving Team Performance and Fan Engagement
The Role of Big Data in Environmental Monitoring and Sustainability
Big Data and Social Media: Analyzing Sentiments and Trends
Scalability Challenges in Big Data Systems
The Future of Big Data in Retail: Personalization and Customer Experience
Big Data in Education: Customized Learning Paths and Student Performance Analysis
Privacy-Preserving Techniques in Big Data
Big Data in Public Health: Epidemiology and Disease Surveillance
The Impact of Big Data on Insurance: Tailored Policies and Pricing
Edge Computing in Big Data: Processing at the Source
Big Data and the Internet of Things: Generating Insights from IoT Data
Cloud-Based Big Data Analytics: Opportunities and Challenges
Big Data Governance: Policies, Standards, and Management
The Role of Big Data in Crisis Management and Response
Machine Learning with Big Data: Building Predictive Models
Big Data in Agriculture: Precision Farming and Yield Optimization
The Ethics of Big Data in Research: Consent and Anonymity
Cross-Domain Big Data Integration: Challenges and Solutions
Big Data and Cybersecurity: Threat Detection and Prevention Strategies
Real-Time Streaming Analytics in Big Data
Big Data in the Media Industry: Content Optimization and Viewer Insights
The Impact of GDPR on Big Data Practices
Quantum Computing and Big Data: Future Prospects
Big Data in E-Commerce: Optimizing Logistics and Inventory Management
Big Data Talent: Education and Skill Development for Data Scientists
The Role of Big Data in Political Campaigns and Voting Behavior Analysis
Big Data and Mental Health: Analyzing Patterns for Better Interventions
Big Data in Genomics and Personalized Medicine
The Future of Big Data in Autonomous Driving Technologies
The Role of Bioinformatics in Personalized Medicine
Next-Generation Sequencing Data Analysis: Challenges and Opportunities
Bioinformatics and the Study of Genetic Diseases
Computational Models for Understanding Protein Structure and Function
Bioinformatics in Drug Discovery and Development
The Impact of Big Data on Bioinformatics: Data Management and Analysis
Machine Learning Applications in Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics Approaches for Cancer Genomics
The Development of Bioinformatics Tools for Metagenomics Analysis
Ethical Considerations in Bioinformatics: Data Sharing and Privacy
The Role of Bioinformatics in Agricultural Biotechnology
Bioinformatics and Viral Evolution: Tracking Pathogens and Outbreaks
The Integration of Bioinformatics and Systems Biology
Bioinformatics in Neuroscience: Mapping the Brain
The Future of Bioinformatics in Non-Invasive Prenatal Testing
Bioinformatics and the Human Microbiome: Health Implications
The Application of Artificial Intelligence in Bioinformatics
Structural Bioinformatics: Computational Techniques for Molecular Modeling
Comparative Genomics: Insights into Evolution and Function
Bioinformatics in Immunology: Vaccine Design and Immune Response Analysis
High-Performance Computing in Bioinformatics
The Challenge of Proteomics in Bioinformatics
RNA-Seq Data Analysis and Interpretation
Cloud Computing Solutions for Bioinformatics Data
Computational Epigenetics: DNA Methylation and Histone Modification Analysis
Bioinformatics in Ecology: Biodiversity and Conservation Genetics
The Role of Bioinformatics in Forensic Analysis
Mobile Apps and Tools for Bioinformatics Research
Bioinformatics and Public Health: Epidemiological Studies
The Use of Bioinformatics in Clinical Diagnostics
Genetic Algorithms in Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics for Aging Research: Understanding the Mechanisms of Aging
Data Visualization Techniques in Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics and the Development of Therapeutic Antibodies
The Role of Bioinformatics in Stem Cell Research
Bioinformatics and Cardiovascular Diseases: Genomic Insights
The Impact of Machine Learning on Functional Genomics in Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics in Dental Research: Genetic Links to Oral Diseases
The Future of CRISPR Technology and Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics and Nutrition: Genomic Insights into Diet and Health
Blockchain for Enhancing Cybersecurity in Various Industries
The Impact of Blockchain on Supply Chain Transparency
Blockchain in Healthcare: Patient Data Management and Security
The Application of Blockchain in Voting Systems
Blockchain and Smart Contracts: Legal Implications and Applications
Cryptocurrencies: Market Trends and the Future of Digital Finance
Blockchain in Real Estate: Improving Property and Land Registration
The Role of Blockchain in Managing Digital Identities
Blockchain for Intellectual Property Management
Energy Sector Innovations: Blockchain for Renewable Energy Distribution
Blockchain and the Future of Public Sector Operations
The Impact of Blockchain on Cross-Border Payments
Blockchain for Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs): Applications in Art and Media
Privacy Issues in Blockchain Applications
Blockchain in the Automotive Industry: Supply Chain and Beyond
Decentralized Finance (DeFi): Opportunities and Challenges
The Role of Blockchain in Combating Counterfeiting and Fraud
Blockchain for Sustainable Environmental Practices
The Integration of Artificial Intelligence with Blockchain
Blockchain Education: Curriculum Development and Training Needs
Blockchain in the Music Industry: Rights Management and Revenue Distribution
The Challenges of Blockchain Scalability and Performance Optimization
The Future of Blockchain in the Telecommunications Industry
Blockchain and Consumer Data Privacy: A New Paradigm
Blockchain for Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity
Blockchain in the Charity and Non-Profit Sectors
Quantum Resistance in Blockchain: Preparing for the Quantum Era
Blockchain and Its Impact on Traditional Banking and Financial Institutions
Legal and Regulatory Challenges Facing Blockchain Technology
Blockchain for Improved Logistics and Freight Management
The Role of Blockchain in the Evolution of the Internet of Things (IoT)
Blockchain and the Future of Gaming: Transparency and Fair Play
Blockchain for Academic Credentials Verification
The Application of Blockchain in the Insurance Industry
Blockchain and the Future of Content Creation and Distribution
Blockchain for Enhancing Data Integrity in Scientific Research
The Impact of Blockchain on Human Resources: Employee Verification and Salary Payments
Blockchain and the Future of Retail: Customer Loyalty Programs and Inventory Management
Blockchain and Industrial Automation: Trust and Efficiency
Blockchain for Digital Marketing: Transparency and Consumer Engagement
Multi-Cloud Strategies: Optimization and Security Challenges
Advances in Cloud Computing Architectures for Scalable Applications
Edge Computing: Extending the Reach of Cloud Services
Cloud Security: Novel Approaches to Data Encryption and Threat Mitigation
The Impact of Serverless Computing on Software Development Lifecycle
Cloud Computing and Sustainability: Energy-Efficient Data Centers
Cloud Service Models: Comparative Analysis of IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS
Cloud Migration Strategies: Best Practices and Common Pitfalls
The Role of Cloud Computing in Big Data Analytics
Implementing AI and Machine Learning Workloads on Cloud Platforms
Hybrid Cloud Environments: Management Tools and Techniques
Cloud Computing in Healthcare: Compliance, Security, and Use Cases
Cost-Effective Cloud Solutions for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)
The Evolution of Cloud Storage Solutions: Trends and Technologies
Cloud-Based Disaster Recovery Solutions: Design and Reliability
Blockchain in Cloud Services: Enhancing Transparency and Trust
Cloud Networking: Managing Connectivity and Traffic in Cloud Environments
Cloud Governance: Managing Compliance and Operational Risks
The Future of Cloud Computing: Quantum Computing Integration
Performance Benchmarking of Cloud Services Across Different Providers
Privacy Preservation in Cloud Environments
Cloud Computing in Education: Virtual Classrooms and Learning Management Systems
Automation in Cloud Deployments: Tools and Strategies
Cloud Auditing and Monitoring Techniques
Mobile Cloud Computing: Challenges and Future Trends
The Role of Cloud Computing in Digital Media Production and Distribution
Security Risks in Multi-Tenancy Cloud Environments
Cloud Computing for Scientific Research: Enabling Complex Simulations
The Impact of 5G on Cloud Computing Services
Federated Clouds: Building Collaborative Cloud Environments
Managing Software Dependencies in Cloud Applications
The Economics of Cloud Computing: Cost Models and Pricing Strategies
Cloud Computing in Government: Security Protocols and Citizen Services
Cloud Access Security Brokers (CASBs): Security Enforcement Points
DevOps in the Cloud: Strategies for Continuous Integration and Deployment
Predictive Analytics in Cloud Computing
The Role of Cloud Computing in IoT Deployment
Implementing Robust Cybersecurity Measures in Cloud Architecture
Cloud Computing in the Financial Sector: Handling Sensitive Data
Future Trends in Cloud Computing: The Role of AI in Cloud Optimization
Advances in Microprocessor Design and Architecture
FPGA-Based Design: Innovations and Applications
The Role of Embedded Systems in Consumer Electronics
Quantum Computing: Hardware Development and Challenges
High-Performance Computing (HPC) and Parallel Processing
Design and Analysis of Computer Networks
Cyber-Physical Systems: Design, Analysis, and Security
The Impact of Nanotechnology on Computer Hardware
Wireless Sensor Networks: Design and Optimization
Cryptographic Hardware: Implementations and Security Evaluations
Machine Learning Techniques for Hardware Optimization
Hardware for Artificial Intelligence: GPUs vs. TPUs
Energy-Efficient Hardware Designs for Sustainable Computing
Security Aspects of Mobile and Ubiquitous Computing
Advanced Algorithms for Computer-Aided Design (CAD) of VLSI
Signal Processing in Communication Systems
The Development of Wearable Computing Devices
Computer Hardware Testing: Techniques and Tools
The Role of Hardware in Network Security
The Evolution of Interface Designs in Consumer Electronics
Biometric Systems: Hardware and Software Integration
The Integration of IoT Devices in Smart Environments
Electronic Design Automation (EDA) Tools and Methodologies
Robotics: Hardware Design and Control Systems
Hardware Accelerators for Deep Learning Applications
Developments in Non-Volatile Memory Technologies
The Future of Computer Hardware in the Era of Quantum Computing
Hardware Solutions for Data Storage and Retrieval
Power Management Techniques in Embedded Systems
Challenges in Designing Multi-Core Processors
System on Chip (SoC) Design Trends and Challenges
The Role of Computer Engineering in Aerospace Technology
Real-Time Systems: Design and Implementation Challenges
Hardware Support for Virtualization Technology
Advances in Computer Graphics Hardware
The Impact of 5G Technology on Mobile Computing Hardware
Environmental Impact Assessment of Computer Hardware Production
Security Vulnerabilities in Modern Microprocessors
Computer Hardware Innovations in the Automotive Industry
The Role of Computer Engineering in Medical Device Technology
Deep Learning Approaches to Object Recognition
Real-Time Image Processing for Autonomous Vehicles
Computer Vision in Robotic Surgery: Techniques and Challenges
Facial Recognition Technology: Innovations and Privacy Concerns
Machine Vision in Industrial Automation and Quality Control
3D Reconstruction Techniques in Computer Vision
Enhancing Sports Analytics with Computer Vision
Augmented Reality: Integrating Computer Vision for Immersive Experiences
Computer Vision for Environmental Monitoring
Thermal Imaging and Its Applications in Computer Vision
Computer Vision in Retail: Customer Behavior and Store Layout Optimization
Motion Detection and Tracking in Security Systems
The Role of Computer Vision in Content Moderation on Social Media
Gesture Recognition: Methods and Applications
Computer Vision in Agriculture: Pest Detection and Crop Analysis
Advances in Medical Imaging: Machine Learning and Computer Vision
Scene Understanding and Contextual Inference in Images
The Development of Vision-Based Autonomous Drones
Optical Character Recognition (OCR): Latest Techniques and Applications
The Impact of Computer Vision on Virtual Reality Experiences
Biometrics: Enhancing Security Systems with Computer Vision
Computer Vision for Wildlife Conservation: Species Recognition and Behavior Analysis
Underwater Image Processing: Challenges and Techniques
Video Surveillance: The Evolution of Algorithmic Approaches
Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems (ADAS): Leveraging Computer Vision
Computational Photography: Enhancing Image Capture Techniques
The Integration of AI in Computer Vision: Ethical and Technical Considerations
Computer Vision in the Gaming Industry: From Design to Interaction
The Future of Computer Vision in Smart Cities
Pattern Recognition in Historical Document Analysis
The Role of Computer Vision in the Manufacturing of Customized Products
Enhancing Accessibility with Computer Vision: Tools for the Visually Impaired
The Use of Computer Vision in Behavioral Research
Predictive Analytics with Computer Vision in Sports
Image Synthesis with Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs)
The Use of Computer Vision in Remote Sensing
Real-Time Video Analytics for Public Safety
The Role of Computer Vision in Telemedicine
Computer Vision and the Internet of Things (IoT): A Synergistic Approach
Future Trends in Computer Vision: Quantum Computing and Beyond
Advances in Cryptography: Post-Quantum Cryptosystems
Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity: Threat Detection and Response
Blockchain for Enhanced Security in Distributed Networks
The Impact of IoT on Cybersecurity: Vulnerabilities and Solutions
Cybersecurity in Cloud Computing: Best Practices and Tools
Ethical Hacking: Techniques and Ethical Implications
The Role of Human Factors in Cybersecurity Breaches
Privacy-preserving Technologies in an Age of Surveillance
The Evolution of Ransomware Attacks and Defense Strategies
Secure Software Development: Integrating Security in DevOps (DevSecOps)
Cybersecurity in Critical Infrastructure: Challenges and Innovations
The Future of Biometric Security Systems
Cyber Warfare: State-sponsored Attacks and Defense Mechanisms
The Role of Cybersecurity in Protecting Digital Identities
Social Engineering Attacks: Prevention and Countermeasures
Mobile Security: Protecting Against Malware and Exploits
Wireless Network Security: Protocols and Practices
Data Breaches: Analysis, Consequences, and Mitigation
The Ethics of Cybersecurity: Balancing Privacy and Security
Regulatory Compliance and Cybersecurity: GDPR and Beyond
The Impact of 5G Technology on Cybersecurity
The Role of Machine Learning in Cyber Threat Intelligence
Cybersecurity in Automotive Systems: Challenges in a Connected Environment
The Use of Virtual Reality for Cybersecurity Training and Simulation
Advanced Persistent Threats (APT): Detection and Response
Cybersecurity for Smart Cities: Challenges and Solutions
Deep Learning Applications in Malware Detection
The Role of Cybersecurity in Healthcare: Protecting Patient Data
Supply Chain Cybersecurity: Identifying Risks and Solutions
Endpoint Security: Trends, Challenges, and Future Directions
Forensic Techniques in Cybersecurity: Tracking and Analyzing Cyber Crimes
The Influence of International Law on Cyber Operations
Protecting Financial Institutions from Cyber Frauds and Attacks
Quantum Computing and Its Implications for Cybersecurity
Cybersecurity and Remote Work: Emerging Threats and Strategies
IoT Security in Industrial Applications
Cyber Insurance: Risk Assessment and Management
Security Challenges in Edge Computing Environments
Anomaly Detection in Network Security Using AI Techniques
Securing the Software Supply Chain in Application Development
Big Data Analytics: Techniques and Applications in Real-time
Machine Learning Algorithms for Predictive Analytics
Data Science in Healthcare: Improving Patient Outcomes with Predictive Models
The Role of Data Science in Financial Market Predictions
Natural Language Processing: Emerging Trends and Applications
Data Visualization Tools and Techniques for Enhanced Business Intelligence
Ethics in Data Science: Privacy, Fairness, and Transparency
The Use of Data Science in Environmental Science for Sustainability Studies
The Impact of Data Science on Social Media Marketing Strategies
Data Mining Techniques for Detecting Patterns in Large Datasets
AI and Data Science: Synergies and Future Prospects
Reinforcement Learning: Applications and Challenges in Data Science
The Role of Data Science in E-commerce Personalization
Predictive Maintenance in Manufacturing Through Data Science
The Evolution of Recommendation Systems in Streaming Services
Real-time Data Processing with Stream Analytics
Deep Learning for Image and Video Analysis
Data Governance in Big Data Analytics
Text Analytics and Sentiment Analysis for Customer Feedback
Fraud Detection in Banking and Insurance Using Data Science
The Integration of IoT Data in Data Science Models
The Future of Data Science in Quantum Computing
Data Science for Public Health: Epidemic Outbreak Prediction
Sports Analytics: Performance Improvement and Injury Prevention
Data Science in Retail: Inventory Management and Customer Journey Analysis
Data Science in Smart Cities: Traffic and Urban Planning
The Use of Blockchain in Data Security and Integrity
Geospatial Analysis for Environmental Monitoring
Time Series Analysis in Economic Forecasting
Data Science in Education: Analyzing Trends and Student Performance
Predictive Policing: Data Science in Law Enforcement
Data Science in Agriculture: Yield Prediction and Soil Health
Computational Social Science: Analyzing Societal Trends
Data Science in Energy Sector: Consumption and Optimization
Personalization Technologies in Healthcare Through Data Science
The Role of Data Science in Content Creation and Media
Anomaly Detection in Network Security Using Data Science Techniques
The Future of Autonomous Vehicles: Data Science-Driven Innovations
Multimodal Data Fusion Techniques in Data Science
Scalability Challenges in Data Science Projects
The Role of Digital Transformation in Business Model Innovation
The Impact of Digital Technologies on Customer Experience
Digital Transformation in the Banking Sector: Trends and Challenges
The Use of AI and Robotics in Digital Transformation of Manufacturing
Digital Transformation in Healthcare: Telemedicine and Beyond
The Influence of Big Data on Decision-Making Processes in Corporations
Blockchain as a Driver for Transparency in Digital Transformation
The Role of IoT in Enhancing Operational Efficiency in Industries
Digital Marketing Strategies: SEO, Content, and Social Media
The Integration of Cyber-Physical Systems in Industrial Automation
Digital Transformation in Education: Virtual Learning Environments
Smart Cities: The Role of Digital Technologies in Urban Planning
Digital Transformation in the Retail Sector: E-commerce Evolution
The Future of Work: Impact of Digital Transformation on Workplaces
Cybersecurity Challenges in a Digitally Transformed World
Mobile Technologies and Their Impact on Digital Transformation
The Role of Digital Twin Technology in Industry 4.0
Digital Transformation in the Public Sector: E-Government Services
Data Privacy and Security in the Age of Digital Transformation
Digital Transformation in the Energy Sector: Smart Grids and Renewable Energy
The Use of Augmented Reality in Training and Development
The Role of Virtual Reality in Real Estate and Architecture
Digital Transformation and Sustainability: Reducing Environmental Footprint
The Role of Digital Transformation in Supply Chain Optimization
Digital Transformation in Agriculture: IoT and Smart Farming
The Impact of 5G on Digital Transformation Initiatives
The Influence of Digital Transformation on Media and Entertainment
Digital Transformation in Insurance: Telematics and Risk Assessment
The Role of AI in Enhancing Customer Service Operations
The Future of Digital Transformation: Trends and Predictions
Digital Transformation and Corporate Governance
The Role of Leadership in Driving Digital Transformation
Digital Transformation in Non-Profit Organizations: Challenges and Benefits
The Economic Implications of Digital Transformation
The Cultural Impact of Digital Transformation on Organizations
Digital Transformation in Transportation: Logistics and Fleet Management
User Experience (UX) Design in Digital Transformation
The Role of Digital Transformation in Crisis Management
Digital Transformation and Human Resource Management
Implementing Change Management in Digital Transformation Projects
Scalability Challenges in Distributed Systems: Solutions and Strategies
Blockchain Technology: Enhancing Security and Transparency in Distributed Networks
The Role of Edge Computing in Distributed Systems
Designing Fault-Tolerant Systems in Distributed Networks
The Impact of 5G Technology on Distributed Network Architectures
Machine Learning Algorithms for Network Traffic Analysis
Load Balancing Techniques in Distributed Computing
The Use of Distributed Ledger Technology Beyond Cryptocurrencies
Network Function Virtualization (NFV) and Its Impact on Service Providers
The Evolution of Software-Defined Networking (SDN) in Enterprise Environments
Implementing Robust Cybersecurity Measures in Distributed Systems
Quantum Computing: Implications for Network Security in Distributed Systems
Peer-to-Peer Network Protocols and Their Applications
The Internet of Things (IoT): Network Challenges and Communication Protocols
Real-Time Data Processing in Distributed Sensor Networks
The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Optimizing Network Operations
Privacy and Data Protection Strategies in Distributed Systems
The Future of Distributed Computing in Cloud Environments
Energy Efficiency in Distributed Network Systems
Wireless Mesh Networks: Design, Challenges, and Applications
Multi-Access Edge Computing (MEC): Use Cases and Deployment Challenges
Consensus Algorithms in Distributed Systems: From Blockchain to New Applications
The Use of Containers and Microservices in Building Scalable Applications
Network Slicing for 5G: Opportunities and Challenges
The Role of Distributed Systems in Big Data Analytics
Managing Data Consistency in Distributed Databases
The Impact of Distributed Systems on Digital Transformation Strategies
Augmented Reality over Distributed Networks: Performance and Scalability Issues
The Application of Distributed Systems in Smart Grid Technology
Developing Distributed Applications Using Serverless Architectures
The Challenges of Implementing IPv6 in Distributed Networks
Distributed Systems for Disaster Recovery: Design and Implementation
The Use of Virtual Reality in Distributed Network Environments
Security Protocols for Ad Hoc Networks in Emergency Situations
The Role of Distributed Networks in Enhancing Mobile Broadband Services
Next-Generation Protocols for Enhanced Network Reliability and Performance
The Application of Blockchain in Securing Distributed IoT Networks
Dynamic Resource Allocation Strategies in Distributed Systems
The Integration of Distributed Systems with Existing IT Infrastructure
The Future of Autonomous Systems in Distributed Networking
The Integration of GIS with Remote Sensing for Environmental Monitoring
GIS in Urban Planning: Techniques for Sustainable Development
The Role of GIS in Disaster Management and Response Strategies
Real-Time GIS Applications in Traffic Management and Route Planning
The Use of GIS in Water Resource Management
GIS and Public Health: Tracking Epidemics and Healthcare Access
Advances in 3D GIS: Technologies and Applications
GIS in Agricultural Management: Precision Farming Techniques
The Impact of GIS on Biodiversity Conservation Efforts
Spatial Data Analysis for Crime Pattern Detection and Prevention
GIS in Renewable Energy: Site Selection and Resource Management
The Role of GIS in Historical Research and Archaeology
GIS and Machine Learning: Integrating Spatial Analysis with Predictive Models
Cloud Computing and GIS: Enhancing Accessibility and Data Processing
The Application of GIS in Managing Public Transportation Systems
GIS in Real Estate: Market Analysis and Property Valuation
The Use of GIS for Environmental Impact Assessments
Mobile GIS Applications: Development and Usage Trends
GIS and Its Role in Smart City Initiatives
Privacy Issues in the Use of Geographic Information Systems
GIS in Forest Management: Monitoring and Conservation Strategies
The Impact of GIS on Tourism: Enhancing Visitor Experiences through Technology
GIS in the Insurance Industry: Risk Assessment and Policy Design
The Development of Participatory GIS (PGIS) for Community Engagement
GIS in Coastal Management: Addressing Erosion and Flood Risks
Geospatial Analytics in Retail: Optimizing Location and Consumer Insights
GIS for Wildlife Tracking and Habitat Analysis
The Use of GIS in Climate Change Studies
GIS and Social Media: Analyzing Spatial Trends from User Data
The Future of GIS: Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality Applications
GIS in Education: Tools for Teaching Geographic Concepts
The Role of GIS in Land Use Planning and Zoning
GIS for Emergency Medical Services: Optimizing Response Times
Open Source GIS Software: Development and Community Contributions
GIS and the Internet of Things (IoT): Converging Technologies for Advanced Monitoring
GIS for Mineral Exploration: Techniques and Applications
The Role of GIS in Municipal Management and Services
GIS and Drone Technology: A Synergy for Precision Mapping
Spatial Statistics in GIS: Techniques for Advanced Data Analysis
Future Trends in GIS: The Integration of AI for Smarter Solutions
The Evolution of User Interface (UI) Design: From Desktop to Mobile and Beyond
The Role of HCI in Enhancing Accessibility for Disabled Users
Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) in HCI: New Dimensions of Interaction
The Impact of HCI on User Experience (UX) in Software Applications
Cognitive Aspects of HCI: Understanding User Perception and Behavior
HCI and the Internet of Things (IoT): Designing Interactive Smart Devices
The Use of Biometrics in HCI: Security and Usability Concerns
HCI in Educational Technologies: Enhancing Learning through Interaction
Emotional Recognition and Its Application in HCI
The Role of HCI in Wearable Technology: Design and Functionality
Advanced Techniques in Voice User Interfaces (VUIs)
The Impact of HCI on Social Media Interaction Patterns
HCI in Healthcare: Designing User-Friendly Medical Devices and Software
HCI and Gaming: Enhancing Player Engagement and Experience
The Use of HCI in Robotic Systems: Improving Human-Robot Interaction
The Influence of HCI on E-commerce: Optimizing User Journeys and Conversions
HCI in Smart Homes: Interaction Design for Automated Environments
Multimodal Interaction: Integrating Touch, Voice, and Gesture in HCI
HCI and Aging: Designing Technology for Older Adults
The Role of HCI in Virtual Teams: Tools and Strategies for Collaboration
User-Centered Design: HCI Strategies for Developing User-Focused Software
HCI Research Methodologies: Experimental Design and User Studies
The Application of HCI Principles in the Design of Public Kiosks
The Future of HCI: Integrating Artificial Intelligence for Smarter Interfaces
HCI in Transportation: Designing User Interfaces for Autonomous Vehicles
Privacy and Ethics in HCI: Addressing User Data Security
HCI and Environmental Sustainability: Promoting Eco-Friendly Behaviors
Adaptive Interfaces: HCI Design for Personalized User Experiences
The Role of HCI in Content Creation: Tools for Artists and Designers
HCI for Crisis Management: Designing Systems for Emergency Use
The Use of HCI in Sports Technology: Enhancing Training and Performance
The Evolution of Haptic Feedback in HCI
HCI and Cultural Differences: Designing for Global User Bases
The Impact of HCI on Digital Marketing: Creating Engaging User Interactions
HCI in Financial Services: Improving User Interfaces for Banking Apps
The Role of HCI in Enhancing User Trust in Technology
HCI for Public Safety: User Interfaces for Security Systems
The Application of HCI in the Film and Television Industry
HCI and the Future of Work: Designing Interfaces for Remote Collaboration
Innovations in HCI: Exploring New Interaction Technologies and Their Applications
Deep Learning Techniques for Advanced Image Segmentation
Real-Time Image Processing for Autonomous Driving Systems
Image Enhancement Algorithms for Underwater Imaging
Super-Resolution Imaging: Techniques and Applications
The Role of Image Processing in Remote Sensing and Satellite Imagery Analysis
Machine Learning Models for Medical Image Diagnosis
The Impact of AI on Photographic Restoration and Enhancement
Image Processing in Security Systems: Facial Recognition and Motion Detection
Advanced Algorithms for Image Noise Reduction
3D Image Reconstruction Techniques in Tomography
Image Processing for Agricultural Monitoring: Crop Disease Detection and Yield Prediction
Techniques for Panoramic Image Stitching
Video Image Processing: Real-Time Streaming and Data Compression
The Application of Image Processing in Printing Technology
Color Image Processing: Theory and Practical Applications
The Use of Image Processing in Biometrics Identification
Computational Photography: Image Processing Techniques in Smartphone Cameras
Image Processing for Augmented Reality: Real-time Object Overlay
The Development of Image Processing Algorithms for Traffic Control Systems
Pattern Recognition and Analysis in Forensic Imaging
Adaptive Filtering Techniques in Image Processing
Image Processing in Retail: Customer Tracking and Behavior Analysis
The Role of Image Processing in Cultural Heritage Preservation
Image Segmentation Techniques for Cancer Detection in Medical Imaging
High Dynamic Range (HDR) Imaging: Algorithms and Display Techniques
Image Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks
The Evolution of Edge Detection Algorithms in Image Processing
Image Processing for Wildlife Monitoring: Species Recognition and Behavior Analysis
Application of Wavelet Transforms in Image Compression
Image Processing in Sports: Enhancing Broadcasts and Performance Analysis
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) Improvements in Document Scanning
Multi-Spectral Imaging for Environmental and Earth Studies
Image Processing for Space Exploration: Analysis of Planetary Images
Real-Time Image Processing for Event Surveillance
The Influence of Quantum Computing on Image Processing Speed and Security
Machine Vision in Manufacturing: Defect Detection and Quality Control
Image Processing in Neurology: Visualizing Brain Functions
Photogrammetry and Image Processing in Geology: 3D Terrain Mapping
Advanced Techniques in Image Watermarking for Copyright Protection
The Future of Image Processing: Integrating AI for Automated Editing
The Evolution of Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Systems in the Digital Age
Information Systems for Managing Distributed Workforces
The Role of Information Systems in Enhancing Supply Chain Management
Cybersecurity Measures in Information Systems
The Impact of Big Data on Decision Support Systems
Blockchain Technology for Information System Security
The Development of Sustainable IT Infrastructure in Information Systems
The Use of AI in Information Systems for Business Intelligence
Information Systems in Healthcare: Improving Patient Care and Data Management
The Influence of IoT on Information Systems Architecture
Mobile Information Systems: Development and Usability Challenges
The Role of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in Urban Planning
Social Media Analytics: Tools and Techniques in Information Systems
Information Systems in Education: Enhancing Learning and Administration
Cloud Computing Integration into Corporate Information Systems
Information Systems Audit: Practices and Challenges
User Interface Design and User Experience in Information Systems
Privacy and Data Protection in Information Systems
The Future of Quantum Computing in Information Systems
The Role of Information Systems in Environmental Management
Implementing Effective Knowledge Management Systems
The Adoption of Virtual Reality in Information Systems
The Challenges of Implementing ERP Systems in Multinational Corporations
Information Systems for Real-Time Business Analytics
The Impact of 5G Technology on Mobile Information Systems
Ethical Issues in the Management of Information Systems
Information Systems in Retail: Enhancing Customer Experience and Management
The Role of Information Systems in Non-Profit Organizations
Development of Decision Support Systems for Strategic Planning
Information Systems in the Banking Sector: Enhancing Financial Services
Risk Management in Information Systems
The Integration of Artificial Neural Networks in Information Systems
Information Systems and Corporate Governance
Information Systems for Disaster Response and Management
The Role of Information Systems in Sports Management
Information Systems for Public Health Surveillance
The Future of Information Systems: Trends and Predictions
Information Systems in the Film and Media Industry
Business Process Reengineering through Information Systems
Implementing Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Systems in E-commerce
Emerging Trends in Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
The Future of Cloud Services and Technology
Cybersecurity: Current Threats and Future Defenses
The Role of Information Technology in Sustainable Energy Solutions
Internet of Things (IoT): From Smart Homes to Smart Cities
Blockchain and Its Impact on Information Technology
The Use of Big Data Analytics in Predictive Modeling
Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): The Next Frontier in IT
The Challenges of Digital Transformation in Traditional Businesses
Wearable Technology: Health Monitoring and Beyond
5G Technology: Implementation and Impacts on IT
Biometrics Technology: Uses and Privacy Concerns
The Role of IT in Global Health Initiatives
Ethical Considerations in the Development of Autonomous Systems
Data Privacy in the Age of Information Overload
The Evolution of Software Development Methodologies
Quantum Computing: The Next Revolution in IT
IT Governance: Best Practices and Standards
The Integration of AI in Customer Service Technology
IT in Manufacturing: Industrial Automation and Robotics
The Future of E-commerce: Technology and Trends
Mobile Computing: Innovations and Challenges
Information Technology in Education: Tools and Trends
IT Project Management: Approaches and Tools
The Role of IT in Media and Entertainment
The Impact of Digital Marketing Technologies on Business Strategies
IT in Logistics and Supply Chain Management
The Development and Future of Autonomous Vehicles
IT in the Insurance Sector: Enhancing Efficiency and Customer Engagement
The Role of IT in Environmental Conservation
Smart Grid Technology: IT at the Intersection of Energy Management
Telemedicine: The Impact of IT on Healthcare Delivery
IT in the Agricultural Sector: Innovations and Impact
Cyber-Physical Systems: IT in the Integration of Physical and Digital Worlds
The Influence of Social Media Platforms on IT Development
Data Centers: Evolution, Technologies, and Sustainability
IT in Public Administration: Improving Services and Transparency
The Role of IT in Sports Analytics
Information Technology in Retail: Enhancing the Shopping Experience
The Future of IT: Integrating Ethical AI Systems

Internet of Things (IoT) Thesis Topics

Enhancing IoT Security: Strategies for Safeguarding Connected Devices
IoT in Smart Cities: Infrastructure and Data Management Challenges
The Application of IoT in Precision Agriculture: Maximizing Efficiency and Yield
IoT and Healthcare: Opportunities for Remote Monitoring and Patient Care
Energy Efficiency in IoT: Techniques for Reducing Power Consumption in Devices
The Role of IoT in Supply Chain Management and Logistics
Real-Time Data Processing Using Edge Computing in IoT Networks
Privacy Concerns and Data Protection in IoT Systems
The Integration of IoT with Blockchain for Enhanced Security and Transparency
IoT in Environmental Monitoring: Systems for Air Quality and Water Safety
Predictive Maintenance in Industrial IoT: Strategies and Benefits
IoT in Retail: Enhancing Customer Experience through Smart Technology
The Development of Standard Protocols for IoT Communication
IoT in Smart Homes: Automation and Security Systems
The Role of IoT in Disaster Management: Early Warning Systems and Response Coordination
Machine Learning Techniques for IoT Data Analytics
IoT in Automotive: The Future of Connected and Autonomous Vehicles
The Impact of 5G on IoT: Enhancements in Speed and Connectivity
IoT Device Lifecycle Management: From Creation to Decommissioning
IoT in Public Safety: Applications for Emergency Response and Crime Prevention
The Ethics of IoT: Balancing Innovation with Consumer Rights
IoT and the Future of Work: Automation and Labor Market Shifts
Designing User-Friendly Interfaces for IoT Applications
IoT in the Energy Sector: Smart Grids and Renewable Energy Integration
Quantum Computing and IoT: Potential Impacts and Applications
The Role of AI in Enhancing IoT Solutions
IoT for Elderly Care: Technologies for Health and Mobility Assistance
IoT in Education: Enhancing Classroom Experiences and Learning Outcomes
Challenges in Scaling IoT Infrastructure for Global Coverage
The Economic Impact of IoT: Industry Transformations and New Business Models
IoT and Tourism: Enhancing Visitor Experiences through Connected Technologies
Data Fusion Techniques in IoT: Integrating Diverse Data Sources
IoT in Aquaculture: Monitoring and Managing Aquatic Environments
Wireless Technologies for IoT: Comparing LoRa, Zigbee, and NB-IoT
IoT and Intellectual Property: Navigating the Legal Landscape
IoT in Sports: Enhancing Training and Audience Engagement
Building Resilient IoT Systems against Cyber Attacks
IoT for Waste Management: Innovations and System Implementations
IoT in Agriculture: Drones and Sensors for Crop Monitoring
The Role of IoT in Cultural Heritage Preservation: Monitoring and Maintenance
Advanced Algorithms for Supervised and Unsupervised Learning
Machine Learning in Genomics: Predicting Disease Propensity and Treatment Outcomes
The Use of Neural Networks in Image Recognition and Analysis
Reinforcement Learning: Applications in Robotics and Autonomous Systems
The Role of Machine Learning in Natural Language Processing and Linguistic Analysis
Deep Learning for Predictive Analytics in Business and Finance
Machine Learning for Cybersecurity: Detection of Anomalies and Malware
Ethical Considerations in Machine Learning: Bias and Fairness
The Integration of Machine Learning with IoT for Smart Device Management
Transfer Learning: Techniques and Applications in New Domains
The Application of Machine Learning in Environmental Science
Machine Learning in Healthcare: Diagnosing Conditions from Medical Images
The Use of Machine Learning in Algorithmic Trading and Stock Market Analysis
Machine Learning in Social Media: Sentiment Analysis and Trend Prediction
Quantum Machine Learning: Merging Quantum Computing with AI
Feature Engineering and Selection in Machine Learning
Machine Learning for Enhancing User Experience in Mobile Applications
The Impact of Machine Learning on Digital Marketing Strategies
Machine Learning for Energy Consumption Forecasting and Optimization
The Role of Machine Learning in Enhancing Network Security Protocols
Scalability and Efficiency of Machine Learning Algorithms
Machine Learning in Drug Discovery and Pharmaceutical Research
The Application of Machine Learning in Sports Analytics
Machine Learning for Real-Time Decision-Making in Autonomous Vehicles
The Use of Machine Learning in Predicting Geographical and Meteorological Events
Machine Learning for Educational Data Mining and Learning Analytics
The Role of Machine Learning in Audio Signal Processing
Predictive Maintenance in Manufacturing Through Machine Learning
Machine Learning and Its Implications for Privacy and Surveillance
The Application of Machine Learning in Augmented Reality Systems
Deep Learning Techniques in Medical Diagnosis: Challenges and Opportunities
The Use of Machine Learning in Video Game Development
Machine Learning for Fraud Detection in Financial Services
The Role of Machine Learning in Agricultural Optimization and Management
The Impact of Machine Learning on Content Personalization and Recommendation Systems
Machine Learning in Legal Tech: Document Analysis and Case Prediction
Adaptive Learning Systems: Tailoring Education Through Machine Learning
Machine Learning in Space Exploration: Analyzing Data from Space Missions
Machine Learning for Public Sector Applications: Improving Services and Efficiency
The Future of Machine Learning: Integrating Explainable AI
Innovations in Convolutional Neural Networks for Image and Video Analysis
Recurrent Neural Networks: Applications in Sequence Prediction and Analysis
The Role of Neural Networks in Predicting Financial Market Trends
Deep Neural Networks for Enhanced Speech Recognition Systems
Neural Networks in Medical Imaging: From Detection to Diagnosis
Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): Applications in Art and Media
The Use of Neural Networks in Autonomous Driving Technologies
Neural Networks for Real-Time Language Translation
The Application of Neural Networks in Robotics: Sensory Data and Movement Control
Neural Network Optimization Techniques: Overcoming Overfitting and Underfitting
The Integration of Neural Networks with Blockchain for Data Security
Neural Networks in Climate Modeling and Weather Forecasting
The Use of Neural Networks in Enhancing Internet of Things (IoT) Devices
Graph Neural Networks: Applications in Social Network Analysis and Beyond
The Impact of Neural Networks on Augmented Reality Experiences
Neural Networks for Anomaly Detection in Network Security
The Application of Neural Networks in Bioinformatics and Genomic Data Analysis
Capsule Neural Networks: Improving the Robustness and Interpretability of Deep Learning
The Role of Neural Networks in Consumer Behavior Analysis
Neural Networks in Energy Sector: Forecasting and Optimization
The Evolution of Neural Network Architectures for Efficient Learning
The Use of Neural Networks in Sentiment Analysis: Techniques and Challenges
Deep Reinforcement Learning: Strategies for Advanced Decision-Making Systems
Neural Networks for Precision Medicine: Tailoring Treatments to Individual Genetic Profiles
The Use of Neural Networks in Virtual Assistants: Enhancing Natural Language Understanding
The Impact of Neural Networks on Pharmaceutical Research
Neural Networks for Supply Chain Management: Prediction and Automation
The Application of Neural Networks in E-commerce: Personalization and Recommendation Systems
Neural Networks for Facial Recognition: Advances and Ethical Considerations
The Role of Neural Networks in Educational Technologies
The Use of Neural Networks in Predicting Economic Trends
Neural Networks in Sports: Analyzing Performance and Strategy
The Impact of Neural Networks on Digital Security Systems
Neural Networks for Real-Time Video Surveillance Analysis
The Integration of Neural Networks in Edge Computing Devices
Neural Networks for Industrial Automation: Improving Efficiency and Accuracy
The Future of Neural Networks: Towards More General AI Applications
Neural Networks in Art and Design: Creating New Forms of Expression
The Role of Neural Networks in Enhancing Public Health Initiatives
The Future of Neural Networks: Challenges in Scalability and Generalization
The Evolution of Programming Paradigms: Functional vs. Object-Oriented Programming
Advances in Compiler Design and Optimization Techniques
The Impact of Programming Languages on Software Security
Developing Programming Languages for Quantum Computing
Machine Learning in Automated Code Generation and Optimization
The Role of Programming in Developing Scalable Cloud Applications
The Future of Web Development: New Frameworks and Technologies
Cross-Platform Development: Best Practices in Mobile App Programming
The Influence of Programming Techniques on Big Data Analytics
Real-Time Systems Programming: Challenges and Solutions
The Integration of Programming with Blockchain Technology
Programming for IoT: Languages and Tools for Device Communication
Secure Coding Practices: Preventing Cyber Attacks through Software Design
The Role of Programming in Data Visualization and User Interface Design
Advances in Game Programming: Graphics, AI, and Network Play
The Impact of Programming on Digital Media and Content Creation
Programming Languages for Robotics: Trends and Future Directions
The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Enhancing Programming Productivity
Programming for Augmented and Virtual Reality: New Challenges and Techniques
Ethical Considerations in Programming: Bias, Fairness, and Transparency
The Future of Programming Education: Interactive and Adaptive Learning Models
Programming for Wearable Technology: Special Considerations and Challenges
The Evolution of Programming in Financial Technology
Functional Programming in Enterprise Applications
Memory Management Techniques in Programming: From Garbage Collection to Manual Control
The Role of Open Source Programming in Accelerating Innovation
The Impact of Programming on Network Security and Cryptography
Developing Accessible Software: Programming for Users with Disabilities
Programming Language Theories: New Models and Approaches
The Challenges of Legacy Code: Strategies for Modernization and Integration
Energy-Efficient Programming: Optimizing Code for Green Computing
Multithreading and Concurrency: Advanced Programming Techniques
The Impact of Programming on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics
The Role of Scripting Languages in Automating System Administration
Programming and the Future of Quantum Resistant Cryptography
Code Review and Quality Assurance: Techniques and Tools
Adaptive and Predictive Programming for Dynamic Environments
The Role of Programming in Enhancing E-commerce Technology
Programming for Cyber-Physical Systems: Bridging the Gap Between Digital and Physical
The Influence of Programming Languages on Computational Efficiency and Performance
Quantum Algorithms: Development and Applications Beyond Shor’s and Grover’s Algorithms
The Role of Quantum Computing in Solving Complex Biological Problems
Quantum Cryptography: New Paradigms for Secure Communication
Error Correction Techniques in Quantum Computing
Quantum Computing and Its Impact on Artificial Intelligence
The Integration of Classical and Quantum Computing: Hybrid Models
Quantum Machine Learning: Theoretical Foundations and Practical Applications
Quantum Computing Hardware: Advances in Qubit Technology
The Application of Quantum Computing in Financial Modeling and Risk Assessment
Quantum Networking: Establishing Secure Quantum Communication Channels
The Future of Drug Discovery: Applications of Quantum Computing
Quantum Computing in Cryptanalysis: Threats to Current Cryptography Standards
Simulation of Quantum Systems for Material Science
Quantum Computing for Optimization Problems in Logistics and Manufacturing
Theoretical Limits of Quantum Computing: Understanding Quantum Complexity
Quantum Computing and the Future of Search Algorithms
The Role of Quantum Computing in Climate Science and Environmental Modeling
Quantum Annealing vs. Universal Quantum Computing: Comparative Studies
Implementing Quantum Algorithms in Quantum Programming Languages
The Impact of Quantum Computing on Public Key Cryptography
Quantum Entanglement: Experiments and Applications in Quantum Networks
Scalability Challenges in Quantum Processors
The Ethics and Policy Implications of Quantum Computing
Quantum Computing in Space Exploration and Astrophysics
The Role of Quantum Computing in Developing Next-Generation AI Systems
Quantum Computing in the Energy Sector: Applications in Smart Grids and Nuclear Fusion
Noise and Decoherence in Quantum Computers: Overcoming Practical Challenges
Quantum Computing for Predicting Economic Market Trends
Quantum Sensors: Enhancing Precision in Measurement and Imaging
The Future of Quantum Computing Education and Workforce Development
Quantum Computing in Cybersecurity: Preparing for a Post-Quantum World
Quantum Computing and the Internet of Things: Potential Intersections
Practical Quantum Computing: From Theory to Real-World Applications
Quantum Supremacy: Milestones and Future Goals
The Role of Quantum Computing in Genetics and Genomics
Quantum Computing for Material Discovery and Design
The Challenges of Quantum Programming Languages and Environments
Quantum Computing in Art and Creative Industries
The Global Race for Quantum Computing Supremacy: Technological and Political Aspects
Quantum Computing and Its Implications for Software Engineering
Advances in Humanoid Robotics: New Developments and Challenges
Robotics in Healthcare: From Surgery to Rehabilitation
The Integration of AI in Robotics: Enhanced Autonomy and Learning Capabilities
Swarm Robotics: Coordination Strategies and Applications
The Use of Robotics in Hazardous Environments: Deep Sea and Space Exploration
Soft Robotics: Materials, Design, and Applications
Robotics in Agriculture: Automation of Farming and Harvesting Processes
The Role of Robotics in Manufacturing: Increased Efficiency and Flexibility
Ethical Considerations in the Deployment of Robots in Human Environments
Autonomous Vehicles: Technological Advances and Regulatory Challenges
Robotic Assistants for the Elderly and Disabled: Improving Quality of Life
The Use of Robotics in Education: Teaching Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM)
Robotics and Computer Vision: Enhancing Perception and Decision Making
The Impact of Robotics on Employment and the Workforce
The Development of Robotic Systems for Environmental Monitoring and Conservation
Machine Learning Techniques for Robotic Perception and Navigation
Advances in Robotic Surgery: Precision and Outcomes
Human-Robot Interaction: Building Trust and Cooperation
Robotics in Retail: Automated Warehousing and Customer Service
Energy-Efficient Robots: Design and Utilization
Robotics in Construction: Automation and Safety Improvements
The Role of Robotics in Disaster Response and Recovery Operations
The Application of Robotics in Art and Creative Industries
Robotics and the Future of Personal Transportation
Ethical AI in Robotics: Ensuring Safe and Fair Decision-Making
The Use of Robotics in Logistics: Drones and Autonomous Delivery Vehicles
Robotics in the Food Industry: From Production to Service
The Integration of IoT with Robotics for Enhanced Connectivity
Wearable Robotics: Exoskeletons for Rehabilitation and Enhanced Mobility
The Impact of Robotics on Privacy and Security
Robotic Pet Companions: Social Robots and Their Psychological Effects
Robotics for Planetary Exploration and Colonization
Underwater Robotics: Innovations in Oceanography and Marine Biology
Advances in Robotics Programming Languages and Tools
The Role of Robotics in Minimizing Human Exposure to Contaminants and Pathogens
Collaborative Robots (Cobots): Working Alongside Humans in Shared Spaces
The Use of Robotics in Entertainment and Sports
Robotics and Machine Ethics: Programming Moral Decision-Making
The Future of Military Robotics: Opportunities and Challenges
Sustainable Robotics: Reducing the Environmental Impact of Robotic Systems
Agile Methodologies: Evolution and Future Trends
DevOps Practices: Improving Software Delivery and Lifecycle Management
The Impact of Microservices Architecture on Software Development
Containerization Technologies: Docker, Kubernetes, and Beyond
Software Quality Assurance: Modern Techniques and Tools
The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Automated Software Testing
Blockchain Applications in Software Development and Security
The Integration of Continuous Integration and Continuous Deployment (CI/CD) in Software Projects
Cybersecurity in Software Engineering: Best Practices for Secure Coding
Low-Code and No-Code Development: Implications for Professional Software Development
The Future of Software Engineering Education
Software Sustainability: Developing Green Software and Reducing Carbon Footprints
The Role of Software Engineering in Healthcare: Telemedicine and Patient Data Management
Privacy by Design: Incorporating Privacy Features at the Development Stage
The Impact of Quantum Computing on Software Engineering
Software Engineering for Augmented and Virtual Reality: Challenges and Innovations
Cloud-Native Applications: Design, Development, and Deployment
Software Project Management: Agile vs. Traditional Approaches
Open Source Software: Community Engagement and Project Sustainability
The Evolution of Graphical User Interfaces in Application Development
The Challenges of Integrating IoT Devices into Software Systems
Ethical Issues in Software Engineering: Bias, Accountability, and Regulation
Software Engineering for Autonomous Vehicles: Safety and Regulatory Considerations
Big Data Analytics in Software Development: Enhancing Decision-Making Processes
The Future of Mobile App Development: Trends and Technologies
The Role of Software Engineering in Artificial Intelligence: Frameworks and Algorithms
Performance Optimization in Software Applications
Adaptive Software Development: Responding to Changing User Needs
Software Engineering in Financial Services: Compliance and Security Challenges
User Experience (UX) Design in Software Engineering
The Role of Software Engineering in Smart Cities: Infrastructure and Services
The Impact of 5G on Software Development and Deployment
Real-Time Systems in Software Engineering: Design and Implementation Challenges
Cross-Platform Development Challenges: Ensuring Consistency and Performance
Software Testing Automation: Tools and Trends
The Integration of Cyber-Physical Systems in Software Engineering
Software Engineering in the Entertainment Industry: Game Development and Beyond
The Application of Machine Learning in Predicting Software Bugs
The Role of Software Engineering in Cybersecurity Defense Strategies
Accessibility in Software Engineering: Creating Inclusive and Usable Software
Progressive Web Apps (PWAs): Advantages and Implementation Challenges
The Future of Web Accessibility: Standards and Practices
Single-Page Applications (SPAs) vs. Multi-Page Applications (MPAs): Performance and Usability
The Impact of Serverless Computing on Web Development
The Evolution of CSS for Modern Web Design
Security Best Practices in Web Development: Defending Against XSS and CSRF Attacks
The Role of Web Development in Enhancing E-commerce User Experience
The Use of Artificial Intelligence in Web Personalization and User Engagement
The Future of Web APIs: Standards, Security, and Scalability
Responsive Web Design: Techniques and Trends
JavaScript Frameworks: Vue.js, React.js, and Angular – A Comparative Analysis
Web Development for IoT: Interfaces and Connectivity Solutions
The Impact of 5G on Web Development and User Experiences
The Use of Blockchain Technology in Web Development for Enhanced Security
Web Development in the Cloud: Using AWS, Azure, and Google Cloud
Content Management Systems (CMS): Trends and Future Developments
The Application of Web Development in Virtual and Augmented Reality
The Importance of Web Performance Optimization: Tools and Techniques
Sustainable Web Design: Practices for Reducing Energy Consumption
The Role of Web Development in Digital Marketing: SEO and Social Media Integration
Headless CMS: Benefits and Challenges for Developers and Content Creators
The Future of Web Typography: Design, Accessibility, and Performance
Web Development and Data Protection: Complying with GDPR and Other Regulations
Real-Time Web Communication: Technologies like WebSockets and WebRTC
Front-End Development Tools: Efficiency and Innovation in Workflow
The Challenges of Migrating Legacy Systems to Modern Web Architectures
Microfrontends Architecture: Designing Scalable and Decoupled Web Applications
The Impact of Cryptocurrencies on Web Payment Systems
User-Centered Design in Web Development: Methods for Engaging Users
The Role of Web Development in Business Intelligence: Dashboards and Reporting Tools
Web Development for Mobile Platforms: Optimization and Best Practices
The Evolution of E-commerce Platforms: From Web to Mobile Commerce
Web Security in E-commerce: Protecting Transactions and User Data
Dynamic Web Content: Server-Side vs. Client-Side Rendering
The Future of Full Stack Development: Trends and Skills
Web Design Psychology: How Design Influences User Behavior
The Role of Web Development in the Non-Profit Sector: Fundraising and Community Engagement
The Integration of AI Chatbots in Web Development
The Use of Motion UI in Web Design: Enhancing Aesthetics and User Interaction
The Future of Web Development: Predictions and Emerging Technologies

We trust that this comprehensive list of computer science thesis topics will serve as a valuable starting point for your research endeavors. With 1000 unique and carefully selected topics distributed across 25 key areas of computer science, students are equipped to tackle complex questions and contribute meaningful advancements to the field. As you proceed to select your thesis topic, consider not only your personal interests and career goals but also the potential impact of your research. We encourage you to explore these topics thoroughly and choose one that will not only challenge you but also push the boundaries of technology and innovation.

The Range of Computer Science Thesis Topics

Computer science stands as a dynamic and ever-evolving field that continuously reshapes how we interact with the world. At its core, the discipline encompasses not just the study of algorithms and computation, but a broad spectrum of practical and theoretical knowledge areas that drive innovation in various sectors. This article aims to explore the rich landscape of computer science thesis topics, offering students and researchers a glimpse into the potential areas of study that not only challenge the intellect but also contribute significantly to technological progress. As we delve into the current issues, recent trends, and future directions of computer science, it becomes evident that the possibilities for research are both vast and diverse. Whether you are intrigued by the complexities of artificial intelligence, the robust architecture of networks and systems, or the innovative approaches in cybersecurity, computer science offers a fertile ground for developing thesis topics that are as impactful as they are intellectually stimulating.

Current Issues in Computer Science

One of the prominent current issues in computer science revolves around data security and privacy. As digital transformation accelerates across industries, the massive influx of data generated poses significant challenges in terms of its protection and ethical use. Cybersecurity threats have become more sophisticated, with data breaches and cyber-attacks causing major concerns for organizations worldwide. This ongoing battle demands continuous improvements in security protocols and the development of robust cybersecurity measures. Computer science thesis topics in this area can explore new cryptographic methods, intrusion detection systems, and secure communication protocols to fortify digital defenses. Research could also delve into the ethical implications of data collection and use, proposing frameworks that ensure privacy while still leveraging data for innovation.

Another critical issue facing the field of computer science is the ethical development and deployment of artificial intelligence (AI) systems. As AI technologies become more integrated into daily life and critical infrastructure, concerns about bias, fairness, and accountability in AI systems have intensified. Thesis topics could focus on developing algorithms that address these ethical concerns, including techniques for reducing bias in machine learning models and methods for increasing transparency and explainability in AI decisions. This research is crucial for ensuring that AI technologies promote fairness and do not perpetuate or exacerbate existing societal inequalities.

Furthermore, the rapid pace of technological change presents a challenge in terms of sustainability and environmental impact. The energy consumption of large data centers, the carbon footprint of producing and disposing of electronic waste, and the broader effects of high-tech innovations on the environment are significant concerns within computer science. Thesis research in this domain could focus on creating more energy-efficient computing methods, developing algorithms that reduce power consumption, or innovating recycling technologies that address the issue of e-waste. This research not only contributes to the field of computer science but also plays a crucial role in ensuring that technological advancement does not come at an unsustainable cost to the environment.

These current issues highlight the dynamic nature of computer science and its direct impact on society. Addressing these challenges through focused research and innovative thesis topics not only advances the field but also contributes to resolving some of the most pressing problems facing our global community today.

Recent Trends in Computer Science

In recent years, computer science has witnessed significant advancements in the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) across various sectors, marking one of the most exciting trends in the field. These technologies are not just reshaping traditional industries but are also at the forefront of driving innovations in areas like healthcare, finance, and autonomous systems. Thesis topics within this trend could explore the development of advanced ML algorithms that enhance predictive analytics, improve automated decision-making, or refine natural language processing capabilities. Additionally, AI’s role in ethical decision-making and its societal impacts offers a rich vein of inquiry for research, focusing on mitigating biases and ensuring that AI systems operate transparently and justly.

Another prominent trend in computer science is the rapid growth of blockchain technology beyond its initial application in cryptocurrencies. Blockchain is proving its potential in creating more secure, decentralized, and transparent networks for a variety of applications, from enhancing supply chain logistics to revolutionizing digital identity verification processes. Computer science thesis topics could investigate novel uses of blockchain for ensuring data integrity in digital transactions, enhancing cybersecurity measures, or even developing new frameworks for blockchain integration into existing technological infrastructures. The exploration of blockchain’s scalability, speed, and energy consumption also presents critical research opportunities that are timely and relevant.

Furthermore, the expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT) continues to be a significant trend, with more devices becoming connected every day, leading to increasingly smart environments. This proliferation poses unique challenges and opportunities for computer science research, particularly in terms of scalability, security, and new data management strategies. Thesis topics might focus on optimizing network protocols to handle the massive influx of data from IoT devices, developing solutions to safeguard against IoT-specific security vulnerabilities, or innovative applications of IoT in urban planning, smart homes, or healthcare. Research in this area is crucial for advancing the efficiency and functionality of IoT systems and for ensuring they can be safely and effectively integrated into modern life.

These recent trends underscore the vibrant and ever-evolving nature of computer science, reflecting its capacity to influence and transform an array of sectors through technological innovation. The continual emergence of new research topics within these trends not only enriches the academic discipline but also provides substantial benefits to society by addressing practical challenges and enhancing the capabilities of technology in everyday life.

Future Directions in Computer Science

As we look toward the future, one of the most anticipated areas in computer science is the advancement of quantum computing. This emerging technology promises to revolutionize problem-solving in fields that require immense computational power, such as cryptography, drug discovery, and complex system modeling. Quantum computing has the potential to process tasks at speeds unachievable by classical computers, offering breakthroughs in materials science and encryption methods. Computer science thesis topics might explore the theoretical underpinnings of quantum algorithms, the development of quantum-resistant cryptographic systems, or practical applications of quantum computing in industry-specific scenarios. Research in this area not only contributes to the foundational knowledge of quantum mechanics but also paves the way for its integration into mainstream computing, marking a significant leap forward in computational capabilities.

Another promising direction in computer science is the advancement of autonomous systems, particularly in robotics and vehicle automation. The future of autonomous technologies hinges on improving their safety, reliability, and decision-making processes under uncertain conditions. Thesis topics could focus on the enhancement of machine perception through computer vision and sensor fusion, the development of more sophisticated AI-driven decision frameworks, or ethical considerations in the deployment of autonomous systems. As these technologies become increasingly prevalent, research will play a crucial role in addressing the societal and technical challenges they present, ensuring their beneficial integration into daily life and industry operations.

Additionally, the ongoing expansion of artificial intelligence applications poses significant future directions for research, especially in the realm of AI ethics and policy. As AI systems become more capable and widespread, their impact on privacy, employment, and societal norms continues to grow. Future thesis topics might delve into the development of guidelines and frameworks for responsible AI, studies on the impact of AI on workforce dynamics, or innovations in transparent and fair AI systems. This research is vital for guiding the ethical evolution of AI technologies, ensuring they enhance societal well-being without diminishing human dignity or autonomy.

These future directions in computer science not only highlight the field’s potential for substantial technological advancements but also underscore the importance of thoughtful consideration of their broader implications. By exploring these areas in depth, computer science research can lead the way in not just technological innovation, but also in shaping a future where technology and ethics coexist harmoniously for the betterment of society.

In conclusion, the field of computer science is not only foundational to the technological advancements that characterize the modern age but also crucial in solving some of the most pressing challenges of our time. The potential thesis topics discussed in this article reflect a mere fraction of the opportunities that lie in the realms of theory, application, and innovation within this expansive field. As emerging technologies such as quantum computing, artificial intelligence, and blockchain continue to evolve, they open new avenues for research that could potentially redefine existing paradigms. For students embarking on their thesis journey, it is essential to choose a topic that not only aligns with their academic passions but also contributes to the ongoing expansion of computer science knowledge. By pushing the boundaries of what is known and exploring uncharted territories, students can leave a lasting impact on the field and pave the way for future technological breakthroughs. As we look forward, it’s clear that computer science will continue to be a key driver of change, making it an exciting and rewarding area for academic and professional growth.

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15 Latest Networking Research Topics for Students

Comparative analysis between snort and suricata IDS software(s)

Description of the topic

The main focus of this research is to conduct a comparative analysis between Snort and Suricata software to determine which IDS software can provide better performance. There are various IDS software(s) available that can be used by organizations but it is difficult to identify which one is best (Aldarwbi et al., 2022). Different organizational structures are often facing problems while setting up an IDS system which results in false positives and intrusions. Through this research, it can be identified which IDS software is better and what secure configuration is required to detect intrusions (Waleed et al., 2022).

Research objectives

To evaluate Snort and Suricata IDS software(s) to determine the most optimal one.
To identify the false positive rate of Snort and Suricata on the networked environment.

Research questions

RQ1: Which IDS software can perform better on the production network in terms of performance, security, scalability and reliability?

RQ2: What different ways can be followed to deal with false positive problems in IDS technology?

Research methodology

The given research objectives and research questions can be addressed using quantitative research methodology where an experimental approach can be followed. For the given topic, both Snort and Suricata IDS systems should be configured and tested against different attacks. Depending on the findings, it can be analyzed which IDS software can perform better in terms of performance and security (Shuai & Li, 2021).

Aldarwbi, M.Y., Lashkari, A.H. and Ghorbani, A.A. (2022) “The sound of intrusion: A novel network intrusion detection system,” Computers and Electrical Engineering , 104, p. 108455.
Shuai, L. and Li, S. (2021) “Performance optimization of Snort based on DPDK and Hyperscan,” Procedia Computer Science , 183, pp. 837-843.
Waleed, A., Jamali, A.F. and Masood, A. (2022) “Which open-source ids? Snort, Suricata or Zeek,” Computer Networks , 213, p. 109116.

Role of honeypots and honey nets in network security

Network Security has become essential nowadays and there is a need for setting up robust mechanisms to maintain confidentiality and integrity (Feng et al., 2023). Due to the number of security mechanisms available, organizations found it hard to finalize and implement them on their network. For example, honey pots and honeynet approaches look almost the same and have the same purpose but work differently. Under this research topic, the configuration of honeynets and honeypots can be done to check which one can perform better security in terms of trapping cyber attackers. The entire implementation can be carried out in the cloud-based instance for improved security and it can be identified which type of honey pot technology must be preferred (Maesschalck et al., 2022).

To set up a honey pot system using Open Canary on the virtual instance to protect against cyber attackers.
To set up a honeynet system on the virtual instance to assure protection is provided against malicious attackers.
To test honeypots and honeynets by executing DDoS attacks to check which can provide better security.

RQ1: Why is there a need for using honeypots over honey pots in a production networked environment?

RQ2: What are the differences between cloud-based and local honey pot systems for endpoint protection?

This research can be carried out using the quantitative method of research. At the initial stage, the implementation of honeypots and honeypots can be done on the virtual instance following different security rules. Once the rules are applied, the testing can be performed using a Kali Linux machine to check whether honey pots were effective or honeynets (Gill et al., 2020).

Feng, H. et al. (2023) “Game theory in network security for Digital Twins in industry,” Digital Communications and Networks [Preprint].
Gill, K.S., Saxena, S. and Sharma, A. (2020) “GTM-CSEC: A game theoretic model for cloud security based on ids and Honeypot,” Computers & Security , 92, p. 101732
Maesschalck, S. et al. (2022) “Don’t get stung, cover your ICS in honey: How do honeypots fit within industrial control system security,” Computers & Security , 114, p. 102598.

How do malware variants are progressively improving?

This research can be based on evaluating how malware variants are progressively improving and what should be its state in the coming future. Malware is able to compromise confidential user’s information assets which is why this research can be based on identifying current and future consequences owing to its improvements (Deng et al., 2023). In this field, there is no research work that has been carried out to identify how malware variants are improving their working and what is expected to see in future. Once the evaluation is done, a clear analysis can also be done on some intelligent preventive measures to deal with dangerous malware variants and prevent any kind of technological exploitation (Tang et al., 2023).

To investigate types of malware variants available to learn more about malware's hidden features.
To focus on future implications of malware executable programs and how they can be avoided.
To discuss intelligent solutions to deal with all malware variants.

RQ1: How do improvements in malware variants impact enterprises?

RQ2: What additional solutions are required to deal with malware variants?

In this research, qualitative analysis can be conducted on malware variants and the main reason behind their increasing severity. The entire research can be completed based on qualitative research methodology to answer defined research questions and objectives. Some real-life case studies should also be integrated into the research which can be supported by the selected topic (Saidia Fasci et al., 2023).

Deng, H. et al. (2023) “MCTVD: A malware classification method based on three-channel visualization and deep learning,” Computers & Security , 126, p. 103084.
Saidia Fasci, L. et al. (2023) “Disarming visualization-based approaches in malware detection systems,” Computers & Security , 126, p. 103062.
Tang, Y. et al. (2023) “BHMDC: A byte and hex n-gram based malware detection and classification method,” Computers & Security , p. 103118.

Implementation of IoT - enabled smart office/home using cisco packet tracer

The Internet of Things has gained much more attention over the past few years which is why each enterprise and individual aims at setting up an IoT network to automate their processes (Barriga et al., 2023). This research can be based on designing and implementing an IoT-enabled smart home/office network using Cisco Packet Tracer software. Logical workspace, all network devices, including IoT devices can be used for preparing a logical network star topology (Elias & Ali, 2014). To achieve automation, the use of different IoT rules can be done to allow devices to work based on defined rules.

To set up an IoT network on a logical workspace using Cisco Packet Tracer simulation software.
To set up IoT-enabled rules on an IoT registration server to achieve automation (Hou et al., 2023).

RQ: Why is the Cisco packet tracer preferred for network simulation over other network simulators?

At the beginning of this research, a quantitative research methodology can be followed where proper experimental set-up can be done. As a packet tracer is to be used, the star topology can be used to interconnect IoT devices, sensors and other network devices at the home/office. Once a placement is done, the configuration should be done using optimal settings and all IoT devices can be connected to the registration server. This server will have IoT rules which can help in achieving automation by automatically turning off lights and fans when no motion is detected (Baggan et al., 2022).

Baggan, V. et al. (2022) “A comprehensive analysis and experimental evaluation of Routing Information Protocol: An Elucidation,” Materials Today: Proceedings , 49, pp. 3040–3045.
Barriga, J.A. et al. (2023) “Design, code generation and simulation of IOT environments with mobility devices by using model-driven development: Simulateiot-Mobile,” Pervasive and Mobile Computing , 89, p. 101751.
Elias, M.S. and Ali, A.Z. (2014) “Survey on the challenges faced by the lecturers in using packet tracer simulation in computer networking course,” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences , 131, pp. 11–15.
Hou, L. et al. (2023) “Block-HRG: Block-based differentially private IOT networks release,” Ad Hoc Networks , 140, p. 103059.

Comparative analysis between AODV, DSDV and DSR routing protocols in WSN networks

For wireless sensor networks (WSN), there is a major need for using WSN routing rather than performing normal routines. As WSN networks are self-configured, there is a need for an optimal routing protocol that can improve network performance in terms of latency, jitter, and packet loss (Luo et al., 2023). There are often various problems faced when WSN networks are set up due to a lack of proper routing protocol selection. As a result of this, severe downtime is faced and all links are not able to communicate with each other easily (Hemanand et al., 2023). In this research topic, the three most widely used WSN routing protocols AODV, DSDV and DSR can be compared based on network performance. To perform analysis, three different scenarios can be created in network simulator 2 (Ns2).

To create three different scenarios on ns2 software to simulate a network for 1 to 100 seconds.
To analyze which WSN routing is optimal in terms of network performance metrics, including latency, jitter and packet loss.
To use CBR and NULL agents for all wireless scenarios to start with simulation purposes.

RQ: How do AODV, DSR and DSDV routing protocols differ from each other in terms of network performance?

This research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. The implementation for the provided research topic can be based on Ns2 simulation software where three different scenarios can be created (AODV, DSDV and DSR). For each scenario, NULL, CSR and UDP agents can be done to start with simulation for almost 1 to 100 seconds. For all transmissions made during the given time, network performance can be checked to determine which routing is best (Mohapatra & Kanungo, 2012).

Human and, D. et al. (2023) “Analysis of power optimization and enhanced routing protocols for Wireless Sensor Networks,” Measurement: Sensors , 25, p. 100610. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measen.2022.100610.
Luo, S., Lai, Y. and Liu, J. (2023) “Selective forwarding attack detection and network recovery mechanism based on cloud-edge cooperation in software-defined wireless sensor network,” Computers & Security , 126, p. 103083. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2022.103083.
Mohapatra, S. and Kanungo, P. (2012) “Performance analysis of AODV, DSR, OLSR and DSDV routing protocols using NS2 Simulator,” Procedia Engineering , 30, pp. 69–76. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2012.01.835.

Securing wireless network using AAA authentication and WLAN controller

Wireless networks often face intrusion attempts due to insecure protocols and sometimes open SSIDs. As a result of this, man-in-the-middle and eavesdropping attacks become easier which results in the loss of confidential information assets (Sivasankari & Kamalakkannan, 2022). When it comes to managing networks in a large area, there are higher chances for attacks that enable cyber attackers in intercepting ongoing communication sessions. However, there is currently no research conducted where the use of AAA authentication has been done with WLAN controllers to make sure a higher level of protection is provided (Nashwan, 2021). The proposed research topic can be based on securing wireless networks with the help of AAA authentication and WLAN controllers. The use of AAA authentication can be done to set up a login portal for users whilst the WLAN controller can be used for managing all wireless access points connected to the network (Nashwan, 2021).

To set up AAA authentication service on the wireless network simulated on Cisco Packet Tracer for proper access control.
To set up a WLAN controller on the network to manage all wireless access points effortlessly.
To use WPA2-PSK protocol on the network to assure guest users are only able to access wireless networks over a secure protocol.

RQ1: What additional benefits are offered by AAA authentication on the WLAN networks?

RQ2: Why are wireless networks more likely to face network intrusions than wired networks?

This research topic is based on the secure implementation of a wireless LAN network using a Cisco packet tracer. Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. The implementation can be carried out using AAA authentication which can assure that access control is applied for wireless logins. On the other hand, a WLAN controller can also be configured which can ensure that all WAPs are managed (ZHANG et al., 2012).

Nashwan, S. (2021) “AAA-WSN: Anonymous Access Authentication Scheme for wireless sensor networks in Big Data Environment,” Egyptian Informatics Journal , 22(1), pp. 15–26.
Sivasankari, N. and Kamalakkannan, S. (2022) “Detection and prevention of man-in-the-middle attack in IOT network using regression modeling,” Advances in Engineering Software , 169, p. 103126.
ZHANG, J. et al. (2012) “AAA authentication for Network mobility,” The Journal of China Universities of Posts and Telecommunications , 19(2), pp. 81-86.

OWASP's approach to secure web applications from web application exploits

The research can revolve around the development of web applications by considering OWASP's top 10 rules. Usually, web applications are deployed by organizations depending on their requirements and these applications are vulnerable to various exploits, including injection, broken authentication and other forgery attacks (Poston, 2020). Identifying every single vulnerability is difficult when reference is not taken and often organizations end up hosting a vulnerable server that leads to privacy issues and compromises confidential information easily. In this research, OWASP's top 10 approaches can be followed to develop a secure web application that can be able to protect against top web application exploits. This approach is based on emphasizing severe and minor vulnerabilities which must be patched for protecting against web application attacks (Deepa & Thilagam, 2016).

The first objective can be setting up an insecure web application on the cloud environment which can be exploited with different techniques.
The second objective can be to consider all techniques and procedures provided by OWASP's top 10 methodologies.
The last objective can be applying all fixes to insecure web applications to make them resistant to OWASP top 10 attacks (Sonmez, 2019).

RQ1: What are the benefits of using OWASP's top 10 approaches to harden web applications in comparison to other security approaches?

The research methodology considered for this research project can be quantitative using an experimental approach. The practical work can be done for the selected topic using AWS or the Azure cloud platform. Simply, a virtual web server can be configured and set up with a secure and insecure web application. Following OWASP's top 10 techniques and procedures, the web application can be secured from possible attacks. In addition, insecure applications can also be exploited and results can be evaluated (Applebaum et al., 2021).

Applebaum, S., Gaber, T. and Ahmed, A. (2021) “Signature-based and machine-learning-based web application firewalls: A short survey,” Procedia Computer Science , 189, pp. 359–367. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2021.05.105.
Deepa, G. and Thilagam, P.S. (2016) “Securing web applications from injection and logic vulnerabilities: Approaches and challenges,” Information and Software Technology , 74, pp. 160–180. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infsof.2016.02.005.
Poston, H. (2020) “Mapping the owasp top Ten to the blockchain,” Procedia Computer Science , 177, pp. 613-617. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2020.10.087.
Sonmez, F.Ö. (2019) “Security qualitative metrics for Open Web Application Security Project Compliance,” Procedia Computer Science , 151, pp. 998-1003. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2019.04.140.

Importance of configuring RADIUS (AAA) server on the network

User authentication has become significant nowadays as it guarantees that a legitimate user is accessing the network. But a problem is faced when a particular security control is to be identified for authentication and authorization. These controls can be categorized based on mandatory access controls, role-based access control, setting up captive portals and many more. Despite several other security controls, one of the most efficient ones is the RADIUS server (SONG et al., 2008). This server can authenticate users on the network to make sure network resources are accessible to only legal users. This research topic can be based on understanding the importance of RADIUS servers on the network which can also be demonstrated with the help of the Cisco Packet Tracer. A network can be designed and equipped with a RADIUS server to ensure only legal users can access network resources (WANG et al., 2009).

To configure RADIUS (AAA) server on the network which can be able to authenticate users who try to access network resources.
To simulate a network on a packet tracer simulation software and verify network connectivity.

RQ1: What are other alternatives to RADIUS (AAA) authentication servers for network security?

RQ2: What are the common and similarities between RADIUS and TACACS+ servers?

As a logical network is to be designed and configured, a quantitative research methodology can be followed. In this research coursework, a secure network design can be done using a packet tracer network simulator, including a RADIUS server along with the DMZ area. The configuration for the RADIUS server can be done to allow users to only access network resources by authenticating and authorizing (Nugroho et al., 2022).

Nugroho, Y.S. et al. (2022) “Dataset of network simulator related-question posts in stack overflow,” Data in Brief , 41, p. 107942.
SONG, M., WANG, L. and SONG, J.-de (2008) “A secure fast handover scheme based on AAA protocol in Mobile IPv6 Networks,” The Journal of China Universities of Posts and Telecommunications , 15, pp. 14-18.
WANG, L. et al. (2009) “A novel congestion control model for interworking AAA in heterogeneous networks,” The Journal of China Universities of Posts and Telecommunications , 16, pp. 97-101.

Comparing mod security and pF sense firewall to block illegitimate traffic

Firewalls are primarily used for endpoint security due to their advanced features ranging from blocking to IDS capabilities and many more. It is sometimes challenging to identify which type of firewall is best and due to this reason, agencies end up setting up misconfigured firewalls (Tiwari et al., 2022). This further results in a cyber breach, destroying all business operations. The research can be emphasizing conducting a comparison between the two most widely used firewalls i.e. Mod Security and pF sense. Using a virtualized environment, both firewalls can be configured and tested concerning possible cyber-attacks (Lu & Yang, 2020).

To use the local environment to set up Mod security and pF sense firewall with appropriate access control rules.
To test both firewalls by executing distributed denial of service attacks from a remote location.
To compare which type of firewall can provide improved performance and robust security.

RQ: How do Mod security and pF sense differ from each other in terms of features and performance?

The practical experimentation for both firewalls can be done using a virtualized environment where two different machines can be created. Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method . The first machine can have Mod security and the second machine can have pF sense configured. A new subnet can be created which can have these two machines. The third machine can be an attacking machine which can be used for testing firewalls. The results obtained can be then evaluated to identify which firewall is best for providing security (Uçtu et al., 2021).

Lu, N. and Yang, Y. (2020) “Application of evolutionary algorithm in performance optimization of Embedded Network Firewall,” Microprocessors and Microsystems , 76, p. 103087.
Tiwari, A., Papini, S. and Hemamalini, V. (2022) “An enhanced optimization of parallel firewalls filtering rules for scalable high-speed networks,” Materials Today: Proceedings , 62, pp. 4800-4805.
Uçtu, G. et al. (2021) “A suggested testbed to evaluate multicast network and threat prevention performance of Next Generation Firewalls,” Future Generation Computer Systems , 124, pp. 56-67.

Conducting a comprehensive investigation on the PETYA malware

The main purpose of this research is to conduct a comprehensive investigation of the PETYA malware variant (McIntosh et al., 2021). PETYA often falls under the category of ransomware attacks which not only corrupt and encrypt files but can compromise confidential information easily. Along with PETYA, there are other variants also which lead to a security outage and organizations are not able to detect these variants due to a lack of proper detection capabilities (Singh & Singh, 2021). In this research, a comprehensive analysis has been done on PETYA malware to identify its working and severity level. Depending upon possible causes of infection of PETYA malware, some proactive techniques can also be discussed (Singh & Singh, 2021). A separation discussion can also be made on other malware variants, their features, and many more.

The main objective of this research is to scrutinize the working of PETYA malware because a ransomware attack can impact the micro and macro environment of the organizations severely.
The working of PETYA malware along with its source code can be reviewed to identify its structure and encryption type.
To list all possible CVE IDs which are exploited by the PETYA malware.

RQ1: How dangerous is PETYA malware in comparison to other ransomware malware?

This research can be based on qualitative research methodology to evaluate the working of PETYA malware from various aspects, the methodology followed and what are its implications. The research can be initiated by evaluating the working of PETYA malware, how it is triggered, what encryption is applied and other factors. A sample source code can also be analyzed to learn more about how cryptography is used with ransomware (Abijah Roseline & Geetha, 2021).

Abijah Roseline, S. and Geetha, S. (2021) “A comprehensive survey of tools and techniques mitigating computer and mobile malware attacks,” Computers & Electrical Engineering , 92, p. 107143.
McIntosh, T. et al. (2021) “Enforcing situation-aware access control to build malware-resilient file systems,” Future Generation Computer Systems , 115, pp. 568-582.
Singh, J. and Singh, J. (2021) “A survey on machine learning-based malware detection in executable files,” Journal of Systems Architecture , 112, p. 101861.

Setting up a Live streaming server on the cloud platform

Nowadays, various organizations require a live streaming server to stream content depending upon their business. However, due to a lack of proper hardware, organizations are likely to face high network congestion, slowness and other problems (Ji et al., 2023). Referring to the recent cases, it has been observed that setting up a streaming server on the local environment is not expected to perform better than a cloud-based streaming server configuration (Martins et al., 2019). This particular research topic can be based on setting up a live streaming server on the AWS or Azure cloud platform to make sure high network bandwidth is provided with decreased latency. The research gap analysis would be conducted to analyze the performance of live streaming servers on local and cloud environments in terms of network performance metrics (Bilal et al., 2018).

To set up a live streaming server on the AWS or Azure cloud platform to provide live streaming services.
To use load balancers alongside streaming servers to ensure the load is balanced and scalability is achieved.
To use Wireshark software to test network performance during live streaming.

RQ1: Why are in-house streaming servers not able to provide improved performance in comparison to cloud-based servers?

RQ2: What additional services are provided by cloud service providers which help in maintaining network performance?

The implementation is expected to carry out on the AWS cloud platform with other AWS services i.e. load balancer, private subnet and many more (Efthymiopoulou et al., 2017). Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. The configuration of ec2 instances can be done which can act as a streaming server for streaming media and games. For testing this project, the use of OBS studio can be done which can help in checking whether streaming is enabled or not. For network performance, Wireshark can be used for testing network performance (George et al., 2020).

Bilal, KErbad, A. and Hefeeda, M. (2018) “QoE-aware distributed cloud-based live streaming of multi-sourced Multiview Videos,” Journal of Network and Computer Applications , 120, pp. 130-144.
Efthymiopoulou, M. et al. (2017) “Robust control in cloud-assisted peer-to-peer live streaming systems,” Pervasive and Mobile Computing , 42, pp. 426-443.
George, L.C. et al. (2020) “Usage visualization for the AWS services,” Procedia Computer Science , 176, pp. 3710–3717.
Ji, X. et al. (2023) “Adaptive QoS-aware multipath congestion control for live streaming,” Computer Networks , 220, p. 109470.
Martins, R. et al. (2019) “Iris: Secure reliable live-streaming with Opportunistic Mobile Edge Cloud offloading,” Future Generation Computer Systems , 101, pp. 272-292.

Significance of using OSINT framework for Network reconnaissance

Network reconnaissance is becoming important day by day when it comes to penetration testing. Almost all white hat hackers are dependent on the OSINT framework to start with network reconnaissance and footprinting when it comes to evaluating organizational infrastructure. On the other hand, cyber attackers are also using this technique to start fetching information about their target. Currently, there is no investigation carried out to identify how effective the OSINT framework is over traditional reconnaissance activities (Liu et al., 2022). This research is focused on using OSINT techniques to analyze victims using different sets of tools like Maltego, email analysis and many other techniques. The analysis can be based on fetching sensitive information about the target which can be used for conducting illegal activities (Abdullah, 2019).

To use Maltego software to conduct network reconnaissance on the target by fetching sensitive information.
To compare the OSINT framework with other techniques to analyze why it performs well.

RQ1: What is the significance of using the OSINT framework in conducting network reconnaissance?

RQ2: How can the OSINT framework be used by cyber hackers for conducting illegitimate activities?

The OSINT framework is easily accessible on its official website where different search options are given. Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. Depending upon the selected target, each option can be selected and tools can be shortlisted for final implementation. Once the tools are shortlisted, they can be used to conduct network reconnaissance (González-Granadillo et al., 2021). For example, Maltego can be used as it is a powerful software to fetch information about the target.

Abdullah, S.A. (2019) “Seui-64, bits an IPv6 addressing strategy to mitigate reconnaissance attacks,” Engineering Science and Technology , an International Journal, 22(2), pp. 667–672.
Gonzalez-Granadillo, G. et al. (2021) “ETIP: An enriched threat intelligence platform for improving OSINT correlation, analysis, visualization and sharing capabilities,” Journal of Information Security and Applications , 58, p. 102715.
Liu, W. et al. (2022) “A hybrid optimization framework for UAV Reconnaissance Mission Planning,” Computers & Industrial Engineering , 173, p. 108653.

Wired and wireless network hardening in cisco packet tracer

At present, network security has become essential and if enterprises are not paying attention to the security infrastructure, there are several chances for cyber breaches. To overcome all these issues, there is a need for setting up secure wired and wireless networks following different techniques such as filtered ports, firewalls, VLANs and other security mechanisms. For the practical part, the use of packet tracer software can be done to design and implement a highly secure network (Sun, 2022).

To use packet tracer simulation software to set up secure wired and wireless networks.
Use different hardening techniques, including access control rules, port filtering, enabling passwords and many more to assure only authorized users can access the network (Zhang et al., 2012).

RQ: Why is there a need for emphasizing wired and wireless network security?

Following the quantitative approach, the proposed research topic implementation can be performed in Cisco Packet Tracer simulation software. Several devices such as routers, switches, firewalls, wireless access points, hosts and workstations can be configured and interconnected using Cat 6 e cabling. For security, every device can be checked and secure design principles can be followed like access control rules, disabled open ports, passwords, encryption and many more (Smith & Hasan, 2020).

Smith, J.D. and Hasan, M. (2020) “Quantitative approaches for the evaluation of Implementation Research Studies,” Psychiatry Research , 283, p. 112521.
Sun, J. (2022) “Computer Network Security Technology and prevention strategy analysis,” Procedia Computer Science , 208, pp. 570–576.
Zhang, YLiang, R. and Ma, H. (2012) “Teaching innovation in computer network course for undergraduate students with a packet tracer,” IERI Procedia , 2, pp. 504–510.

Different Preemptive ways to resist spear phishing attacks

When it comes to social engineering, phishing attacks are rising and are becoming one of the most common ethical issues as it is one of the easiest ways to trick victims into stealing information. This research topic is based on following different proactive techniques which would help in resisting spear phishing attacks (Xu et al., 2023). This can be achieved by using the Go-Phish filter on the machine which can automatically detect and alert users as soon as the phished URL is detected. It can be performed on the cloud platform where the apache2 server can be configured along with an anti-phishing filter to protect against phishing attacks (Yoo & Cho, 2022).

To set up a virtual instance on the cloud platform with an apache2 server and anti-phishing software to detect possible phishing attacks.
To research spear phishing and other types of phishing attacks that can be faced by victims (Al-Hamar et al., 2021).

RQ1: Are phishing attacks growing just like other cyber-attacks?

RQ2: How effective are anti-phishing filters in comparison to cyber awareness sessions?

The entire research can be conducted by adhering to quantitative research methodology which helps in justifying all research objectives and questions. The implementation of the anti-phishing filter can be done by creating a virtual instance on the cloud platform which can be configured with an anti-phishing filter. Along with this, some phishing attempts can also be performed to check whether the filter works or not (Siddiqui et al., 2022).

Al-Hamar, Y. et al. (2021) “Enterprise credential spear-phishing attack detection,” Computers & Electrical Engineering , 94, p. 107363.
Siddiqui, N. et al. (2022) “A comparative analysis of US and Indian laws against phishing attacks,” Materials Today: Proceedings , 49, pp. 3646–3649.
Xu, T., Singh, K. and Rajivan, P. (2023) “Personalized persuasion: Quantifying susceptibility to information exploitation in spear-phishing attacks,” Applied Ergonomics , 108, p. 103908.
Yoo, J. and Cho, Y. (2022) “ICSA: Intelligent chatbot security assistant using text-CNN and multi-phase real-time defense against SNS phishing attacks,” Expert Systems with Applications , 207, p. 117893.

Evaluating the effectiveness of distributed denial of service attacks

The given research topic is based on evaluating the effectiveness of distributed denial of service attacks on cloud and local environments. Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. Cyber attackers find DDoS as one of the most dangerous technological exploitation when it comes to impacting network availability (Krishna Kishore et al., 2023). This research can revolve around scrutinizing the impact of DDoS attacks on the local environment and cloud environment. This can be done by executing DDoS attacks on a simulated environment using hoping or other software(s) to check where it has a higher magnitude (de Neira et al., 2023).

To set up a server on the local and cloud environment to target using DDoS attacks for checking which had experienced slowness.
To determine types of DDoS attack types, their magnitude and possible mitigation techniques.

RQ: Why do DDoS attacks have dynamic nature and how is it likely to sternly impact victims?

The experimentation for this research can be executed by creating a server on the local and cloud environment. Hence, this research can be carried out using a quantitative research method. These servers can be set up as web servers using apache 2 service. On the other hand, a Kali Linux machine can be configured with DDoS execution software. Each server can be targeted with DDoS attacks to check its effectiveness (Benlloch-Caballero et al., 2023).

Benlloch-Caballero, P., Wang, Q. and Alcaraz Calero, J.M. (2023) “Distributed dual-layer autonomous closed loops for self-protection of 5G/6G IOT networks from distributed denial of service attacks,” Computer Networks , 222, p. 109526.
de Neira, A.B., Kantarci, B. and Nogueira, M. (2023) “Distributed denial of service attack prediction: Challenges, open issues and opportunities,” Computer Networks , 222, p. 109553.
Krishna Kishore, P., Ramamoorthy, S. and Rajavarman, V.N. (2023) “ARTP: Anomaly-based real time prevention of distributed denial of service attacks on the web using machine learning approach,” International Journal of Intelligent Networks , 4, pp. 38–45.

CS 550: Advanced Computer Networks (Modern Datacenters)

Course overview.

This advanced graduate-level course focuses on the key aspects of modern datacenter networking. Students will explore the differences between traditional Internet architectures and modern datacenters, with an emphasis on cutting-edge technologies, practical applications, and ongoing research. The course is designed to equip students with the necessary knowledge to engage with state-of-the-art networking research and practices.

Office Hours and Contact

Instructor: Balajee Vamanan
Office Hours: Friday 3–4 PM at SEO 1310 or by appointment via email.
Email Policy: Use Piazza for questions/discussions about lectures, papers, and projects. Email is reserved for personal matters only.

Course Goals

Familiarize students with state-of-the-art networking research, specifically in datacenters.
Practice reading and critiquing research papers.
Develop skills for reproducing research results.
Class Webpage: https://www.550.cs.uic.edu
Piazza: https://piazza.com/uic/fall2024/cs550/home
Blackboard: For grades and other official communications.
Book: Lecture notes and papers

Modality of the Class

Each class will focus on the discussion of 1-2 research papers. Students are expected to read and critique papers before class, and most of the lecture time will be dedicated to in-depth discussion.

Prerequisites

CS 450 or equivalent: Students must be familiar with basic networking concepts and be comfortable with coding and debugging.
Project Work: The course involves a significant project component, where students will code and benchmark their work.

Grading Breakdown (Tentative)

Class Participation: 10%
Paper Presentations: 30% (2-3 papers per student)
Paper Critiques: 20%
Proposal (1-2 pages): 10%
Presentation (15 mins + 5 mins Q&A): 10%
Report (10-12 pages): 10%
Demo (10 mins): 10%

Topics and Schedule (tentative)

Course outline, week 1: introduction to datacenter networks.

Overview of datacenter architecture
Evolution of datacenter networks
Key challenges in datacenter networking

Week 2: Datacenter Topologies

Traditional three-tier architecture
Clos networks and fat-tree topologies
Emerging topologies (e.g., DCell, BCube)

Week 3: Datacenter Network Protocols

TCP/IP in datacenter environments
RDMA (Remote Direct Memory Access)
Datacenter TCP (DCTCP)

Week 4: Software-Defined Networking (SDN) in Datacenters

SDN architecture and principles
OpenFlow and other SDN protocols
SDN controllers for datacenters

Week 5: Network Virtualization

Network overlays (VXLAN, NVGRE, STT)
Network Function Virtualization (NFV)
Virtual Network Functions (VNFs) in datacenters

Week 6: Load Balancing in Datacenters

Layer 4 vs. Layer 7 load balancing
Software vs. hardware load balancers
Advanced load balancing algorithms

Week 7: Datacenter Traffic Engineering

Flow scheduling
Multipath routing (ECMP, MPTCP)
Traffic prediction and optimization

Week 8: Quality of Service (QoS) in Datacenters

QoS requirements for different applications
QoS mechanisms (traffic shaping, policing, marking)
End-to-end QoS in multi-tenant environments

Week 9: Network Security in Datacenters

Threat models for datacenter networks
Firewalls and Intrusion Detection/Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS)
Microsegmentation and zero-trust networking

Week 10: Datacenter Interconnects

Intra-datacenter connectivity
Inter-datacenter networking
Software-defined WANs (SD-WAN) for datacenter interconnection

Week 11: Network Monitoring and Telemetry

Network monitoring tools and techniques
Streaming telemetry
Network analytics and machine learning for anomaly detection

Week 12: Energy Efficiency in Datacenter Networks

Green networking techniques
Energy-aware routing and scheduling
Power management in network devices

Week 13: Datacenter Network Performance

Performance metrics and benchmarking
Latency and throughput optimization
Congestion control mechanisms

Week 14: Emerging Technologies in Datacenter Networking

Programmable data planes (P4)
Optical networking in datacenters
Silicon photonics and co-packaged optics

Week 15: Cloud-Native Networking

Container networking (e.g., Kubernetes networking)
Service mesh architectures
Network automation and Infrastructure as Code (IaC)

Week 16: Future Trends and Research Directions

AI/ML-driven network management
Satellite networks and their impact on datacenter connectivity
Edge computing and its impact on datacenter networks

How to Succeed in this Class

Keep up with the class materials and participate in discussions.
Read and critique papers before each class.
Prepare your presentations thoroughly.
Start your project early and maintain regular progress.
How to read a paper: pdf

Module 1: Topology

Reference: PortLand: A Scalable Fault-Tolerant Layer 2 Data Center Network Fabric pdf
Reference: Original fat-tree paper: pdf
(Sep 10) Jellyfish: Networking Data Centers Randomly: pdf

Module 2: Datacenter Transport

(Sep 12) Datacenter TCP (DCTCP): pdf

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Academics / Courses / Descriptions COMP_SCI 397, 497: Selected Topics in Computer Networks

Prerequisites, description.

The course will cover a broad range of topics including congestion control, routing, analysis and design of network protocols (both wired and wireless), data centers, analysis and performance of content distribution networks, network security, vulnerability, and defenses, net neutrality, and online social networks.

Students will form teams of two or three; each team will tackle a well-defined research project during the quarter. A list of suggested project topics will be provided. All projects are subjected to approval by the instructor. The project component will include a short written project proposal, a short mid-term project report, a final project presentation, and a final project report. Each component adds some significant element to the paper, and the overall project grade will be based on the quality of each component of your work.

The above project components are due by email to the instructor by the end of the given day of the respective week.

Week 1: Project presentations by group leaders
Week 2: Form groups of 2 or 3, choose a topic for your project, and meet with the project leader.
Week 3: Write an introduction describing the problem and how you plan to approach it (what will you actually do?). Include motivation (why does the problem matter?) and related work (what have others already done about it?). 2 pages total.
Week 6: Midterm presentation. Update your paper to include your preliminary results. 5 pages total.
Week 11: Presentations by all groups.
Week 12: Turn in your completed paper. 10 pages total. You should incorporate the comments received during the presentation.

Each team will have a weekly meeting with project leaders. Grading

Paper reviews (15%), presentations (20%) and debating in the class (15%): 50%
Projects 50% (Project proposal: 5%; Midterm report: 5%; weekly report and meeting: 10%; project presentation: 10%; final project report: 20%)
Research idea report (optional, 3 pages): 10%

PREREQUISITES: Recommended: CS 340 or equivalent networking course

Classes, Textbook, and other readings

There will be no textbook for this class. A key part of the class will be to review and discuss networking research papers. Students must read the assigned papers and submit paper reviews before each lecture. Two teams of students will be chosen to debate and lead the discussion. One team will be designated the offense and the other the defense. In class, the defense team will present first. For 30 minutes the team will discuss the work as if it were their own.

The team should present the work and make a compelling case why the contribution is significant. This will include the context of the contribution, prior work, and in cases where papers are previously published, how the work has influenced the research community or industry's directions (impact). If the paper is very recent, the defense should present arguments for the potential impact. Coming up with potential future work can show how the paper opens doors to new
The presentation should go well beyond a paper "summary". The defense should not critique the work other than to try to pre-empt attacks from the offense (e.g., by explicitly limiting the scope of the contribution).
The defense should also try to look up related work to support their case (CiteSeer is a good place to start looking.)

After the defense presentation, the offense team will state their case for 20 minutes.

This team should critique the work, and make a case for missing links, unaddressed issues, lack of impact, inappropriateness of the problem formulation,
The more insightful and less obvious the criticisms the better.
While the offense should prepare remarks in advance, they should also react to the points made by the defense.
The offense should also try to look up related work to support their case.

Next, the defense and offense will be allowed follow up arguments, and finally, the class will question either side either for clarifications or to add to the discussions and controversy and make their own points on either side. The presentations should be written in Powerpoint format and will be posted on the course web page after each class.

Writing and Submitting Reviews

All students must read the assigned papers and write reviews for the papers before each lecture. Email the reviews to the instructor ([email protected]) prior to each lecture and the reviews will be posted on the course web page. Periodically, the instructor will evaluate a random subset of the reviews and provide feedback and grades to students.

Please send one review in plain text per email in the body of the email message.

A review should summarize the paper sufficiently to demonstrate your understanding, should point out the paper's contributions, strengths as well as weaknesses. Think in terms of what makes good research? What qualities make a good paper? What are the potential future impacts of the work? Note that there is no right or wrong answer to these questions. A review's quality will mainly depend on its thoughtfulness. Restating the abstract/conclusion of the paper will not earn a top grade. Reviews are roughly half-page and should cover all of the following aspects:

What is the main result of the paper? (One or two sentence summary)
What strengths do you see in this paper? (Your review needs have at least one or two positive things to say)
What are some key limitations, unproven assumptions, or methodological problems with the work?
How could the work be improved?
What is its relevance today, or what future work does it suggest?

COMMUNICATION

Course web site: TBA.

Check it out regularly for schedule changes and other course-related announcements.

Group Email: TBA

COURSE COORDINATOR: Aleksandar Kuzmanovic

COURSE INSTRUCTOR: Prof. Kuzmanovic

105 Latest Cyber Security Research Topics in 2024

Home Blog Security 105 Latest Cyber Security Research Topics in 2024

The concept of cybersecurity refers to cracking the security mechanisms that break in dynamic environments. Implementing Cyber Security Project topics and cybersecurity thesis topics helps overcome attacks and take mitigation approaches to security risks and threats in real-time. Undoubtedly, it focuses on events injected into the system, data, and the whole network to attack/disturb it.

The network can be attacked in various ways, including Distributed DoS, Knowledge Disruptions, Computer Viruses / Worms, and many more. Cyber-attacks are still rising, and more are waiting to harm their targeted systems and networks. Detecting Intrusions in cybersecurity has become challenging due to their Intelligence Performance. Therefore, it may negatively affect data integrity, privacy, availability, and security.

This article aims to demonstrate the most current Cyber Security Research Topics for Projects and areas of research currently lacking. We will talk about cyber security research questions, cyber security topics for the project, latest research titles about cyber security.

List of Trending Cyber Security Research Topics in 2024

Digital technology has revolutionized how all businesses, large or small, work, and even governments manage their day-to-day activities, requiring organizations, corporations, and government agencies to utilize computerized systems. To protect data against online attacks or unauthorized access, cybersecurity is a priority. There are many Cyber Security Courses online where you can learn about these topics. With the rapid development of technology comes an equally rapid shift in Cyber Security Research Topics and cybersecurity trends, as data breaches, ransomware, and hacks become almost routine news items. In 2024, these will be the top cybersecurity trends .

A. Exciting Mobile Cyber Security Research Paper Topics

The significance of continuous user authentication on mobile gadgets.
The efficacy of different mobile security approaches.
Detecting mobile phone hacking.
Assessing the threat of using portable devices to access banking services.
Cybersecurity and mobile applications.
The vulnerabilities in wireless mobile data exchange.
The rise of mobile malware.
The evolution of Android malware.
How to know you’ve been hacked on mobile.
The impact of mobile gadgets on cybersecurity.

B. Top Computer and Software Security Topics to Research

Learn algorithms for data encryption
Concept of risk management security
How to develop the best Internet security software
What are Encrypting Viruses- How does it work?
How does a Ransomware attack work?
Scanning of malware on your PC
Infiltrating a Mac OS X operating system
What are the effects of RSA on network security ?
How do encrypting viruses work?
DDoS attacks on IoT devices

C. Trending Information Security Research Topics

Why should people avoid sharing their details on Facebook?
What is the importance of unified user profiles?
Discuss Cookies and Privacy
White hat and black hat hackers
What are the most secure methods for ensuring data integrity?
Talk about the implications of Wi-Fi hacking apps on mobile phones
Analyze the data breaches in 2024
Discuss digital piracy in 2024
critical cyber-attack concepts
Social engineering and its importance

D. Current Network Security Research Topics

Data storage centralization
Identify Malicious activity on a computer system.
Firewall
Importance of keeping updated Software
wireless sensor network
What are the effects of ad-hoc networks
How can a company network be safe?
What are Network segmentation and its applications?
Discuss Data Loss Prevention systems
Discuss various methods for establishing secure algorithms in a network.
Talk about two-factor authentication

E. Best Data Security Research Topics

Importance of backup and recovery
Benefits of logging for applications
Understand physical data security
Importance of Cloud Security
In computing, the relationship between privacy and data security
Talk about data leaks in mobile apps
Discuss the effects of a black hole on a network system.

F. Important Application Security Research Topics

Detect Malicious Activity on Google Play Apps
Dangers of XSS attacks on apps
Discuss SQL injection attacks.
Insecure Deserialization Effect
Check Security protocols

G. Cybersecurity Law & Ethics Research Topics

Strict cybersecurity laws in China
Importance of the Cybersecurity Information Sharing Act.
USA, UK, and other countries' cybersecurity laws
Discuss The Pipeline Security Act in the United States

H. Recent Cyberbullying Topics

Protecting your Online Identity and Reputation
Online Safety
Sexual Harassment and Sexual Bullying
Dealing with Bullying
Stress Center for Teens

I. Operational Security Topics

Identify sensitive data
Identify possible threats
Analyze security threats and vulnerabilities
Appraise the threat level and vulnerability risk
Devise a plan to mitigate the threats

J. Cybercrime Topics for a Research Paper

Crime Prevention.
Criminal Specialization.
Drug Courts.
Criminal Courts.
Criminal Justice Ethics.
Capital Punishment.
Community Corrections.
Criminal Law.

Cyber Security Future Research Topics

Developing more effective methods for detecting and responding to cyber attacks
Investigating the role of social media in cyber security
Examining the impact of cloud computing on cyber security
Investigating the security implications of the Internet of Things
Studying the effectiveness of current cyber security measures
Identifying new cyber security threats and vulnerabilities
Developing more effective cyber security policies
Examining the ethical implications of cyber security

Cyber Security Topics For Research Paper

Cyber security threats and vulnerabilities
Cyber security incident response and management
Cyber security risk management
Cyber security awareness and training
Cyber security controls and countermeasures
Cyber security governance
Cyber security standards
Cyber security insurance

Research Area in Cyber Security

The field of cyber security is extensive and constantly evolving. Its research covers a wide range of subjects, including:

Quantum & Space
Data Privacy
Criminology & Law
AI & IoT Security
RFID Security
Authorization Infrastructure
Digital Forensics
Autonomous Security
Social Influence on Social Networks

How to Choose the Best Research Topics in Cyber Security?

A good cybersecurity assignment heading is a skill that not everyone has, and unfortunately, not everyone has one. You might have your teacher provide you with the topics, or you might be asked to come up with your own. If you want more cyber security research topics, you can take references from Certified Ethical Hacker Certification, where you will get more hints on new topics. If you don't know where to start, here are some tips. Follow them to create compelling cybersecurity assignment topics.

1. Brainstorm

In order to select the most appropriate heading for your cybersecurity assignment, you first need to brainstorm ideas. What specific matter do you wish to explore? In this case, come up with relevant topics about the subject and select those relevant to your issue when you use our list of topics. You can also go to cyber security-oriented websites to get some ideas. Using any blog post on the internet can prove helpful if you intend to write a research paper on security threats in 2024. Creating a brainstorming list with all the keywords and cybersecurity concepts you wish to discuss is another great way to start. Once that's done, pick the topics you feel most comfortable handling. Keep in mind to stay away from common topics as much as possible.

2. Understanding the Background

In order to write a cybersecurity assignment, you need to identify two or three research paper topics. Obtain the necessary resources and review them to gain background information on your heading. This will also allow you to learn new terminologies that can be used in your title to enhance it.

3. Write a Single Topic

Make sure the subject of your cybersecurity research paper doesn't fall into either extreme. Make sure the title is neither too narrow nor too broad. Topics on either extreme will be challenging to research and write about.

4. Be Flexible

There is no rule to say that the title you choose is permanent. It is perfectly okay to change your research paper topic along the way. For example, if you find another topic on this list to better suit your research paper, consider swapping it out.

The Layout of Cybersecurity Research Guidance

It is undeniable that usability is one of cybersecurity's most important social issues today. Increasingly, security features have become standard components of our digital environment, which pervade our lives and require both novices and experts to use them. Supported by confidentiality, integrity, and availability concerns, security features have become essential components of our digital environment.

In order to make security features easily accessible to a wider population, these functions need to be highly usable. This is especially true in this context because poor usability typically translates into the inadequate application of cybersecurity tools and functionality, resulting in their limited effectiveness.

Cyber Security Research Topic Writing Tips from Expert

Additionally, a well-planned action plan and a set of useful tools are essential for delving into Cyber Security research topics. Not only do these topics present a vast realm of knowledge and potential innovation, but they also have paramount importance in today's digital age. Addressing the challenges and nuances of these research areas will contribute significantly to the global cybersecurity landscape, ensuring safer digital environments for all. It's crucial to approach these topics with diligence and an open mind to uncover groundbreaking insights.

Before you begin writing your research paper, make sure you understand the assignment.
Your Research Paper Should Have an Engaging Topic
Find reputable sources by doing a little research
Precisely state your thesis on cybersecurity
A rough outline should be developed
Finish your paper by writing a draft
Make sure that your bibliography is formatted correctly and cites your sources.

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Studies in the literature have identified and recommended guidelines and recommendations for addressing security usability problems to provide highly usable security. The purpose of such papers is to consolidate existing design guidelines and define an initial core list that can be used for future reference in the field of Cyber Security Research Topics.

The researcher takes advantage of the opportunity to provide an up-to-date analysis of cybersecurity usability issues and evaluation techniques applied so far. As a result of this research paper, researchers and practitioners interested in cybersecurity systems who value human and social design elements are likely to find it useful. You can find KnowledgeHut’s Cyber Security courses online and take maximum advantage of them.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Businesses and individuals are changing how they handle cybersecurity as technology changes rapidly - from cloud-based services to new IoT devices.

Ideally, you should have read many papers and know their structure, what information they contain, and so on if you want to write something of interest to others.

Inmates having the right to work, transportation of concealed weapons, rape and violence in prison, verdicts on plea agreements, rehab versus reform, and how reliable are eyewitnesses?

The field of cyber security is extensive and constantly evolving. Its research covers various subjects, including Quantum & Space, Data Privacy, Criminology & Law, and AI & IoT Security.

Mrinal Prakash

I am a B.Tech Student who blogs about various topics on cyber security and is specialized in web application security

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An Introduction to Computer Networks, desktop edition 2.0.11 »

1.1 Layers
1.2 Data Rate, Throughput and Bandwidth
1.3 Packets
1.4 Datagram Forwarding
1.5.1 Traffic Engineering
1.6 Routing Loops
1.7 Congestion
1.8 Packets Again
1.9 LANs and Ethernet
1.10.1 IP Forwarding
1.10.2 The Future of IPv4
1.11 DNS
1.12.1 Transport Communications Patterns
1.12.2 Content-Distribution Networks
1.13 Firewalls
1.14 Some Useful Utilities
1.15 IETF and OSI
1.16 Berkeley Unix
1.17 Epilog
1.18 Exercises

Previous topic

2 Ethernet Basics

Quick search

1 an overview of networks ¶.

Somewhere there might be a field of interest in which the order of presentation of topics is well agreed upon.

Computer networking is not it.

There are many interconnections in the field of networking, as in most technical fields, and it is difficult to find an order of presentation that does not involve endless “forward references” to future chapters; this is true even if – as is done here – a largely bottom-up ordering is followed. I have therefore taken here a different approach: this first chapter is a summary of the essentials – LANs, IP and TCP – across the board, and later chapters expand on the material here.

Local Area Networks, or LANs , are the “physical” networks that provide the connection between machines within, say, a home, school or corporation. LANs are, as the name says, “local”; it is the IP , or Internet Protocol, layer that provides an abstraction for connecting multiple LANs into, well, the Internet. Finally, TCP deals with transport and connections and actually sending user data.

This chapter also contains some important other material. The section on datagram forwarding , central to packet-based switching and routing, is essential. This chapter also discusses packets generally, congestion, and sliding windows, but those topics are revisited in later chapters. Firewalls and network address translation are also covered here and not elsewhere.

1.1 Layers ¶

These three topics – LANs, IP and TCP – are often called layers ; they constitute the Link layer, the Internetwork layer, and the Transport layer respectively. Together with the Application layer (the software you use), these form the “ four-layer model ” for networks. A layer, in this context, corresponds strongly to the idea of a programming interface or library, with the understanding that a given layer communicates directly only with the two layers immediately above and below it. An application hands off a chunk of data to the TCP library, which in turn makes calls to the IP library, which in turn calls the LAN layer for actual delivery. An application does not interact directly with the IP and LAN layers at all.

The LAN layer is in charge of actual delivery of packets, using LAN-layer-supplied addresses. It is often conceptually subdivided into the “physical layer” dealing with, eg , the analog electrical, optical or radio signaling mechanisms involved, and above that an abstracted “logical” LAN layer that describes all the digital – that is, non-analog – operations on packets; see 2.1.4 The LAN Layer . The physical layer is generally of direct concern only to those designing LAN hardware; the kernel software interface to the LAN corresponds to the logical LAN layer.

Fig. 1: Five-layer network model

This LAN physical/logical division gives us the Internet five-layer model . This is less a formal hierarchy than an ad hoc classification method. We will return to this below in 1.15 IETF and OSI , where we will also introduce two more rather obscure layers that complete the seven -layer model.

1.2 Data Rate, Throughput and Bandwidth ¶

Any one network connection – eg at the LAN layer – has a data rate : the rate at which bits are transmitted. In some LANs ( eg Wi-Fi) the data rate can vary with time. Throughput refers to the overall effective transmission rate, taking into account things like transmission overhead, protocol inefficiencies and perhaps even competing traffic. It is generally measured at a higher network layer than the data rate.

The term bandwidth can be used to refer to either of these, though we here use it mostly as a synonym for data rate. The term comes from radio transmission, where the width of the frequency band available is proportional, all else being equal, to the data rate that can be achieved.

In discussions about TCP, the term goodput is sometimes used to refer to what might also be called “application-layer throughput”: the amount of usable data delivered to the receiving application. Specifically, retransmitted data is counted only once when calculating goodput but might be counted twice under some interpretations of “throughput”.

Data rates are generally measured in kilobits per second (kbps) or megabits per second (Mbps); the use of the lower-case “b” here denotes bits. In the context of data rates, a kilobit is 10 3 bits (not 2 10 ) and a megabit is 10 6 bits. Somewhat inconsistently, we follow the tradition of using kB and MB to denote data volumes of 2 10 and 2 20 bytes respectively, with the upper-case B denoting bytes. The newer abbreviations KiB and MiB would be more precise, but the consequences of confusion are modest.

1.3 Packets ¶

Packets are modest-sized sequences of bytes, transmitted as a unit through some shared set of links. Of necessity, packets need to be prefixed with a header containing delivery information. In the common case known as datagram forwarding , the header contains a destination address ; headers in networks using so-called virtual-circuit forwarding contain instead an identifier for the connection . Almost all networking today (and for the past 50 years) is packet-based, although we will later look briefly at some “circuit-switched” options for voice telephony.

Fig. 2: Packets with headers

At the LAN layer, packets can be viewed as the imposition of a buffer (and addressing) structure on top of low-level serial lines; additional layers then impose additional structure. Informally, packets are often referred to as frames at the LAN layer, and as segments at the Transport layer.

The maximum packet size supported by a given LAN ( eg Ethernet, Token Ring or ATM) is an intrinsic attribute of that LAN. Ethernet allows a maximum of 1500 bytes of data. By comparison, TCP/IP packets originally often held only 512 bytes of data, while early Token Ring packets could contain up to 4 kB of data. While there are proponents of very large packet sizes, larger even than 64 kB, at the other extreme the ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) protocol uses 48 bytes of data per packet, and there are good reasons for believing in modest packet sizes.

One potential issue is how to forward packets from a large-packet LAN to (or through) a small-packet LAN; in later chapters we will look at how the IP (or Internet Protocol) layer addresses this.

Generally each layer adds its own header. Ethernet headers are typically 14 bytes, IP headers 20 bytes, and TCP headers 20 bytes. If a TCP connection sends 512 bytes of data per packet, then the headers amount to 10% of the total, a not-unreasonable overhead. For one common Voice-over-IP option, packets contain 160 bytes of data and 54 bytes of headers, making the header about 25% of the total. Compressing the 160 bytes of audio, however, may bring the data portion down to 20 bytes, meaning that the headers are now 73% of the total; see 25.11.4 RTP and VoIP .

In datagram-forwarding networks the appropriate header will contain the address of the destination and perhaps other delivery information. Internal nodes of the network called routers or switches will then try to ensure that the packet is delivered to the requested destination.

The concept of packets and packet switching was first introduced by Paul Baran in 1962 ( [PB62] ). Baran’s primary concern was with network survivability in the event of node failure; existing centrally switched protocols were vulnerable to central failure. In 1964, Donald Davies independently developed many of the same concepts; it was Davies who coined the term “packet”.

It is perhaps worth noting that packets are buffers built of 8-bit bytes , and all hardware today agrees what a byte is (hardware agrees by convention on the order in which the bits of a byte are to be transmitted). 8-bit bytes are universal now, but it was not always so. Perhaps the last great non-byte-oriented hardware platform, which did indeed overlap with the Internet era broadly construed, was the DEC-10, which had a 36-bit word size; a word could hold five 7-bit ASCII characters. The early Internet specifications introduced the term octet (an 8-bit byte) and required that packets be sequences of octets; non-octet-oriented hosts had to be able to convert. Thus was chaos averted. Note that there are still byte-oriented data issues; as one example, binary integers can be represented as a sequence of bytes in either big-endian or little-endian byte order ( 16.1.5 Binary Data ). RFC 1700 specifies that Internet protocols use big-endian byte order, therefore sometimes called network byte order.

1.4 Datagram Forwarding ¶

In the datagram-forwarding model of packet delivery, packet headers contain a destination address. It is up to the intervening switches or routers to look at this address and get the packet to the correct destination.

In datagram forwarding this is achieved by providing each switch with a forwarding table of ⟨destination,next_hop⟩ pairs. When a packet arrives, the switch looks up the destination address (presumed globally unique) in its forwarding table and finds the next_hop information: the immediate-neighbor address to which – or interface by which – the packet should be forwarded in order to bring it one step closer to its final destination. The next_hop value in a forwarding table is a single entry; each switch is responsible for only one step in the packet’s path. However, if all is well, the network of switches will be able to deliver the packet, one hop at a time, to its ultimate destination.

The “destination” entries in the forwarding table do not have to correspond exactly with the packet destination addresses, though in the examples here they do, and they do for Ethernet datagram forwarding. However, for IP routing, the table “destination” entries will correspond to prefixes of IP addresses; this leads to a huge savings in space. The fundamental requirement is that the switch can perform a lookup operation, using its forwarding table and the destination address in the arriving packet, to determine the next hop.

Just how the forwarding table is built is a question for later; we will return to this for Ethernet switches in 2.4.1 Ethernet Learning Algorithm and for IP routers in 13 Routing-Update Algorithms . For now, the forwarding tables may be thought of as created through initial configuration.

In the figure below, switch S1 has interfaces 0, 1 and 2, and S2 has interfaces 0,1,2,3. If A is to send a packet to B, S1 must have a forwarding-table entry indicating that destination B is reached via its interface 2, and S2 must have an entry forwarding the packet out on interface 3.

Fig. 3: Two switches, S1 and S2

A complete forwarding table for S1, using interface numbers in the next_hop column, would be:

S1
destination	next_hop
A	0
C	1
B	2
D	2
E	2

The table for S2 might be as follows, where we have consolidated destinations A and C for visual simplicity.

S2
destination	next_hop
A,C	0
D	1
E	2
B	3

In the network diagrammed above, all links are point-to-point, and so each interface corresponds to the unique immediate neighbor reached by that interface. We can thus replace the interface entries in the next_hop column with the name of the corresponding neighbor . For human readers, using neighbors in the next_hop column is usually much more readable. S1’s table can now be written as follows (with consolidation of the entries for B, D and E):

S1
destination	next_hop
A	A
C	C
B,D,E	S2

A central feature of datagram forwarding is that each packet is forwarded “in isolation”; the switches involved do not have any awareness of any higher-layer logical connections established between endpoints. This is also called stateless forwarding, in that the forwarding tables have no per-connection state. RFC 1122 put it this way (in the context of IP-layer datagram forwarding):

To improve robustness of the communication system, gateways are designed to be stateless, forwarding each IP datagram independently of other datagrams. As a result, redundant paths can be exploited to provide robust service in spite of failures of intervening gateways and networks.

The fundamental alternative to datagram forwarding is virtual circuits , 5.4 Virtual Circuits . In virtual-circuit networks, each router maintains state about each connection passing through it; different connections can be routed differently. If packet forwarding depends, for example, on per-connection information – eg both TCP port numbers – it is not datagram forwarding. (That said, it arguably still is datagram forwarding if web traffic – to TCP port 80 – is forwarded differently than all other traffic, because that rule does not depend on the specific connection.)

Datagram forwarding is sometimes allowed to use other information beyond the destination address. In theory, IP routing can be done based on the destination address and some quality-of-service information, allowing, for example, different routing to the same destination for high-bandwidth bulk traffic and for low-latency real-time traffic. In practice, most Internet Service Providers (ISPs) ignore user-provided quality-of-service information in the IP header, except by prearranged agreement, and route only based on the destination.

By convention, switching devices acting at the LAN layer and forwarding packets based on the LAN address are called switches (or, originally, bridges; some still prefer that term), while such devices acting at the IP layer and forwarding on the IP address are called routers . Datagram forwarding is used both by Ethernet switches and by IP routers, though the destinations in Ethernet forwarding tables are individual nodes while the destinations in IP routers are entire networks (that is, sets of nodes).

In IP routers within end-user sites it is common for a forwarding table to include a catchall default entry, matching any IP address that is nonlocal and so needs to be routed out into the Internet at large. Unlike the consolidated entries for B, D and E in the table above for S1, which likely would have to be implemented as actual separate entries, a default entry is a single record representing where to forward the packet if no other destination match is found. Here is a forwarding table for S1, above, with a default entry replacing the last three entries:

S1
destination	next_hop
A	0
C	1
default	2

Default entries make sense only when we can tell by looking at an address that it does not represent a nearby node. This is common in IP networks because an IP address encodes the destination network, and routers generally know all the local networks. It is however rare in Ethernets, because there is generally no correlation between Ethernet addresses and locality. If S1 above were an Ethernet switch, and it had some means of knowing that interfaces 0 and 1 connected directly to individual hosts, not switches – and S1 knew the addresses of these hosts – then making interface 2 a default route would make sense. In practice, however, Ethernet switches do not know what kind of device connects to a given interface.

1.5 Topology ¶

In the network diagrammed in the previous section, there are no loops; graph theorists might describe this by saying the network graph is acyclic , or is a tree . In a loop-free network there is a unique path between any pair of nodes. The forwarding-table algorithm has only to make sure that every destination appears in the forwarding tables; the issue of choosing between alternative paths does not arise.

However, if there are no loops then there is no redundancy : any broken link will result in partitioning the network into two pieces that cannot communicate. All else being equal (which it is not, but never mind for now), redundancy is a good thing. However, once we start including redundancy, we have to make decisions among the multiple paths to a destination. Consider, for a moment, the following network:

Fig. 4: A network with more than one path from A to B

Should S1 list S2 or S3 as the next_hop to B? Both paths A─S1─ S2 ─S4─B and A─S1─ S3 ─S4─B get there. There is no right answer. Even if one path is “faster” than the other, taking the slower path is not exactly wrong (especially if the slower path is, say, less expensive). Some sort of protocol must exist to provide a mechanism by which S1 can make the choice (though this mechanism might be as simple as choosing to route via the first path discovered to the given destination). We also want protocols to make sure that, if S1 reaches B via S2 and the S2─S4 link fails, then S1 will switch over to the still-working S1─S3─S4─B route.

As we shall see, many LANs (in particular Ethernet) prefer “tree” networks with no redundancy, while IP has complex protocols in support of redundancy ( 13 Routing-Update Algorithms ).

1.5.1 Traffic Engineering ¶

In some cases the decision above between routes A─S1─S2─S4─B and A─S1─S3─S4─B might be of material significance – perhaps the S2–S4 link is slower than the others, or is more congested. We will use the term traffic engineering to refer to any intentional selection of one route over another, or any elevation of the priority of one class of traffic. The route selection can either be directly intentional, through configuration, or can be implicit in the selection or tuning of algorithms that then make these route-selection choices automatically. As an example of the latter, the algorithms of 13.1 Distance-Vector Routing-Update Algorithm build forwarding tables on their own, but those tables are greatly influenced by the administrative assignment of link costs.

With pure datagram forwarding, used at either the LAN or the IP layer, the path taken by a packet is determined solely by its destination, and traffic engineering is limited to the choices made between alternative paths. We have already, however, suggested that datagram forwarding can be extended to take quality-of-service information into account; this may be used to have voice traffic – with its relatively low bandwidth but intolerance for delay – take an entirely different path than bulk file transfers. Alternatively, the network manager may simply assign voice traffic a higher priority, so it does not have to wait in queues behind file-transfer traffic.

The quality-of-service information may be set by the end-user, in which case an ISP may wish to recognize it only for designated users, which in turn means that the ISP will implicitly use the traffic source when making routing decisions. Alternatively, the quality-of-service information may be set by the ISP itself, based on its best guess as to the application; this means that the ISP may be using packet size, port number ( 1.12 Transport ) and other contents as part of the routing decision. For some explicit mechanisms supporting this kind of routing, see 13.6 Routing on Other Attributes .

At the LAN layer, traffic-engineering mechanisms are historically limited, though see 3.4 Software-Defined Networking . At the IP layer, more strategies are available; see 25 Quality of Service .

1.6 Routing Loops ¶

A potential drawback to datagram forwarding is the possibility of a routing loop : a set of entries in the forwarding tables that cause some packets to circulate endlessly. For example, in the previous picture we would have a routing loop if, for (nonexistent) destination C, S1 forwarded to S2, S2 forwarded to S4, S4 forwarded to S3, and S3 forwarded to S1. A packet sent to C would not only not be delivered, but in circling endlessly it might easily consume a large majority of the bandwidth. Routing loops typically arise because the creation of the forwarding tables is often “distributed”, and there is no global authority to detect inconsistencies. Even when there is such an authority, temporary routing loops can be created due to notification delays.

Routing loops can also occur in networks where the underlying link topology is loop-free; for example, in the previous diagram we could, again for destination C, have S1 forward to S2 and S2 forward back to S1. We will refer to such a case as a linear routing loop.

All datagram-forwarding protocols need some way of detecting and avoiding routing loops. Ethernet, for example, avoids nonlinear routing loops by disallowing loops in the underlying network topology, and avoids linear routing loops by not having switches forward a packet back out the interface by which it arrived. IP provides for a one-byte “Time to Live” (TTL) field in the IP header; it is set by the sender and decremented by 1 at each router; a packet is discarded if its TTL reaches 0. This limits the number of times a wayward packet can be forwarded to the initial TTL value, typically 64.

In datagram routing, a switch is responsible only for the next hop to the ultimate destination; if a switch has a complete path in mind, there is no guarantee that the next_hop switch or any other downstream switch will continue to forward along that path. Misunderstandings can potentially lead to routing loops. Consider this network:

Fig. 5: Network consisting of five nodes in a ring

D might feel that the best path to B is D–E–C–B (perhaps because it believes the A–D link is to be avoided). If E similarly decides the best path to B is E–D–A–B, and if D and E both choose their next_hop for B based on these best paths, then a linear routing loop is formed: D routes to B via E and E routes to B via D. Although each of D and E have identified a usable path , that path is not in fact followed. Moral: successful datagram routing requires cooperation and a consistent view of the network.

1.7 Congestion ¶

Switches introduce the possibility of congestion: packets arriving faster than they can be sent out. This can happen with just two interfaces, if the inbound interface has a higher bandwidth than the outbound interface; another common source of congestion is traffic arriving on multiple inputs and all destined for the same output.

Whatever the reason, if packets are arriving for a given outbound interface faster than they can be sent, a queue will form for that interface. Once that queue is full, packets will be dropped . The most common strategy (though not the only one) is to drop any packets that arrive when the queue is full.

The term “congestion” may refer either to the point where the queue is just beginning to build up, or to the point where the queue is full and packets are lost. In their paper [CJ89] , Chiu and Jain refer to the first point as the knee ; this is where the slope of the load vs throughput graph flattens. They refer to the second point as the cliff ; this is where packet losses may lead to a precipitous decline in throughput. Other authors use the term contention for knee-congestion.

In the Internet, most packet losses are due to congestion. This is not because congestion is especially bad (though it can be, at times), but rather that other types of losses ( eg due to packet corruption) are insignificant by comparison.

When to Upgrade?

Deciding when a network really does have insufficient bandwidth is not a technical issue but an economic one. The number of customers may increase, the cost of bandwidth may decrease or customers may simply be willing to pay more to have data transfers complete in less time; “customers” here can be external or in-house. Monitoring of links and routers for congestion can, however, help determine exactly what parts of the network would most benefit from upgrade.

We emphasize that the presence of congestion does not mean that a network has a shortage of bandwidth. Bulk-traffic senders (though not real-time senders) attempt to send as fast as possible, and congestion is simply the network’s feedback that the maximum transmission rate has been reached. For further discussion, including alternative definitions of longer-term congestion, see [BCL09] .

Congestion is a sign of a problem in real-time networks, which we will consider in 25 Quality of Service . In these networks losses due to congestion must generally be kept to an absolute minimum; one way to achieve this is to limit the acceptance of new connections unless sufficient resources are available.

1.8 Packets Again ¶

Perhaps the core justification for packets, Baran’s concerns about node failure notwithstanding, is that the same link can carry, at different times, different packets representing traffic to different destinations and from different senders. Thus, packets are the key to supporting shared transmission lines ; that is, they support the multiplexing of multiple communications channels over a single cable. The alternative of a separate physical line between every pair of machines grows prohibitively complex very quickly (though virtual circuits between every pair of machines in a datacenter are not uncommon; see 5.4 Virtual Circuits ).

From this shared-medium perspective, an important packet feature is the maximum packet size, as this represents the maximum time a sender can send before other senders get a chance. The alternative of unbounded packet sizes would lead to prolonged network unavailability for everyone else if someone downloaded a large file in a single 1 Gigabit packet. Another drawback to large packets is that, if the packet is corrupted, the entire packet must be retransmitted; see 7.3.1 Error Rates and Packet Size .

When a router or switch receives a packet, it (generally) reads in the entire packet before looking at the header to decide to what next node to forward it. This is known as store-and-forward , and introduces a forwarding delay equal to the time needed to read in the entire packet. For individual packets this forwarding delay is hard to avoid (though some higher-end switches do implement cut-through switching to begin forwarding a packet before it has fully arrived), but if one is sending a long train of packets then by keeping multiple packets en route at the same time one can essentially eliminate the significance of the forwarding delay; see 7.3 Packet Size .

Total packet delay from sender to receiver is the sum of the following:

Bandwidth delay , ie sending 1000 Bytes at 20 Bytes/millisecond will take 50 ms. This is a per-link delay.
Propagation delay due to the speed of light. For example, if you start sending a packet right now on a 5000-km cable across the US with a propagation speed of 200 m/µsec (= 200 km/ms, about 2/3 the speed of light in vacuum), the first bit will not arrive at the destination until 25 ms later. The bandwidth delay then determines how much after that the entire packet will take to arrive.
Store-and-forward delay , equal to the sum of the bandwidth delays out of each router along the path
Queuing delay , or waiting in line at busy routers. At bad moments this can exceed 1 sec, though that is rare. Generally it is less than 10 ms and often is less than 1 ms. Queuing delay is the only delay component amenable to reduction through careful engineering.

See 7.1 Packet Delay for more details.

1.9 LANs and Ethernet ¶

A local-area network , or LAN, is a system consisting of

physical links that are, ultimately, serial lines common interfacing hardware connecting the hosts to the links protocols to make everything work together

We will explicitly assume that every LAN node is able to communicate with every other LAN node. Sometimes this will require the cooperation of intermediate nodes acting as switches.

Far and away the most common type of (wired) LAN is Ethernet, originally described in a 1976 paper by Metcalfe and Boggs [MB76] . Ethernet’s popularity is due to low cost more than anything else, though the primary reason Ethernet cost is low is that high demand has led to manufacturing economies of scale.

The original Ethernet had a bandwidth of 10 Mbps (megabits per second; we will use lower-case “b” for bits and upper-case “B” for bytes), though nowadays most Ethernet operates at 100 Mbps and gigabit (1000 Mbps) Ethernet (and faster) is widely used in server rooms. (By comparison, as of this writing (2015) the data transfer rate to a typical faster hard disk is about 1000 Mbps.) Wireless (“Wi-Fi”) LANs are gaining popularity, and in many settings have supplanted wired Ethernet to end-users.

Many early Ethernet installations were unswitched; each host simply tapped in to one long primary cable that wound through the building (or floor). In principle, two stations could then transmit at the same time, rendering the data unintelligible; this was called a collision . Ethernet has several design features intended to minimize the bandwidth wasted on collisions: stations, before transmitting, check to be sure the line is idle, they monitor the line while transmitting to detect collisions during the transmission, and, if a collision is detected, they execute a random backoff strategy to avoid an immediate recollision. See 2.1.5 The Slot Time and Collisions . While Ethernet collisions definitely reduce throughput, in the larger view they should perhaps be thought of as a part of a remarkably inexpensive shared-access mediation protocol.

In unswitched Ethernets every packet is received by every host and it is up to the network card in each host to determine if the arriving packet is addressed to that host. It is almost always possible to configure the card to forward all arriving packets to the attached host; this poses a security threat and “password sniffers” that surreptitiously collected passwords via such eavesdropping used to be common.

Password Sniffing

In the fall of 1994 at Loyola University I remotely changed the root password on several CS-department unix machines at the other end of campus, using telnet. I told no one. Within two hours, someone else logged into one of these machines, using the new password, from a host in Europe. Password sniffing was the likely culprit.

Two months later was the so-called “Christmas Day Attack” ( 18.3.1 ISNs and spoofing ). One of the hosts used to launch this attack was Loyola’s hacked apollo.it.luc.edu. It is unclear the degree to which password sniffing played a role in that exploit.

Due to both privacy and efficiency concerns, almost all Ethernets today are fully switched; this ensures that each packet is delivered only to the host to which it is addressed. One advantage of switching is that it effectively eliminates most Ethernet collisions; while in principle it replaces them with a queuing issue, in practice Ethernet switch queues so seldom fill up that they are almost invisible even to network managers (unlike IP router queues). Switching also prevents host-based eavesdropping, though arguably a better solution to this problem is encryption. Perhaps the more significant tradeoff with switches, historically, was that Once Upon A Time they were expensive and unreliable; tapping directly into a common cable was dirt cheap.

Ethernet addresses are six bytes long. Each Ethernet card (or network interface ) is assigned a (supposedly) unique address at the time of manufacture; this address is burned into the card’s ROM and is called the card’s physical address or hardware address or MAC (Media Access Control) address. The first three bytes of the physical address have been assigned to the manufacturer; the subsequent three bytes are a serial number assigned by that manufacturer.

By comparison, IP addresses are assigned administratively by the local site. The basic advantage of having addresses in hardware is that hosts automatically know their own addresses on startup; no manual configuration or server query is necessary. It is not unusual for a site to have a large number of identically configured workstations, for which all network differences derive ultimately from each workstation’s unique Ethernet address.

The network interface continually monitors all arriving packets; if it sees any packet containing a destination address that matches its own physical address, it grabs the packet and forwards it to the attached CPU (via a CPU interrupt).

Ethernet also has a designated broadcast address . A host sending to the broadcast address has its packet received by every other host on the network; if a switch receives a broadcast packet on one port, it forwards the packet out every other port. This broadcast mechanism allows host A to contact host B when A does not yet know B’s physical address; typical broadcast queries have forms such as “Will the designated server please answer” or (from the ARP protocol) “will the host with the given IP address please tell me your physical address”.

Traffic addressed to a particular host – that is, not broadcast – is said to be unicast .

Because Ethernet addresses are assigned by the hardware, knowing an address does not provide any direct indication of where that address is located on the network. In switched Ethernet, the switches must thus have a forwarding-table record for each individual Ethernet address on the network; for extremely large networks this ultimately becomes unwieldy. Consider the analogous situation with postal addresses: Ethernet is somewhat like attempting to deliver mail using social-security numbers as addresses, where each postal worker is provided with a large catalog listing each person’s SSN together with their physical location. Real postal mail is, of course, addressed “hierarchically” using ever-more-precise specifiers: state, city, zipcode, street address, and name / room#. Ethernet, in other words, does not scale well to “large” sizes.

Switched Ethernet works quite well, however, for networks with up to 10,000-100,000 nodes. Forwarding tables with size in that range are straightforward to manage.

To forward packets correctly, switches must know where all active destination addresses in the LAN are located; traditional Ethernet switches do this by a passive learning algorithm. (IP routers, by comparison, use “active” protocols, and some newer Ethernet switches take the approach of 3.4 Software-Defined Networking .) Typically a host physical address is entered into a switch’s forwarding table when a packet from that host is first received ; the switch notes the packet’s arrival interface and source address and assumes that the same interface is to be used to deliver packets back to that sender. If a given destination address has not yet been seen, and thus is not in the forwarding table, Ethernet switches still have the backup delivery option of flooding : forwarding the packet to everyone by treating the destination address like the broadcast address, and allowing the host Ethernet cards to sort it out. Since this broadcast-like process is not generally used for more than one packet (after that, the switches will have learned the correct forwarding-table entries), the risks of excessive traffic and of eavesdropping are minimal.

The ⟨host,interface⟩ forwarding table is often easier to think of as ⟨host,next_hop⟩, where the next_hop node is whatever switch or host is at the immediate other end of the link connecting to the given interface. In a fully switched network where each link connects only two interfaces, the two perspectives are equivalent.

1.10 IP - Internet Protocol ¶

To solve the scaling problem with Ethernet, and to allow support for other types of LANs and point-to-point links as well, the Internet Protocol was developed. Perhaps the central issue in the design of IP was to support universal connectivity (everyone can connect to everyone else) in such a way as to allow scaling to enormous size (in 2013 there appear to be around ~10 9 nodes, although IP should work to 10 10 nodes or more), without resulting in unmanageably large forwarding tables (currently the largest tables have about 300,000 entries.)

In the early days, IP networks were considered to be “internetworks” of basic networks (LANs); nowadays users generally ignore LANs and think of the Internet as one large (virtual) network.

To support universal connectivity, IP provides a global mechanism for addressing and routing , so that packets can actually be delivered from any host to any other host. IP addresses (for the most-common version 4, which we denote IPv4 ) are 4 bytes (32 bits), and are part of the IP header that generally follows the Ethernet header. The Ethernet header only stays with a packet for one hop; the IP header stays with the packet for its entire journey across the Internet.

An essential feature of IPv4 (and IPv6) addresses is that they can be divided into a network part (a prefix) and a host part (the remainder). The “legacy” mechanism for designating the IPv4 network and host address portions was to make the division according to the first few bits:

first few bits	first byte	network bits	host bits	name	application
0	0-127	8	24	class A	a few very large networks
10	128-191	16	16	class B	institution-sized networks
110	192-223	24	8	class C	sized for smaller entities

For example, the original IP address allocation for Loyola University Chicago was 147.126.0.0, a class B. In binary, 147 is 10 010011.

IP addresses, unlike Ethernet addresses, are administratively assigned . Once upon a time, you would get your Class B network prefix from the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, or IANA (they now delegate this task), and then you would in turn assign the host portion in a way that was appropriate for your local site. As a result of this administrative assignment, an IP address usually serves not just as an endpoint identifier but also as a locator , containing embedded location information (at least in the sense of location within the IP-address-assignment hierarchy, which may not be geographical). Ethernet addresses, by comparison, are endpoint identifiers but not locators.

The Class A/B/C definition above was spelled out in 1981 in RFC 791 , which introduced IP. Class D was added in 1986 by RFC 988 ; class D addresses must begin with the bits 1110. These addresses are for multicast , that is, sending an IP packet to every member of a set of recipients (ideally without actually transmitting it more than once on any one link).

Nowadays the division into the network and host bits is dynamic, and can be made at different positions in the address at different levels of the network. For example, a small organization might receive a /27 address block (1/8 the size of a class-C /24) from its ISP, eg 200.1.130.96/ 27 . The ISP routes to the organization based on this /27 prefix. At some higher level, however, routing might be based on the prefix 200.1.128/ 18 ; this might, for example, represent an address block assigned to the ISP (note that the first 18 bits of 200.1.130.x match 200.1.128; the first two bits of 128 and 130, taken as 8-bit quantities, are “10”). The network/host division point is not carried within the IP header; routers negotiate this division point when they negotiate the next_hop forwarding information. We will return to this in 9.5 The Classless IP Delivery Algorithm .

The network portion of an IP address is sometimes called the network number or network address or network prefix . As we shall see below, most forwarding decisions are made using only the network prefix. The network prefix is commonly denoted by setting the host bits to zero and ending the resultant address with a slash followed by the number of network bits in the address: eg 12.0.0.0/8 or 147.126.0.0/16. Note that 12.0.0.0/8 and 12.0.0.0/9 represent different things; in the latter, the second byte of any host address extending the network address is constrained to begin with a 0-bit. An anonymous block of IP addresses might be referred to only by the slash and following digit, eg “we need a /22 block to accommodate all our customers”.

All hosts with the same network address (same network bits) are said to be on the same IP network and must be located together on the same LAN ; as we shall see below, if two hosts share the same network address then they will assume they can reach each other directly via the underlying LAN, and if they cannot then connectivity fails. A consequence of this rule is that outside of the site only the network bits need to be looked at to route a packet to the site .

Usually, all hosts (or more precisely all network interfaces) on the same physical LAN share the same network prefix and thus are part of the same IP network. Occasionally, however, one LAN is divided into multiple IP networks.

Each individual LAN technology has a maximum packet size it supports; for example, Ethernet has a maximum packet size of about 1500 bytes but the once-competing Token Ring had a maximum of 4 kB. Today the world has largely standardized on Ethernet and almost entirely standardized on Ethernet packet-size limits, but this was not the case when IP was introduced and there was real concern that two hosts on separate large-packet networks might try to exchange packets too large for some small-packet intermediate network to carry.

Therefore, in addition to routing and addressing, the decision was made that IP must also support fragmentation : the division of large packets into multiple smaller ones (in other contexts this may also be called segmentation ). The IP approach is not very efficient, and IP hosts go to considerable lengths to avoid fragmentation. IP does require that packets of up to 576 bytes be supported, and so a common legacy strategy was for a host to limit a packet to at most 512 user-data bytes whenever the packet was to be sent via a router; packets addressed to another host on the same LAN could of course use a larger packet size. Despite its limited use, however, fragmentation is essential conceptually, in order for IP to be able to support large packets without knowing anything about the intervening networks.

IP is a best effort system; there are no IP-layer acknowledgments or retransmissions. We ship the packet off, and hope it gets there. Most of the time, it does.

Architecturally, this best-effort model represents what is known as connectionless networking: the IP layer does not maintain information about endpoint-to-endpoint connections, and simply forwards packets like a giant LAN. Responsibility for creating and maintaining connections is left for the next layer up, the TCP layer. Connectionless networking is not the only way to do things: the alternative could have been some form connection-oriented internetworking, in which routers do maintain state information about individual connections. Later, in 5.4 Virtual Circuits , we will examine how virtual-circuit networking can be used to implement a connection-oriented approach; virtual-circuit switching is the primary alternative to datagram switching.

Connectionless (IP-style) and connection-oriented networking each have advantages. Connectionless networking is conceptually more reliable: if routers do not hold connection state, then they cannot lose connection state. The path taken by the packets in some higher-level connection can easily be dynamically rerouted. Finally, connectionless networking makes it hard for providers to bill by the connection; once upon a time (in the era of dollar-a-minute phone calls) this was a source of mild astonishment to many new users. (This was not always a given; the paper [CK74] considers, among other things, the possibility of per-packet accounting.)

The primary advantage of connection-oriented networking, on the other hand, is that the routers are then much better positioned to accept reservations and to make quality-of-service guarantees . This remains something of a sore point in the current Internet: if you want to use Voice-over-IP, or VoIP , telephones, or if you want to engage in video conferencing, your packets will be treated by the Internet core just the same as if they were low-priority file transfers. There is no “priority service” option.

The most common form of IP packet loss is router queue overflows, representing network congestion. Packet losses due to packet corruption are rare ( eg less than one in 10 4 ; perhaps much less). But in a connectionless world a large number of hosts can simultaneously attempt to send traffic through one router, in which case queue overflows are hard to avoid.

Although we will often assume, for simplicity, that routers have a fixed input queue size, the reality is often a little more complicated. See 21.5 Active Queue Management and 23 Queuing and Scheduling .

1.10.1 IP Forwarding ¶

IP routers use datagram forwarding, described in 1.4 Datagram Forwarding above, to deliver packets, but the “destination” values listed in the forwarding tables are network prefixes – representing entire LANs – instead of individual hosts. The goal of IP forwarding, then, becomes delivery to the correct LAN; a separate process is used to deliver to the final host once the final LAN has been reached.

The entire point, in fact, of having a network/host division within IP addresses is so that routers need to list only the network prefixes of the destination addresses in their IP forwarding tables. This strategy is the key to IP scalability: it saves large amounts of forwarding-table space, it saves time as smaller tables allow faster lookup, and it saves the bandwidth and overhead that would be needed for routers to keep track of individual addresses. To get an idea of the forwarding-table space savings, there are currently (2013) around a billion hosts on the Internet, but only 300,000 or so networks listed in top-level forwarding tables.

With IP’s use of network prefixes as forwarding-table destinations, matching an actual packet address to a forwarding-table entry is no longer a matter of simple equality comparison; routers must compare appropriate prefixes.

IP forwarding tables are sometimes also referred to as “routing tables”; in this book, however, we make at least a token effort to use “forwarding” to refer to the packet forwarding process, and “routing” to refer to mechanisms by which the forwarding tables are maintained and updated. (If we were to be completely consistent here, we would use the term “forwarding loop” rather than “routing loop”.)

Now let us look at an example of how IP forwarding (or routing) works. We will assume that all network nodes are either hosts – user machines, with a single network connection – or routers , which do packet-forwarding only. Routers are not directly visible to users, and always have at least two different network interfaces representing different networks that the router is connecting. (Machines can be both hosts and routers, but this introduces complications.)

Suppose A is the sending host, sending a packet to a destination host D. The IP header of the packet will contain D’s IP address in the “destination address” field (it will also contain A’s own address as the “source address”). The first step is for A to determine whether D is on the same LAN as itself or not; that is, whether D is local . This is done by looking at the network part of the destination address, which we will denote by D net . If this net address is the same as A’s (that is, if it is equal numerically to A net ), then A figures D is on the same LAN as itself, and can use direct LAN delivery. It looks up the appropriate physical address for D (probably with the ARP protocol, 10.2 Address Resolution Protocol: ARP ), attaches a LAN header to the packet in front of the IP header, and sends the packet straight to D via the LAN.

If, however, A net and D net do not match – D is non-local – then A looks up a router to use. Most ordinary hosts use only one router for all non-local packet deliveries, making this choice very simple. A then forwards the packet to the router, again using direct delivery over the LAN. The IP destination address in the packet remains D in this case, although the LAN destination address will be that of the router.

When the router receives the packet, it strips off the LAN header but leaves the IP header with the IP destination address. It extracts the destination D, and then looks at D net . The router first checks to see if any of its network interfaces are on the same LAN as D; recall that the router connects to at least one additional network besides the one for A. If the answer is yes, then the router uses direct LAN delivery to the destination, as above. If, on the other hand, D net is not a LAN to which the router is connected directly, then the router consults its internal forwarding table. This consists of a list of networks each with an associated next_hop address. These ⟨net,next_hop⟩ tables compare with switched-Ethernet’s ⟨host,next_hop⟩ tables; the former type will be smaller because there are many fewer nets than hosts. The next_hop addresses in the table are chosen so that the router can always reach them via direct LAN delivery via one of its interfaces; generally they are other routers. The router looks up D net in the table, finds the next_hop address, and uses direct LAN delivery to get the packet to that next_hop machine. The packet’s IP header remains essentially unchanged, although the router most likely attaches an entirely new LAN header.

The packet continues being forwarded like this, from router to router, until it finally arrives at a router that is connected to D net ; it is then delivered by that final router directly to D, using the LAN.

To make this concrete, consider the following diagram:

Fig. 6: Two LANs (200.0.0 and 200.0.1) joined by three routers R1,R2,R3

With Ethernet-style forwarding, R2 would have to maintain entries for each of A,B,C,D,E,F. With IP forwarding, R2 has just two entries to maintain in its forwarding table: 200.0.0/24 and 200.0.1/24. If A sends to D, at 200.0.1.37, it puts this address into the IP header, notes that 200.0.0 ≠ 200.0.1, and thus concludes D is not a local delivery. A therefore sends the packet to its router R1, using LAN delivery. R1 looks up the destination network 200.0.1 in its forwarding table and forwards the packet to R2, which in turn forwards it to R3. R3 now sees that it is connected directly to the destination network 200.0.1, and delivers the packet via the LAN to D, by looking up D’s physical address.

In this diagram, IP addresses for the ends of the R1–R2 and R2–R3 links are not shown. They could be assigned global IP addresses, but they could also use “private” IP addresses. Assuming these links are point-to-point links, they might not actually need IP addresses at all; we return to this in 9.8 Unnumbered Interfaces .

One can think of the network-prefix bits as analogous to the “zip code” on postal mail, and the host bits as analogous to the street address. The internal parts of the post office get a letter to the right zip code, and then an individual letter carrier (the LAN) gets it to the right address. Alternatively, one can think of the network bits as like the area code of a phone number, and the host bits as like the rest of the digits. Newer protocols that support different net/host division points at different places in the network – sometimes called hierarchical routing – allow support for addressing schemes that correspond to, say, zip/street/user, or areacode/exchange/subscriber.

The Invertebrate Internet

The backbone is not as essential as it once was. Once Upon A Time, all traffic between different providers passed through the backbone. The legacy backbone still exists, but today it is also common for traffic from large providers such as Google to take a backbone-free path; such providers connect (or “peer”) directly with large residential ISPs such as Comcast . Google refers to this as their “Edge Network”; see peering.google.com and also 15.7.1 MED values and traffic engineering .

We will refer to the Internet backbone as those IP routers that specialize in large-scale routing on the commercial Internet, and which generally have forwarding-table entries covering all public IP addresses; note that this is essentially a business definition rather than a technical one. We can revise the table-size claim of the previous paragraph to state that, while there are many private IP networks, there are about 800,000 separate network prefixes (as of 2019) visible to the backbone. (In 2012, the year this book was started, there were about 400,000 prefixes.) A forwarding table of 800,000 entries is quite feasible; a table a hundred times larger is not, let alone a thousand times larger. For a graph of the growth in network prefixes / forwarding-table entries, see 15.5 BGP Table Size .

IP routers at non-backbone sites generally know all locally assigned network prefixes, eg 200.0.0/24 and 200.0.1/24 above. If a destination does not match any locally assigned network prefix, the packet needs to be routed out into the Internet at large; for typical non-backbone sites this almost always this means the packet is sent to the ISP that provides Internet connectivity. Generally the local routers will contain a catchall default entry covering all nonlocal networks; this means that the router needs an explicit entry only for locally assigned networks. This greatly reduces the forwarding-table size. The Internet backbone can be approximately described, in fact, as those routers that do not have a default entry.

For most purposes, the Internet can be seen as a combination of end-user LANs together with point-to-point links joining these LANs to the backbone, point-to-point links also tie the backbone together. Both LANs and point-to-point links appear in the diagram above.

Just how routers build their ⟨destnet,next_hop⟩ forwarding tables is a major topic itself, which we cover in 13 Routing-Update Algorithms . Unlike Ethernet, IP routers do not have a “flooding” delivery mechanism as a fallback, so the tables must be constructed in advance. (There is a limited form of IP broadcast, but it is basically intended for reaching the local LAN only, and does not help at all with delivery in the event that the destination network is unknown.)

Most forwarding-table-construction algorithms used on a set of routers under common management fall into either the distance-vector or the link-state category; these are described in 13 Routing-Update Algorithms . Routers not under common management – that is, neighboring routers belonging to different organizations – exchange information through the Border Gateway Protocol, BGP ( 14 Large-Scale IP Routing ). BGP allows routing decisions to be based on a fusion of “technical” information (which sites are reachable at all, and through where) together with “policy” information representing legal or commercial agreements: which outside routers are “preferred”, whose traffic an ISP will carry even if it isn’t to one of the ISP’s customers, etc .

Most common residential “routers” involve network address translation in addition to packet forwarding. See 9.7 Network Address Translation .

1.10.2 The Future of IPv4 ¶

As mentioned earlier, allocation of blocks of IP addresses is the responsibility of the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority. IANA long ago delegated the job of allocating network prefixes to individual sites; they limited themselves to handing out /8 blocks (class A blocks) to the five regional registries , which are

ARIN – North America
RIPE – Europe, the Middle East and parts of Asia
APNIC – East Asia and the Pacific
AfriNIC – most of Africa
LACNIC – Central and South America

As of the end of January 2011, the IANA finally ran out of /8 blocks. There is a table at http://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv4-address-space/ipv4-address-space.xml of all IANA assignments of /8 blocks; examination of the table shows all have now been allocated.

In September 2015, ARIN ran out of its pool of IPv4 addresses . Most of ARIN’s customers are ISPs, which can now obtain new IPv4 addresses only by buying unused address blocks from other organizations.

A few months after the IANA pool ran out in 2011, Microsoft purchased 666,624 IP addresses (2604 Class-C blocks) in a Nortel bankruptcy auction for $7.5 million. Three years later, IP-address prices fell to half that, but, by 2019, had climbed to the $20-and-up range. In that year Amazon bought a 4-million-address block (44.0.0.0/10) for $108 million, or $27/address. Prices remained in the $20 range through 2020, but by the end of 2021 had climbed to $50-$55, with several /19 blocks sold in January 2022 in that range. The market for IPv4 address blocks continues to develop, but the only real solution is widespread adoption of IPv6 with its plentiful 128-bit addresses.

An IPv4 address price in the range of $20-30 is unlikely to have much impact in residential Internet access, where annual connection fees are often $600. Large organizations use NAT ( 9.7 Network Address Translation ) extensively, leading to the need for only a small number of globally visible addresses. The IPv4 address shortage does not even seem to have affected wireless networking. It does, however, lead to inefficient routing tables, as sites that might once have had a single /17 address block – and thus a single backbone forwarding-table entry – might now be spread over more than a hundred /24 blocks and concomitant forwarding entries.

1.11 DNS ¶

IP addresses are hard to remember (nearly impossible in IPv6). The domain name system , or DNS ( 10.1 DNS ), comes to the rescue by creating a way to convert hierarchical text names to IP addresses. Thus, for example, one can type www.luc.edu instead of 147.126.1.230. Virtually all Internet software uses the same basic library calls to convert DNS names to actual addresses.

One thing DNS makes possible is changing a website’s IP address while leaving the name alone. This allows moving a site to a new provider, for example, without requiring users to learn anything new. It is also possible to have several different DNS names resolve to the same IP address, and – through some modest trickery – have the http (web) server at that IP address handle the different DNS names as completely different websites.

DNS is hierarchical and distributed. In looking up cs.luc.edu four different DNS servers may be queried: for the so-called “DNS root zone”, for edu , for luc.edu and for cs.luc.edu . Searching a hierarchy can be cumbersome, so DNS search results are normally cached locally. If a name is not found in the cache, the lookup may take a couple seconds. The DNS hierarchy need have nothing to do with the IP-address hierarchy.

1.12 Transport ¶

The IP layer gets packets from one node to another, but it is not well-suited to transport. First, IP routing is a “best-effort” mechanism, which means packets can and do get lost sometimes. Additionally, data that does arrive can arrive out of order. Finally, IP only supports sending to a specific host; normally, one wants to send to a given application running on that host. Email and web traffic, or two different web sessions, should not be commingled!

The Transport layer is the layer above the IP layer that handles these sorts of issues, often by creating some sort of connection abstraction. Far and away the most popular mechanism in the Transport layer is the Transmission Control Protocol, or TCP . TCP extends IP with the following features:

reliability : TCP numbers each packet, and keeps track of which are lost and retransmits them after a timeout. It holds early-arriving out-of-order packets for delivery at the correct time. Every arriving data packet is acknowledged by the receiver; timeout and retransmission occurs when an acknowledgment packet isn’t received by the sender within a given time.
connection-orientation : Once a TCP connection is made, an application sends data simply by writing to that connection. No further application-level addressing is needed. TCP connections are managed by the operating-system kernel, not by the application.
stream-orientation : An application using TCP can write 1 byte at a time, or 100 kB at a time; TCP will buffer and/or divide up the data into appropriate sized packets.
port numbers : these provide a way to specify the receiving application for the data, and also to identify the sending application.
throughput management : TCP attempts to maximize throughput, while at the same time not contributing unnecessarily to network congestion .

TCP endpoints are of the form ⟨host,port⟩; these pairs are known as socket addresses , or sometimes as just sockets though the latter refers more properly to the operating-system objects that receive the data sent to the socket addresses. Servers (or, more precisely, server applications) listen for connections to sockets they have opened; the client is then any endpoint that initiates a connection to a server.

When you enter a host name in a web browser, it opens a TCP connection to the server’s port 80 (the standard web-traffic port), that is, to the server socket with socket-address ⟨server,80⟩. If you have several browser tabs open, each might connect to the same server socket, but the connections are distinguishable by virtue of using separate ports (and thus having separate socket addresses) on the client end (that is, your end).

A busy server may have thousands of connections to its port 80 (the web port) and hundreds of connections to port 25 (the email port). Web and email traffic are kept separate by virtue of the different ports used. All those clients to the same port, though, are kept separate because each comes from a unique ⟨host,port⟩ pair. A TCP connection is determined by the ⟨host,port⟩ socket address at each end; traffic on different connections does not intermingle. That is, there may be multiple independent connections to ⟨www.luc.edu,80⟩. This is somewhat analogous to certain business telephone numbers of the “ operators are standing by ” type, which support multiple callers at the same time to the same toll-free number. Each call to that number is answered by a different operator (corresponding to a different cpu process), and different calls do not “overhear” each other.

TCP uses the sliding-windows algorithm , 8 Abstract Sliding Windows , to keep multiple packets en route at any one time. The window size represents the number of packets simultaneously in transit (TCP actually keeps track of the window size in bytes, but packets are easier to visualize). If the window size is 10 packets, for example, then at any one time 10 packets are in transit (perhaps 5 data packets and 5 returning acknowledgments). Assuming no packets are lost, then as each acknowledgment arrives the window “slides forward” by one packet. The data packet 10 packets ahead is then sent, to maintain a total of 10 packets on the wire. For example, consider the moment when the ten packets 20-29 are in transit. When ACK[20] is received, the number of packets outstanding drops to 9 (packets 21-29). To keep 10 packets in flight, Data[30] is sent. When ACK[21] is received, Data[31] is sent, and so on.

Sliding windows minimizes the effect of store-and-forward delays, and propagation delays, as these then only count once for the entire windowful and not once per packet. Sliding windows also provides an automatic, if partial, brake on congestion: the queue at any switch or router along the way cannot exceed the window size. In this it compares favorably with constant-rate transmission, which, if the available bandwidth falls below the transmission rate, always leads to overflowing queues and to a significant percentage of dropped packets. Of course, if the window size is too large, a sliding-windows sender may also experience dropped packets.

The ideal window size, at least from a throughput perspective, is such that it takes one round-trip time to send an entire window, so that the next ACK will always be arriving just as the sender has finished transmitting the window. Determining this ideal size, however, is difficult; for one thing, the ideal size varies with network load. As a result, TCP approximates the ideal size. The most common TCP strategy – that of so-called TCP Reno – is that the window size is slowly raised until packet loss occurs, which TCP takes as a sign that it has reached the limit of available network resources. At that point the window size is reduced to half its previous value, and the slow climb resumes. The effect is a “sawtooth” graph of window size with time, which oscillates (more or less) around the “optimal” window size. For an idealized sawtooth graph, see 19.1.1 The Somewhat-Steady State ; for some “real” (simulation-created) sawtooth graphs see 31.4.1 Some TCP Reno cwnd graphs .

While this window-size-optimization strategy has its roots in attempting to maximize the available bandwidth, it also has the effect of greatly limiting the number of packet-loss events. As a result, TCP has come to be the Internet protocol charged with reducing (or at least managing) congestion on the Internet, and – relatedly – with ensuring fairness of bandwidth allocations to competing connections. Core Internet routers – at least in the classical case – essentially have no role in enforcing congestion or fairness restrictions at all. The Internet, in other words, places responsibility for congestion avoidance cooperatively into the hands of end users. While “cheating” is possible, this cooperative approach has worked remarkably well.

While TCP is ubiquitous, the real-time performance of TCP is not always consistent: if a packet is lost, the receiving TCP host will not turn over anything further to the receiving application until the lost packet has been retransmitted successfully; this is often called head-of-line blocking . This is a serious problem for sound and video applications, which can discreetly handle modest losses but which have much more difficulty with sudden large delays. A few lost packets ideally should mean just a few brief voice dropouts (pretty common on cell phones) or flicker/snow on the video screen (or just reuse of the previous frame); both of these are better than pausing completely.

The basic alternative to TCP is known as UDP , for User Datagram Protocol. UDP, like TCP, provides port numbers to support delivery to multiple endpoints within the receiving host, in effect to a specific process on the host. As with TCP, a UDP socket consists of a ⟨host,port⟩ pair. UDP also includes, like TCP, a checksum over the data. However, UDP omits the other TCP features: there is no connection setup, no lost-packet detection, no automatic timeout/retransmission, and the application must manage its own packetization. This simplicity should not be seen as all negative: the absence of connection setup means data transmission can get started faster, and the absence of lost-packet detection means there is no head-of-line blocking. See 16 UDP Transport .

The Real-time Transport Protocol, or RTP , sits above UDP and adds some additional support for voice and video applications.

1.12.1 Transport Communications Patterns ¶

The two “classic” traffic patterns for Internet communication are these:

Interactive or bursty communications such as via ssh or telnet, with long idle times between short bursts
Bulk file transfers, such as downloading a web page

TCP handles both of these well, although its congestion-management features apply only when a large amount of data is in transit at once. Web browsing is something of a hybrid; over time, there is usually considerable burstiness, but individual pages now often exceed 1 MB.

To the above we might add request/reply operations, eg to query a database or to make DNS requests. TCP is widely used here as well, though most DNS traffic still uses UDP. There are periodic calls for a new protocol specifically addressing this pattern, though at this point the use of TCP is well established. If a sequence of request/reply operations is envisioned, a single TCP connection makes excellent sense, as the connection-setup overhead is minimal by comparison. See also 16.5 Remote Procedure Call (RPC) and 18.15.2 SCTP .

This century has seen an explosion in streaming video ( 25.3.2 Streaming Video ), in lengths from a few minutes to a few hours. Streaming radio stations might be left playing indefinitely. TCP generally works well here, assuming the receiver can get, say, a minute ahead, buffering the video that has been received but not yet viewed. That way, if there is a dip in throughput due to congestion, the receiver has time to recover. Buffering works a little less well for streaming radio, as the listener doesn’t want to get too far behind, though ten seconds is reasonable. Fortunately, audio bandwidth is smaller.

Another issue with streaming video is the bandwidth demand. Most streaming-video services attempt to estimate the available throughput, and then adapt to that throughput by changing the video resolution ( 25.3 Real-time Traffic ).

Typically, video streaming operates on a start/stop basis: the sender pauses when the receiver’s playback buffer is “full”, and resumes when the playback buffer drops below a certain threshold.

If the video (or, for that matter, voice audio) is interactive , there is much less opportunity for stream buffering. If someone asks a simple question on an Internet telephone call, they generally want an answer more or less immediately; they do not expect to wait for the answer to make it through the other party’s stream buffer. 200 ms of buffering is noticeable. Here we enter the realm of genuine real-time traffic ( 25.3 Real-time Traffic ). UDP is often used to avoid head-of-line blocking. Lower bandwidth helps; voice-grade communications traditionally need only 8 kB/sec, less if compression is used. On the other hand, there may be constraints on the variation in delivery time (known as jitter ; see 25.11.3 RTP Control Protocol for a specific numeric interpretation). Interactive video, with its much higher bandwidth requirements, is more difficult; fortunately, users seem to tolerate the common pauses and freezes.

Within the Transport layer, essentially all network connections involve a client and a server . Often this pattern is repeated at the Application layer as well: the client contacts the server and initiates a login session, or browses some web pages, or watches a movie. Sometimes, however, Application-layer exchanges fit the peer-to-peer model better, in which the two endpoints are more-or-less co-equals. Some examples include

Internet telephony: there is no benefit in designating the party who place the call as the “client”
Message passing in a CPU cluster, often using 16.5 Remote Procedure Call (RPC)
The routing-communication protocols of 13 Routing-Update Algorithms . When router A reports to router B we might call A the client, but over time, as A and B report to one another repeatedly, the peer-to-peer model makes more sense.
So-called peer-to-peer file-sharing, where individuals exchange files with other individuals (and as opposed to “cloud-based” file-sharing in which the “cloud” is the server).

RFC 5694 contains additional discussion of peer-to-peer patterns.

1.12.2 Content-Distribution Networks ¶

Sites with an extremely large volume of content to distribute often turn to a specialized communication pattern called a content-distribution network or CDN . To reduce the amount of long-distance traffic, or to reduce the round-trip time, a site replicates its content at multiple datacenters (also called Points of Presence (PoPs), nodes , access points or edge servers ). When a user makes a request ( eg for a web page or a video), the request is routed to the nearest (or approximately nearest) datacenter, and the content is delivered from there.

CDN Mapping

For a geographical map of the servers in the NetFlix CDN as of 2016, see [BCTCU16] . The map was created solely through end-user measurements. Most of the servers are in North and South America and Europe.

Large web pages typically contain both static content and also individualized dynamic content. On a typical Facebook page, for example, the videos and javascript might be considered static, while the individual wall posts might be considered dynamic. The CDN may cache all or most of the static content at each of its edge servers, leaving the dynamic content to come from a centralized server. Alternatively, the dynamic content may be replicated at each CDN edge node as well, though this introduces some real-time coordination issues.

If dynamic content is not replicated, the CDN may include private high-speed links between its nodes, allowing for rapid low-congestion delivery to any node. Alternatively, CDN nodes may simply communicate using the public Internet. Finally, the CDN may (or may not) be configured to support fast interactive traffic between nodes, eg teleconferencing traffic, as is outlined in 25.6.1 A CDN Alternative to IntServ .

Organizations can create their own CDNs, but often turn to specialized CDN providers, who often combine their CDN services with website-hosting services.

In principle, all that is needed to create a CDN is a multiplicity of datacenters, each with its own connection to the Internet; private links between datacenters are also common. In practice, many CDN providers also try to build direct connections with the ISPs that serve their customers; the Google Edge Network above does this. This can improve performance and reduce traffic costs; we will return to this in 15.7.1 MED values and traffic engineering .

Finding the edge server that is closest to a given user is a tricky issue. There are three techniques in common use. In the first, the edge servers are all given different IP addresses, and DNS is configured to have users receive the IP address of the closest edge server, 10.1 DNS . In the second, each edge server has the same IP address, and anycast routing is used to route traffic from the user to the closest edge server, 15.8 BGP and Anycast . Finally, for HTTP applications a centralized server can look up the approximate location of the user, and then redirect the web page to the closest edge server.

1.13 Firewalls ¶

One problem with having a program on your machine listening on an open TCP port is that someone may connect and then, using some flaw in the software on your end, do something malicious to your machine. Damage can range from the unintended downloading of personal data to compromise and takeover of your entire machine, making it a distributor of viruses and worms or a steppingstone in later break-ins of other machines.

A strategy known as buffer overflow ( 28.2 Stack Buffer Overflow ) has been the basis for a great many total-compromise attacks. The idea is to identify a point in a server program where it fills a memory buffer with network-supplied data without careful length checking; almost any call to the C library function gets(buf) will suffice. The attacker then crafts an oversized input string which, when read by the server and stored in memory, overflows the buffer and overwrites subsequent portions of memory, typically containing the stack-frame pointers. The usual goal is to arrange things so that when the server reaches the end of the currently executing function, control is returned not to the calling function but instead to the attacker’s own payload code located within the string.

A firewall is a mechanism to block connections deemed potentially risky, eg those originating from outside the site. Generally ordinary workstations do not ever need to accept connections from the Internet; client machines instead initiate connections to (better-protected) servers. So blocking incoming connections works reasonably well; when necessary ( eg for games) certain ports can be selectively unblocked.

The original firewalls were built into routers. Incoming traffic to servers was often blocked unless it was sent to one of a modest number of “open” ports; for non-servers, typically all inbound connections were blocked. This allowed internal machines to operate reasonably safely, though being unable to accept incoming connections is sometimes inconvenient.

Nowadays per-host firewalls – in addition to router-based firewalls – are common: you can configure your workstation not to accept inbound connections to most (or all) ports regardless of whether software on the workstation requests such a connection. Outbound connections can, in many cases, also be prevented.

The typical home router implements something called network-address translation ( 9.7 Network Address Translation ), which, in addition to conserving IPv4 addresses, also provides firewall protection.

1.14 Some Useful Utilities ¶

There exists a great variety of useful programs for probing and diagnosing networks. Here we list a few of the simpler, more common and available ones; some of these are addressed in more detail in subsequent chapters. Some of these, like ping , are generally present by default; others will have to be installed from somewhere.

Ping is useful to determine if another machine is accessible, eg

See 10.4 Internet Control Message Protocol for how it works. Sometimes ping fails because the necessary packets are blocked by a firewall.

ifconfig , ipconfig , ip

To find your own IP address you can use ipconfig on Windows, ifconfig on Linux and Macintosh systems, or the newer ip addr list on Linux. The output generally lists all active interfaces but can be restricted to selected interfaces if desired. The ip command in particular can do many other things as well. The Windows command netsh interface ip show config also provides IP addresses.

nslookup , dig and host

This trio of programs, all developed by the Internet Systems Consortium , are all used for DNS lookups. They differ in convenience and options. The oldest is nslookup , the one with the most options (by a rather wide margin) is dig , and the newest and arguably most convenient for normal usage is host .

See 10.1.2 nslookup and dig .

This lists the route from you to a remote host:

The last router (and intronetworks.cs.luc.edu itself) don’t respond to the traceroute packets, so the list is not quite complete. The Windows tracert utility is functionally equivalent. See 10.4.1 Traceroute and Time Exceeded for further information.

Traceroute sends, by default, three probes for each router. Sometimes the responses do not all come back from the same router, as happened above at routers 4, 6, 7, 9 and 10. Router 9 sent back three distinct responses.

On Linux systems the mtr command may be available as an alternative to traceroute; it repeats the traceroute at one-second intervals and generates cumulative statistics.

route and netstat

The commands route , route print (Windows), ip route show (Linux), and netstat -r (all systems) display the host’s local IP forwarding table. For workstations not acting as routers, this includes the route to the default router and, usually, not much else. The default route is sometimes listed as destination 0.0.0.0 with netmask 0.0.0.0 (equivalent to 0.0.0.0/0).

The command netstat -a shows the existing TCP connections and open UDP sockets.

The netcat program, often called nc , allows the user to create TCP or UDP connections and send lines of text back and forth. It is seldom included by default. See 16.1.4 netcat and 17.7.1 netcat again .

This is a convenient combination of packet capture and packet analysis, from wireshark.org . See 17.4 TCP and WireShark and 12.4 Using IPv6 and IPv4 Together for examples.

WireShark was originally named Etherreal. An earlier command-line-only packet-capture program is tcpdump , though WireShark has greatly expanded support for packet-format decoding. Both WireShark and tcpdump support both live packet capture and reading from .pcap (packet capture) and .pcapng (next generation) files.

WireShark is the only non-command-line program listed here. It is sometimes desired to monitor packets on a remote system. If X-windows is involved ( eg on Linux), this can be done by logging in from one’s local system using ssh -X , which enables X-windows forwarding, and then starting wireshark (or perhaps sudo wireshark ) from the command line. Other alternatives include tcpdump and tshark ; the latter is part of the WireShark distribution and supports the same packet-decoding facilities as WireShark. Finally, there is termshark , a frontend for tshark that offers a terminal-based interface reasonably similar to WireShark’s graphical interface.

1.15 IETF and OSI ¶

The Internet protocols discussed above are defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force , or IETF (under the aegis of the Internet Architecture Board , or IAB, in turn under the aegis of the Internet Society , ISOC). The IETF publishes “Request For Comment” or RFC documents that contain all the formal Internet standards; these are available at http://www.ietf.org/rfc.html (note that, by the time a document appears here, the actual comment-requesting period is generally long since closed). The five-layer model is closely associated with the IETF, though is not an official standard.

RFC standards sometimes allow modest flexibility. With this in mind, RFC 2119 declares official understandings for the words MUST and SHOULD. A feature labeled with MUST is “an absolute requirement for the specification”, while the term SHOULD is used when

there may exist valid reasons in particular circumstances to ignore a particular item, but the full implications must be understood and carefully weighed before choosing a different course.

The original ARPANET network was developed by the US government’s Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, or DARPA; it went online in 1969. The National Science Foundation began NSFNet in 1986; this largely replaced ARPANET. In 1991, operation of the NSFNet backbone was turned over to ANSNet, a private corporation. The ISOC was founded in 1992 as the NSF continued to retreat from the networking business.

Hallmarks of the IETF design approach were David Clark’s declaration

We reject: kings, presidents and voting. We believe in: rough consensus and running code.

and RFC Editor Jon Postel ’s Robustness Principle, here stated in its RFC 761 / RFC 793 form:

TCP implementations should follow a general principle of robustness: be conservative in what you do, be liberal in what you accept from others.

Postel’s aphorism is often shortened to “be liberal in what you accept, and conservative in what you send”. As such, it has come in for occasional criticism in recent years with regard to cryptographic protocols, for which lax enforcement can lead to security vulnerabilities. To be fair, however, Postel wrote this in an era when protocol specifications sometimes failed to fully spell out the rules for every possible situation, and too-strict implementations sometimes failed to interoperate. Just what should happen if a TCP packet arrives with the SYN bit set, for creating a new connection, and also the FIN bit, for terminating that connection? However, TCP specifications today are generally much more complete, and cryptographic protocols even moreso. One way to read Postel’s rule is that protocol implementations should be as strict as necessary, but no stricter .

There is a persistent – though false – notion that the distributed-routing architecture of IP was due to a US Department of Defense mandate that the original ARPAnet be built to survive a nuclear attack. In fact, the developers of IP seemed unconcerned with this. However, Paul Baran did write, in his 1962 paper outlining the concept of packet switching, that

If [the number of stations] is made sufficiently large, it can be shown that highly survivable system structures can be built – even in the thermonuclear era.

In 1977 the International Organization for Standardization, or ISO , founded the Open Systems Interconnection project, or OSI , a process for creation of new network standards. OSI represented an attempt at the creation of networking standards independent of any individual government.

The OSI project is today perhaps best known for its seven-layer networking model: between Transport and Application were inserted the Session and Presentation layers. The Session layer was to handle “sessions” between applications (including the graceful closing of Transport-layer connections, something included in TCP, and the re-establishment of “broken” Transport-layer connections, which TCP could sorely use), and the Presentation layer was to handle things like defining universal data formats ( eg for binary numeric data, or for non-ASCII character sets), and eventually came to include compression and encryption as well.

Data presentation and session management are important concepts, but in many cases it has not proved necessary, or even particularly useful, to make them into true layers. The layer approach has been very helpful in organizing networking software into separate sections, but is hard to define precisely. One approach is to declare that a layer should communicate directly only with the layers immediately above and below it. The application passes its data to the Transport layer to receive the Transport header, which passes the data to the IP layer to receive the IP header, and on to the LAN layer. Each layer can be seen as an encapsulated software object, or module, by the layer above, and each layer in turn encapsulates the packet from its parent layer by adding a new header. This is mostly true for the Transport, IP and LAN layers, but there are irregularities: the transport-layer checksum, for example, needs information from the IP layer, and may in fact end up being calculated at the LAN layer ( 16.1.3.2 UDP and IP addresses and 17.5 TCP Offloading ).

Even allowing for these kinds of irregularities, however, it is hard to justify full-fledged layer status for the Session and Presentation actions. What often happens is that the Application layer manages its own Transport connections, and is responsible for reading and writing data directly from and to the Transport layer. The application then uses conventional libraries for Presentation actions such as encryption, compression and format translation, and for Session actions such as handling broken Transport connections and multiplexing streams of data over a single Transport connection. Version 2 of the HTTP protocol, for example, contains a subprotocol for managing multiple streams; this is generally regarded as part of the Application layer, if for no other reason than that it is not available to any other application.

An opposing view is that it is possible to view the SSL/TLS transport-encryption service, 29.5.2 TLS , as an example of a true Presentation layer. Applications generally read and write data directly to the SSL/TLS endpoint, which in turn mostly encapsulates (as a software module) the underlying TCP connection. The encapsulation is incomplete, though, in that SSL/TLS applications generally are responsible for creating their own Transport-layer (TCP) connections; see 29.5.3 A TLS Programming Example and the note at the end of 29.5.3.2 TLSserver . In the end, while the seven-layer model is reasonably popular, from a software-architecture standpoint those two extra layers aren’t really in the same league as those of the five-layer model.

OSI has its own version of IP and TCP. The IP equivalent is CLNP , the ConnectionLess Network Protocol, although OSI also defines a connection- oriented protocol CMNS. The TCP equivalent is TP4; OSI also defines TP0 through TP3 but those are for connection-oriented networks.

It seems clear that the primary reasons the OSI protocols failed in the marketplace were their ponderous bureaucracy for protocol management, their principle that protocols be completed before implementation began, and their insistence on rigid adherence to the specifications to the point of non-interoperability; indeed, Postel’s aphorism above may have been intended as a response to this last point. In contrast, the IETF had (and still has) a “two working implementations” rule for a protocol to become a “Draft Standard”. From RFC 2026 :

This rule has often facilitated the discovery of protocol design weaknesses early enough that the problems could be fixed. The OSI approach is a striking failure for the “waterfall” design model, when competing with the IETF’s cyclic “prototyping” model. However, it is worth noting that the IETF has similarly been unable to keep up with rapid changes in html, particularly at the browser end; the OSI mistakes were mostly evident only in retrospect.

Trying to fit protocols into specific layers is often both futile and irrelevant. By one perspective, the Real-Time Protocol RTP lives at the Transport layer, but just above the UDP layer; others have put RTP into the Application layer. Parts of the RTP protocol resemble the Session and Presentation layers. A key component of the IP protocol is the set of various router-update protocols; some of these freely use higher-level layers. Similarly, tunneling might be considered to be a Link-layer protocol, but tunnels are often created and maintained at the Application layer.

A sometimes-more-successful approach to understanding “layers” is to view them instead as parts of a protocol graph . Thus, in the following diagram we have two protocol sublayers within the transport layer (UDP and RTP), and one protocol (ARP) not easily assigned to a layer.

Fig. 7: A protocol graph

Note the thin “wasp” waist at the IP layer: there are many protocols above and below, but only one protocol at the IP layer. This universality of the IP layer has been one of the things contributing to IP’s success.

1.16 Berkeley Unix ¶

Though not officially tied to the IETF, the Berkeley Unix releases became de facto reference implementations for most of the TCP/IP protocols. 4.1BSD (BSD for Berkeley Software Distribution) was released in 1981, 4.2BSD in 1983, 4.3BSD in 1986, 4.3BSD-Tahoe in 1988, 4.3BSD-Reno in 1990, and 4.4BSD in 1994. Descendants today include FreeBSD, OpenBSD and NetBSD. The TCP implementations TCP Tahoe and TCP Reno ( 19 TCP Reno and Congestion Management ) took their names from the corresponding 4.3BSD releases.

1.17 Epilog ¶

This completes our tour of the basics. In the remaining chapters we will expand on the material here.

1.18 Exercises ¶

Exercises may be given fractional (floating point) numbers, to allow for interpolation of new exercises. Exercises marked with a ♢ have solutions or hints at 34.1 Solutions for An Overview of Networks .

1.0. Give forwarding tables for each of the switches S1-S4 in the following network with destinations A, B, C, D. For the next_hop column, give the neighbor on the appropriate link rather than the interface number.

2.0. Give forwarding tables for each of the switches S1-S4 in the following network with destinations A, B, C, D. Again, use the neighbor form of next_hop rather than the interface form. Try to keep the route to each destination as short as possible. What decision has to be made in this exercise that did not arise in the preceding exercise?

3.0. In the network of the previous exercise, suppose that destinations directly connected to an immediate neighbor are always reached via that neighbor; eg S1’s forwarding table will always include ⟨B,S2⟩ and ⟨D,S4⟩. This leaves only routes to the diagonally opposite nodes undetermined ( eg S1 to C). Show that, no matter which next_hop entries are chosen for the diagonally opposite destinations, no routing loops can ever be formed. (Hint: the number of links to any diagonally opposite switch is always 2.)

4.0.♢ Give forwarding tables for each of the switches A-E in the following network. Destinations are A-E themselves. Keep all route lengths the minimum possible (one hop for an immediate neighbor, two hops for everything else). If a destination is an immediate neighbor, you may list its next_hop as direct or local for simplicity. Indicate destinations for which there is more than one choice for next_hop.

5.0. Consider the following arrangement of switches and destinations. Give forwarding tables (in neighbor form) for S1-S4 that include default forwarding entries; the default entries should point toward S5 . The default entries will thus automatically forward to the “possible other destinations” shown below right.

Eliminate all table entries that are implied by the default entry (that is, if the default entry is to S3, eliminate all other entries for which the next hop is S3).

6.0. Four switches are arranged as below. The destinations are S1 through S4 themselves.

7.0. Suppose we have switches S1 through S4; the forwarding-table destinations are the switches themselves. The tables for S2 and S3 are as below, where the next_hop value is specified in neighbor form:

S2: ⟨S1,S1⟩ ⟨S3,S3⟩ ⟨S4,S3⟩ S3: ⟨S1,S2⟩ ⟨S2,S2⟩ ⟨S4,S4⟩

From the above we can conclude that S2 must be directly connected to both S1 and S3 as its table lists them as next_hops; similarly, S3 must be directly connected to S2 and S4.

S3: ⟨S1,S4⟩ ⟨S2,S2⟩ ⟨S4,S4⟩

While the table for S4 is not given, you may assume that forwarding does work correctly. However, you should not assume that paths are the shortest possible. Hint: It follows from the S3 table above that the path from S3 to S1 starts S3 ⟶ S4; how will this path continue? The next switch along the path cannot be S1, because of the hypothesis that S1 and S4 are not directly connected.

8.0. (a) Suppose a network is as follows, with the only path from A to C passing through B:

Explain why a single routing loop cannot include both A and C. Hint: if the loop involves destination D, how does B forward to D?

(b). Suppose a routing loop follows the path A──S 1 ──S 2 ── … ──S n ──A, where none of the S i are equal to A. Show that all the S i must be distinct. (A corollary of this is that any routing loop created by datagram-forwarding either involves forwarding back and forth between a pair of adjacent switches, or else involves an actual graph cycle in the network topology; linear loops of length greater than 1 are impossible.)

9.0. Consider the following arrangement of switches:

Suppose S1-S6 have the forwarding tables below. For each of the following destinations, suppose a packet is sent to the destination from S1 .

Give the switches the packet will pass through, including the initial switch S1, up until the final switch S10-S12.

S1: (A,S4), (B,S2), (C,S4), (D,S2), (E,S2), (F,S4) S2: (A,S5), (B,S5), (D,S5), (E,S3), (F,S3) S3: (B,S6), (C,S2), (E,S6), (F,S6) S4: (A,S10), (C,S5), (E,S10), (F,S5) S5: (A,S6), (B,S11), (C,S6), (D,S6), (E,S4), (F,S2) S6: (A,S3), (B,S12), (C,S12), (D,S12), (E,S5), (F,S12)

10.0. Suppose a set of nodes A-F and switches S1-S6 are connected as shown.

The links between switches are labeled with weights , which are used by some routing applications. The weights represent the cost of using that link. You are to find the path through S1-S6 with lowest total cost (that is, with smallest sum of weights), for each of the following transmissions. For example, the lowest-cost path from A to E is A–S1–S2–S5–E, for a total cost of 1+2=3; the alternative path A–S1–S4–S5–E has total cost 5+1=6.

(d). Give the complete forwarding table for S 2 , where all routes are selected for lowest total cost.

11.0. In exercise 7.0, the routes taken by packets A-D are reasonably direct, but the routes for E and F are rather circuitous.

Hint: you can do this by assigning a weight of 1 to all links except to one or two “bad” links; the “bad” links get a weight of 10. In each of (a) and (b) above, the route taken will be the route that avoids all the “bad” links. You must treat (a) entirely differently from (b); there is no assignment of weights that can account for both routes.

12.0. Suppose we have the following three Class C IP networks, joined by routers R1–R4. There is no connection to the outside Internet. Give the forwarding table for each router. For networks directly connected to a router ( eg 200.0.1/24 and R1), include the network in the table but list the next hop as direct or local .

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Top 5 Interesting Computer Network Research Topics

A computer network is a network of diverse computing hardware linked through different communication technologies to share various resources . The communication links of the network can be either wired (cables) or wireless (radio waves / IR signals).

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IEEE Standards Refinement

The layering approach in networking is used to divide the message into various chunks . Basically, there are seven layers in the networking process where each layer has unique responsibilities. All these layers co-operatively work together to transfer the message from one end to another (i.e., source to destination ). Now, we can see the available layers and their function in sequential order.

What are the layers of computer networks?

Physical Layer – Used for offering mechanical / electrical needs, distribute the bits through transmission medium
Data Link Layer – Used for offering hop-to-hop distribution, arrange the bits into frames
Network Layer – Used for offering internetworking, pass over the packets between source and destination
Transport Layer – Used for offering error correction and process-to-process distribution
Session Layer – Used for launching and manage temporary sessions
Presentation Layer – Used for data translation, compression, and encryption
Application Layer – User for users to access the network resources / services

With an aim to support wireless communications, numerous different technologies have been launched. Before selecting this technology, one should undergo deep study on which is more suitable for their computer network projects . Our research team will help you in both business/individual if you need the best guidance over that selection of innovative computer network research topics . Usually, we recommend the technology based on the requirement of your selected networking projects for final year students . For your information, here we have given you a few lists of communication technologies,

Communication Technologies in Computer Networks

Wi-Fi and Wi-Max
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)
Ultra-Wideband, Bluetooth and Zigbee
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Mobile Communication (4G, 5G, 5G Beyond and 6G)
Radar and Satellite Communication
3GPP – LTE-M, EC-GSM and Narrowband-IoT
Non-3GPP – Sigfox, Wieghtless and LoRa

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Current Technologies in Computer Networks

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Cloud Repatriation
Software Defined Networks
Fog-Edge Computing
UAV-Wireless Data Links
Responsive Internet Architecture
Multiple Cloud Services Technology
Internet of Things and Inter-Networking
Quantum and Serverless Computing
5G enabled Nano Technology
Digital Twin and Machine Learning (ML)
Digital Communications
Network Communications Protocols

For illustrative purpose, Digital Communication work in accordance with enabling communication technologies, modulation, signal processing projects, channel modeling, and error control . Similarly, Network Communications Protocols take an in-charge of routing, resource allocation, data distribution, and medium access control.

Both technologies/areas have high capabilities in a different dimension of the networking process. And they are network designing, model construction, networking testing on testbeds, experimental analysis, and performance assessments. Our researchers have given you the currently ongoing of innovative computer network research topics mentioned below for your reference.

Latest Computer Network Research Topics

Enhancing System Robustness in Decentralized Network
Improving Network Quality of Services and Resource Usage
SLA–Aware Resource Scheduling and Provisioning
Network Architectures Design and Processes Management

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Performance Analysis of Computer Networks

Now, we can see the performance measurement of the networking model. Through the sophisticated simulation tool / experimental testbeds , we can develop any kind of network scenario. Once the model is processed, then the efficiency of the model is verified by several metrics. Here, we have given you the metrics along with different modelling techniques .

Medium Access Control – Retransmissions Delay, Collisions and Packet loss
Network Protocols – Latency, Throughput and Packet loss
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Links and Transceivers – Block error ratio and Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)

What is computer network simulation?

Simulate the network model based on the code of the software application . Through code, we can instruct the model to perform our project requirements. At the end of the simulation, it yields the overall performance and behaviour of the network in different dimensions and metrics. Further, it also measures the communication between the network entities.

Purposes of source code

The source code of software has the main responsibility to create strong basements for designing and simulating the network model . Through the code only, the developers can make the smart work to tackle the problem in a simplified way. Effective code work is also a part of the contribution in research.

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Plan and design the model
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Based on experimental results, relate and enhance the hypothesis / model
Do the experiments and get the results

So far, we have discussed computer networks, network layers, communication technologies, current research areas, computer network research topics, project simulation, and performance estimation . Now, our development team has a list of widely used network simulator tools.

Network simulators let the users modify the simulator operations for their project needs. Then the users can analyze the system performance and entity behavior under different circumstances. Further, it supports communication standards/protocols like TCP, WLAN, CR, Wi-Max, WSN , and many more. Here, we have given you the list of a few best result yielding simulators which is more apt for computer network simulations,

Component-based network simulator with graphical user interface support
Allow to design traffic models, decentralized system, protocols, computer networks, multi-processors, and many more
Further, it enables animated and responsive simulation in modular environs
Empower to design and deploy network application, device and infrastructure
Develop predictive model, protocol and communication networks to interpret the network functionalities
Support both real-time wired and wireless models
Allow to create Finite State Automata for figuring out the network behavior
Easy to design and develop traffic models
Utilize QualNet analyzer to understand the obtained simulated outcome
Enabled OS: Linux and Windows

For instance, NS3 (network Simulator 3) is detailed here.

NS3 is one of the best simulation tools to design and simulate networking projects . With the help of this tool, we can virtually design different nodes through Helper classes. By the by, it enables the installation of internet stacks, applications, devices, and many more. Further, we can insert parameters in the channel for performance evaluation in implementing computer network research topics . And let them produce traffic at runtime and pass the packets from source to destination through the selected route path. The other special features are given as follows,

Create pcap file to get the core information of the transmitting packets. For instance: Source IP, Sequence no, Destination IP, etc. Employ Wireshark tool to view the pcap.
Trace the network route for assess number of packets send/receive. For this purpose, the trace files will be produced automatically to monitor whole network.
Easy to plot the graph from obtained simulation outcome in with assurance of preciseness.
Network Animator is released to depict the realistic view of the network through animation. It shows you the real structure and how the data are transferred between nodes.

To sum up, we have sufficient technical professionals to support you in all the latest research areas of computer networks . In addition, our developments also give you the best assistance in project development from tool selection to result in an assessment. So, if you need our reliable service computer network research topics, projects with source code then communicate our team.

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Computer Networking

Computer Networking: A Survey

September 2015

Sri Krishna Arts and Science College,Coimbatore

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Research Topics & Ideas: CompSci & IT

50+ Computer Science Research Topic Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

Finding and choosing a strong research topic is the critical first step when it comes to crafting a high-quality dissertation, thesis or research project. If you’ve landed on this post, chances are you’re looking for a computer science-related research topic , but aren’t sure where to start. Here, we’ll explore a variety of CompSci & IT-related research ideas and topic thought-starters, including algorithms, AI, networking, database systems, UX, information security and software engineering.

NB – This is just the start…

The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps . In this post, we’ll kickstart the process by sharing some research topic ideas within the CompSci domain. This is the starting point, but to develop a well-defined research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , along with a well-justified plan of action to fill that gap.

If you’re new to the oftentimes perplexing world of research, or if this is your first time undertaking a formal academic research project, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course. In it, we cover the process of writing a dissertation or thesis from start to end. Be sure to also sign up for our free webinar that explores how to find a high-quality research topic.

Overview: CompSci Research Topics

Algorithms & data structures
Artificial intelligence ( AI )
Computer networking
Database systems
Human-computer interaction
Information security (IS)
Software engineering
Examples of CompSci dissertation & theses

Topics/Ideas: Algorithms & Data Structures

An analysis of neural network algorithms’ accuracy for processing consumer purchase patterns
A systematic review of the impact of graph algorithms on data analysis and discovery in social media network analysis
An evaluation of machine learning algorithms used for recommender systems in streaming services
A review of approximation algorithm approaches for solving NP-hard problems
An analysis of parallel algorithms for high-performance computing of genomic data
The influence of data structures on optimal algorithm design and performance in Fintech
A Survey of algorithms applied in internet of things (IoT) systems in supply-chain management
A comparison of streaming algorithm performance for the detection of elephant flows
A systematic review and evaluation of machine learning algorithms used in facial pattern recognition
Exploring the performance of a decision tree-based approach for optimizing stock purchase decisions
Assessing the importance of complete and representative training datasets in Agricultural machine learning based decision making.
A Comparison of Deep learning algorithms performance for structured and unstructured datasets with “rare cases”
A systematic review of noise reduction best practices for machine learning algorithms in geoinformatics.
Exploring the feasibility of applying information theory to feature extraction in retail datasets.
Assessing the use case of neural network algorithms for image analysis in biodiversity assessment

Topics & Ideas: Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Applying deep learning algorithms for speech recognition in speech-impaired children
A review of the impact of artificial intelligence on decision-making processes in stock valuation
An evaluation of reinforcement learning algorithms used in the production of video games
An exploration of key developments in natural language processing and how they impacted the evolution of Chabots.
An analysis of the ethical and social implications of artificial intelligence-based automated marking
The influence of large-scale GIS datasets on artificial intelligence and machine learning developments
An examination of the use of artificial intelligence in orthopaedic surgery
The impact of explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) on transparency and trust in supply chain management
An evaluation of the role of artificial intelligence in financial forecasting and risk management in cryptocurrency
A meta-analysis of deep learning algorithm performance in predicting and cyber attacks in schools

Topics & Ideas: Networking

An analysis of the impact of 5G technology on internet penetration in rural Tanzania
Assessing the role of software-defined networking (SDN) in modern cloud-based computing
A critical analysis of network security and privacy concerns associated with Industry 4.0 investment in healthcare.
Exploring the influence of cloud computing on security risks in fintech.
An examination of the use of network function virtualization (NFV) in telecom networks in Southern America
Assessing the impact of edge computing on network architecture and design in IoT-based manufacturing
An evaluation of the challenges and opportunities in 6G wireless network adoption
The role of network congestion control algorithms in improving network performance on streaming platforms
An analysis of network coding-based approaches for data security
Assessing the impact of network topology on network performance and reliability in IoT-based workspaces

Free Webinar: How To Find A Dissertation Research Topic

Topics & Ideas: Database Systems

An analysis of big data management systems and technologies used in B2B marketing
The impact of NoSQL databases on data management and analysis in smart cities
An evaluation of the security and privacy concerns of cloud-based databases in financial organisations
Exploring the role of data warehousing and business intelligence in global consultancies
An analysis of the use of graph databases for data modelling and analysis in recommendation systems
The influence of the Internet of Things (IoT) on database design and management in the retail grocery industry
An examination of the challenges and opportunities of distributed databases in supply chain management
Assessing the impact of data compression algorithms on database performance and scalability in cloud computing
An evaluation of the use of in-memory databases for real-time data processing in patient monitoring
Comparing the effects of database tuning and optimization approaches in improving database performance and efficiency in omnichannel retailing

Topics & Ideas: Human-Computer Interaction

An analysis of the impact of mobile technology on human-computer interaction prevalence in adolescent men
An exploration of how artificial intelligence is changing human-computer interaction patterns in children
An evaluation of the usability and accessibility of web-based systems for CRM in the fast fashion retail sector
Assessing the influence of virtual and augmented reality on consumer purchasing patterns
An examination of the use of gesture-based interfaces in architecture
Exploring the impact of ease of use in wearable technology on geriatric user
Evaluating the ramifications of gamification in the Metaverse
A systematic review of user experience (UX) design advances associated with Augmented Reality
A comparison of natural language processing algorithms automation of customer response Comparing end-user perceptions of natural language processing algorithms for automated customer response
Analysing the impact of voice-based interfaces on purchase practices in the fast food industry

Research Topic Kickstarter - Need Help Finding A Research Topic?

Topics & Ideas: Information Security

A bibliometric review of current trends in cryptography for secure communication
An analysis of secure multi-party computation protocols and their applications in cloud-based computing
An investigation of the security of blockchain technology in patient health record tracking
A comparative study of symmetric and asymmetric encryption algorithms for instant text messaging
A systematic review of secure data storage solutions used for cloud computing in the fintech industry
An analysis of intrusion detection and prevention systems used in the healthcare sector
Assessing security best practices for IoT devices in political offices
An investigation into the role social media played in shifting regulations related to privacy and the protection of personal data
A comparative study of digital signature schemes adoption in property transfers
An assessment of the security of secure wireless communication systems used in tertiary institutions

Topics & Ideas: Software Engineering

A study of agile software development methodologies and their impact on project success in pharmacology
Investigating the impacts of software refactoring techniques and tools in blockchain-based developments
A study of the impact of DevOps practices on software development and delivery in the healthcare sector
An analysis of software architecture patterns and their impact on the maintainability and scalability of cloud-based offerings
A study of the impact of artificial intelligence and machine learning on software engineering practices in the education sector
An investigation of software testing techniques and methodologies for subscription-based offerings
A review of software security practices and techniques for protecting against phishing attacks from social media
An analysis of the impact of cloud computing on the rate of software development and deployment in the manufacturing sector
Exploring the impact of software development outsourcing on project success in multinational contexts
An investigation into the effect of poor software documentation on app success in the retail sector

CompSci & IT Dissertations/Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a CompSci-related research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together.

Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various CompSci-related degree programs to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

An array-based optimization framework for query processing and data analytics (Chen, 2021)
Dynamic Object Partitioning and replication for cooperative cache (Asad, 2021)
Embedding constructural documentation in unit tests (Nassif, 2019)
PLASA | Programming Language for Synchronous Agents (Kilaru, 2019)
Healthcare Data Authentication using Deep Neural Network (Sekar, 2020)
Virtual Reality System for Planetary Surface Visualization and Analysis (Quach, 2019)
Artificial neural networks to predict share prices on the Johannesburg stock exchange (Pyon, 2021)
Predicting household poverty with machine learning methods: the case of Malawi (Chinyama, 2022)
Investigating user experience and bias mitigation of the multi-modal retrieval of historical data (Singh, 2021)
Detection of HTTPS malware traffic without decryption (Nyathi, 2022)
Redefining privacy: case study of smart health applications (Al-Zyoud, 2019)
A state-based approach to context modeling and computing (Yue, 2019)
A Novel Cooperative Intrusion Detection System for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (Solomon, 2019)
HRSB-Tree for Spatio-Temporal Aggregates over Moving Regions (Paduri, 2019)

Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are quite specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. This is an important thing to keep in mind as you develop your own research topic. That is to say, to create a top-notch research topic, you must be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.

Fast-Track Your Research Topic

If you’re still feeling a bit unsure about how to find a research topic for your Computer Science dissertation or research project, check out our Topic Kickstarter service.

Investigating the impacts of software refactoring techniques and tools in blockchain-based developments.

Steps on getting this project topic

I want to work with this topic, am requesting materials to guide.

Information Technology -MSc program

It’s really interesting but how can I have access to the materials to guide me through my work?

That’s my problem also.

Investigating the impacts of software refactoring techniques and tools in blockchain-based developments is in my favour. May i get the proper material about that ?

BLOCKCHAIN TECHNOLOGY

I NEED TOPIC

Database Management Systems

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An Introduction to Computer Networking: A Survey

2019, IJSTE - International Journal of Science Technology & Engineering

Computer networks are a system of interconnected computers for the purpose of sharing digital information. The concept of a network began in 1962 when a server at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology was connected to a server in Santa Monica, California. Since that time the proliferation of computers and computer networks has increased significantly. One of the most significant challenges to networks is attacks on their resources caused by inadequate network security. In this research paper we highlight and overview concept of computer networks. Computer networks have become increasingly ubiquitous. In today's world, a computer network is much more than a collection of interconnected devices. Computer networks are a system of interconnected computers for the purpose of sharing digital information. The computer network enables to analyze, organize and disseminate the information that is essential to profitability. The rise of intranets and internets is the important aspect of computer networking. Intranets and internets are private business networks that are based on internet technology. The businesses are currently implementing intranets at a breakneck pace and for one reason only, an intranet enables a business to collect, manage and disseminate information more quickly and easily than ever before. Many businesses are implementing intranets simply to remain competitive; business that delay is likely to see their competition outdistance them. In this article we are presenting the basic concepts of networking.

Related Papers

FEMI ARAMIDE

The paper examines in detail the concepts of computer network, security and auditing of computer network. In effect, the paper highlights the difference, historical antecedents and the different types of networks as well as their classifications. The paper also examined major properties of a good network in terms of scope and typology. The paper concludes that for effective functioning a regular appraisal of performance auditing as well as good security for the network must be ensured.

Sayed Ashraf Husaini Kazi

IOSR Journals

In recent days, the wide use of computer networks has been marked its sign to the modern civilization. Almost in all the organizations, various types of computer networks, namely, LAN, MAN, WAN, PAN, CAN, SAN etc. are used. While using a computer network, the main factors, which arise are, 1. Construction of the network, 2. Type of the network, 3. Good features of the network for smooth computing, and 4. Security of the network. In this theoretical paper, a different concept, " Private Area Network " is designed which should be implemented in the university or college campuses for cost effective, smooth and secured routing. This paper is basically a combinational implementation of " Cisco EIGRP " , " ACL mechanism " and a different " CAN (Campus Area Network) " with Networking Security Concept. In this system, the higher authority can directly contact to the desired department with secured and hassle-free computing. The network should be implemented with the help of construction plans mentioned in this paper. Protocols must be maintained according to the guidelines and then the security concept will prevent the network from various attacks.

Sagar Rajpal

With the advancement of technology and growth in the wireless industry over time, there seems to be a major change every few years and the recent advancement is Wi-Fi 802.11ac. People are more inclined to use the wireless network within the organisations, campuses and offices. The recent advancement is the fifth generation of Wi-Fi (802.11ac) which has extended the benefits of the previous Wi-Fi (802.11n) with increase in data rate, channel bandwidth, and is more scalable and also the operating frequency. The organisations which started in the late 2012 and early 2013 have a very good chance of deploying these new technologies without any overhead cost or just a minimum amount when compared to other organisations. The brief overview of computer networks has been given in chapter-1 along with the OSI model, network types and topologies. The chapter-2 will discuss the wireless network in detail and their standards. As every network requires security for its proper functioning, it also has to maintain the network availability. The security concerns and types of DoS attacks that can affect the network along with some strategies of prevent such attacks have been discussed in chapter-3. Chapter-4 will briefly illustrate the types of network simulators which are used to simulate a network. The main aim of the project is simulate a wireless network for a small and a medium sized office network and to find the denial of service point which is illustrated in the Chapters-5 and 6 show the simulation of the wireless network with mobile stations and server and wireless network with fixed workstations and server respectively.

eSAT Journals

This paper grabs the detail study on information about Computer Networking. Two distinct electronic media communicating between themselves and forming a group within its area can be termed as Computer Networking. In the modern globe, communication is the most essential part of living creatures and the need of communication, from one end of the world to the other end, gave rise to the system of Networking. There are various types of forming of the network. Networking and its different types and uses will be studied throughout the paper. Further part of the paper will deal in detail on the topic of networking devices that forms the base of a successful network. We propose a methodology to use human body as a transmitting medium to pass data in a Human Area Network (HAN).

moses Aggor

IJHES Indonesia

Chief E D I T O R IJRISAT

This paper describes about the computing environment and types of network used and various others existed possible networks available for certain purpose and can be used in the computer network environment. As everyone knows about the computer network, basically it is a collection of computer machine, servers, network devices, mainframes or any devices which has the capacity or features of connecting to each other and can form a network. Minimum two machines or device can be connected and can be said as a computer network. Now this network is capable to share information or data within the connected devices or networks only. Its best suited example can be internet where many more than the million peoples are confined within the networks and exchange data or information worldwide in fractions of seconds on a single click of computer keyboard. Often we see and use widely in the applications of cloud computing and cyber crimes and security concern.

Yahya Yaqobi

abdullah alrashdan

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Latest Research Topics in Networking

Latest Research Topics in Networking offer newfangled project topics for our students from bachelors and master degree (B.E/M.E/M.Phil/M.Tech/MCA) in the field of networking. Networking is the biggest and fastest emerging area, making it hinder students with new research into networking technologies. However, students spend more money on their networking projects. To help our students, we also offer the latest networking projects at optimum cost as far as we also provided 5000+ projects from 120+ countries students from all over the world.

We develop projects both in software and hardware, and in software, we use both open source and proprietary software. We also suggest our students always choose the latest topics because the latest ideas only give something innovative and colorful.

Think well…Always be a part of us… we pose your pioneering projects…..

Topics in Networking

Latest Research Topics in Networking covers possible list of topics intended also for under graduate and also post graduate students and scholars. In networking, security is one of the major issues in all types of wired and wireless networks, e.g., cloud networking. There is also a lot of research in the networking field because it is also a vast area that prefers among more users.

Generally, networking is defined as the computing devices that exchange information and share ideas among individuals or groups of devices or users using either wired or wireless connection.

Let us see the latest topics in networking,

Secure and control sensitive data also in cloud environment (any)
The future of IoT and also bio metrics
Software defined networking
Network security and also cryptography
Network Function Virtualization
Cognitive computing and also machine learning
Micro services architecture
Adaptive security
Augmented and virtual reality
Cloud networking
Big data analytics in mobile networking
Smart personal assistants
Wearable’s in sensor networks
Blockchain as a service (BaaS)
Containerization (traditional virtualization)
Resource allocation SDN
Ultra dense wireless networks planning
SDN + Virtualized radio Access Networks also with Fog computing
Spectrum efficiency enhancement by LTE-U also with Wi-Fi
5G wireless backhaul networks
SDN based Elastic optical networks also in cloud.
Green mobile cloud network: Green cloudlet
C-RAN: Cloud Radio Access Network
5G networks multicasting
Traffic engineering also in software defined networks
D2D communication in 5G
Over Wi-Fi secure device-to-device communication
Cloud Robotics
5G networks for visible light communication
Big data in mobile cloud networks
Prevention and also in detection of network attacks
SDN network automation to 802.11ac and also in IPv6

Simulation Tools, Software’s and Programming Languages Used in Networking Projects

Programming languages:.

R-programming
Matlab and also in scilab

Simulation Software’s:

Psimulator2
Network simulators (NS2 and also in NS3)

Other Tools:

Matlab Simulink
Matlab tool boxes
Word net tool
And also in MADAMIRA tool

We also provide a few collections of networking and simulation tools, software, and programming languages for developing projects in the networking and other areas. For each project, we give PPT, documents, video files, and also completed code implementation. Our additional support for our students is journal paper writing support, paper publication in high reputed journals, and thesis writing support.

A good beginning is often overt as happy endings…..

Let us come together for your immense research…… , related pages, services we offer.

Mathematical proof

Pseudo code

Conference Paper

Research Proposal

System Design

Literature Survey

Data Collection

Thesis Writing

Data Analysis

Rough Draft

Paper Collection

Code and Programs

Paper Writing

Course Work

10 computer networking concepts you should master

Last Edited

In this post, I am going to talk about the 10 computer networking concepts that every professional should master. I will also include links to the main articles of each concept. So, let’s start with some definitions:

1. Network Topology

The word “topology” comes from topos, which is Greek for «place». In computer networking , TOPOLOGY is the physical layout of computers, cables, switches, routers, and other components of a network. This term can also refer to the underlying network architecture, such as Ethernet or Token Ring.

When you design a network, your choice of topology will be determined by the size, architecture, cost, and management of the network. Basic network topologies include the following:

Bus Topology
Ring Topology
Star Topology
Mesh Topology
Tree Topology
Hybrid Topology

To learn more please feel free to read our main article: Network Topology .

2. Local Area Network / Wide Area Network

LAN stands for Local Area Network and WAN stands for Wide Area Network . A network is any group of computers (servers and workstations) and devices, like smartphones and printers, that are connected together and able to communicate with each other.

So, LAN is the local network, network devices connected together within the same geographic location. A WAN connects LANs to each other, usually across multiple locations as well as individual devices that connect from a remote distance.

A WAN may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The internet is an example of a worldwide public WAN.

3. The OSI Model

OSI Model is a short name for the Open Systems Interconnection reference model for networking.

This theoretical model explains how networks behave within an orderly, seven-layered model for networked communication. The OSI model isn’t specific to a protocol suite and can be applied to most networking protocols past and present.

7 Layers OSI Model

Layer 1 – Physical Layer
Layer 2 – Data-link Layer
Layer 3 – Network Layer
Layer 4 – Transport Layer
Layer 5 – Session Layer
Layer 6 – Presentation Layer
Layer 7 – Application Layer

To learn more about this concept read the main article: OSI model .

4. Network equipment (routers and switches)

Network equipment includes a broad range of devices which can be classified as core network components that interconnect other network components, hybrid components which can be found in the core or border of a network, and hardware or software components that typically sit on the connection point of different networks.

The Network Switch allows each connected device to talk to the others.

Router and Switch are both network connecting devices. A router works at the network layer and is responsible to find the shortest path for a packet whereas a Switch connects various devices in a network. A router connects devices across multiple networks. Switch’s main objective is to connect various devices in a network.

5. Physical Transmission Medium (cabling)

Network Cabling is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs.

There are two basic types of cabling used in LAN networking environments:

Copper cabling , which consists of insulated copper conductors that transmit signals using electrical voltages and currents. It can be coaxial cabling , UTP or STP .
Fiber-optic cabling , which is made of glass strands that transmit signals as light waves or pulses. Fiber-optic cabling can be either single-mode , which is used for the longest cable runs, or multimode , which has a much higher carrying capacity.

Read the main article about network cabling .

6. Wireless networking

Wireless networking is a wireless computer network that links two or more devices using wireless communication to form a local area network ( LAN ) within a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or office building.

The IEEE 802.11 has two basic modes of operation: infrastructure and ad hoc mode. In ad hoc mode, mobile units transmit directly peer-to-peer. In infrastructure mode, mobile units communicate through a wireless access point (WAP) that serves as a bridge to other networks (such as the Internet or a local area network).

7. Communication protocols

Communications protocols are a set of rules required to exchange information between computing systems. Like any spoken language, these protocols allow computers to understand each other.

These protocols define the rules, syntax, semantics, and synchronization of communication and possible error recovery methods.

Most common communication protocols:

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol ( DHCP ) is a client/server protocol that automatically provides an Internet Protocol (IP) host with its IP address and other related configuration information such as the subnet mask and default gateway. DHCP allows hosts to obtain required TCP/IP configuration information from a DHCP server.

In short, DNS is a global database system that relates IP addresses with an easy-to-remember name. For computers to communicate, it is essential that each network component has one unique identifier (IP address). But when a human needs to identify a specific network component, it is very difficult to remember something like 101.87.23.122. So, there is a global system called DNS that allows giving a specific name (with some rules attached) to an IP address.

10. Network Security

The last of this list of computer networking concepts is Network security.

Network security is the protection of the underlying networking infrastructure from unauthorized access, misuse, or theft. It involves creating a secure infrastructure for devices, applications, users, and applications to work in a secure manner. See, as examples, the articles about implementing a firewall and what is a VPN .

Just resuming, here are 10 of the most important computer networking concepts:

Network topology
Local Area Network / Wide Area Network
OSI 7 layer model
Routers and Switchs (network hardware)
Physical transmission medium (cabling)
Wireless Networking
Communication protocols (TCP/IP)
Network Security (VPN and Firewall)

Engineering Mathematics
Discrete Mathematics
Operating System
Computer Networks
Digital Logic and Design
C Programming
Data Structures
Theory of Computation
Compiler Design
Computer Org and Architecture

Computer Network Tutorial

A computer network is a collection of computers or devices connected to share resources. Any device which can share or receive the data is called a Node. Through which the information or data propagate is known as channels, It can be guided or unguided.

In this Computer network tutorial, you’ll learn basic to advanced concepts like the Basics of computer networks, data link layer, network layer, network security and cryptography, compression techniques, etc.

Mastering computer network concepts is vital for exams like GATE, where networking is a significant portion of the syllabus. To strengthen your understanding and excel in your preparation, consider the GATE CS Self-Paced Course . This course provides comprehensive coverage of networking topics, including detailed tutorials and explanations, helping you build the expertise needed to succeed in your exams.

Data Link Layer :

Local Area Network (LAN) Technologies.
Computer Network | Bridges (local Internetworking device)
Internetworking
Framing In Data Link Layer
Introduction of MAC Address
MAC Filtering
Multiple Access Protocols
Ethernet Frame Format
EtherChannel
Difference between Byte stuffing and Bit stuffing
Implementing Byte stuffing using Java
Circuit Switching
Packet Switching and Delays
Circuit Switching VS Packet Switching
Differences between Virtual Circuits & Datagram Networks
Switching techniques: Message switching
Types of switches
Maximum data rate (channel capacity) for noiseless and noisy channels
Hot Spot 2.0
Collision Avoidance in wireless networks
Traditional wireless mobile communication
Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA)
Collision Detection in CSMA/CD
Efficiency of CSMA/CD
Back-off Algorithm for CSMA/CD
Controlled Access Protocols
Virtual LAN (VLAN)
Inter VLAN Routing by Layer 3 Switch
Computer Network | Private VLAN
Computer Network | VLAN ACL (VACL)
Access and trunk ports
Role-based access control
Port security
Inter-Switch Link (ISL) and IEEE 802.1Q
Dynamic Trunking Protocol (DTP)
Sliding Window Protocol | Set 1 (Sender Side)
Sliding Window Protocol | Set 2 (Receiver Side)
Sliding Window Protocol | Set 3 (Selective Repeat)
Sliding Window protocols Summary
Stop and Wait ARQ
Difference between Stop and Wait, GoBackN and Selective Repeat
Manchester Encoding
Error Detection
Hamming Code
Program to remotely Power On a PC over the Internet using the Wake-on-LAN protocol.
Basics of Wi-Fi
IEEE 802.11 Mac Frame
Efficiency Of Token Ring
Token Bus (IEEE 802.4)
Multiplexing (Channel Sharing)
Frequency division and Time division multiplexing

Network Layer :

Integrated services digital network (ISDN)
Introduction and IPv4 Datagram Header
IP Addressing | Introduction and Classful Addressing
IP Addressing | Classless Addressing
IPv4 classless Subnet equation
Supernetting
Ipv4 Datagram Fragmentation and Delays
Fragmentation at Network Layer
Internet Protocol v6 | IPv6
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) Header
Differences between IPv4 and IPv6
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Longest Prefix Matching in Routers
Routing v/s Routed Protocols
Fixed and Flooding Routing algorithms
Classes of routing protocols
Types of routing
Classification of Routing Algorithms
Routing Protocols Set 1 (Distance Vector Routing)
Route Poisoning and Count to infinity problem
Redundant link problems
Administrative Distance (AD) and Autonomous System (AS)
Unicast Routing – Link State Routing
Link state advertisement (LSA)
Securing Routing Protocols
Distance vector routing v/s Link state routing
Routing Information Protocol (RIP)
Routing Interface Protocol (RIP) V1 & V2
Redistribution
EIGRP fundamentals
EIGRP Configuration
Features of Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)
EIGRP cost calculation
Open shortest path first (OSPF) protocol fundamentals
Open shortest path first (OSPF) router roles and configuration
Open shortest path first (OSPF) protocol States
Open shortest path first (OSPF) – Set 2
Probabilistic shortest path routing algorithm for optical networks
Types of Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)
Network address translation (NAT)
Types of Network address translation (NAT)
Static NAT (on ASA)
Dynamic NAT (on ASA)
VRRP(Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol) | Introduction and configuration
Hot Standby Router Protocol (HSRP)
Hot Standby Router Protocol (HSRP) and Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol (VRRP)
Router on a stick | Introduction and Configuration
What’s difference between Ping and Traceroute?
ARP, Reverse ARP(RARP), Inverse ARP(InARP), Proxy ARP and Gratuitous ARP
How ARP works?
Packet flow in the same network
Packet flow in different network
Wifi protected access (WPA)
Wifi protected setup (WPS)
LiFi vs. WiFi
Service Set Identifier (SSID)
Access-lists (ACL)
Context based access control (CBAC)
Standard Access-list
Extended access-list
Reflexive Access-list
Time based access-list
AAA (Authentication, Authorization and Accounting)
AAA (authentication) configuration (locally)
Challenge Response Authentication Mechanism (CRAM)
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)
TACACS+ and RADIUS

Transport Layer :

TCP Connection Establishment
TCP 3-Way Handshake Process
TCP Connection Termination
TCP Sequence Number | Wrap Around Concept
Transport Layer responsibilities
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing in Transport Layer
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
P2P(Peer To Peer) File Sharing
Congestion Control
TCP Congestion Control
Congestion control techniques
Leaky Bucket Algorithm
Error Control in TCP
TCP | Services and Segment structure
TCP Server-Client implementation in C
TCP and UDP server using select

Application Layer :

Protocols in Application Layer
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
DNS (Domain Name Server)
Why does DNS use UDP and not TCP?
Address Resolution in DNS
DNS Spoofing or DNS Cache poisoning
Types of DNS Attacks and Tactics for Security
What’s difference between http:// and https:// ?
What’s difference between HTML and HTTP ?
HTTP Non-Persistent & Persistent Connection | Set 1
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
What are the differences between HTTP, FTP, and SMTP?
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
What is Local Host?
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
DHCP Relay Agent
How DHCP server dynamically assigns IP address to a host?
What’s difference between The Internet and The Web ?
Simple network management protocol (SNMP)
Multipurpose Internet mail extension (MIME)
Computer Network | MIME Media Types
Quality of Service and Multimedia
Web Caching and the Conditional GET Statements

Compression Techniques :

LZW (Lempel–Ziv–Welch) Compression technique
Data Compression With Arithmetic Coding
Shannon-Fano Algorithm for Data Compression

Network Experiments :

Let’s experiment with Networking
Mobile Ad hoc Network
Types of MANET
Simple Chat Room using Python
Socket Programming in Java
C Program to find IP Address, Subnet Mask & Default Gateway
Introduction to variable length subnet mask (VLSM)
Extracting MAC address using Python
Implementation of Diffie-Hellman Algorithm
Java Implementation of Deffi-Hellman Algorithm between Client and Server
Socket Programming in Python
Socket Programming with Multi-threading in Python
Cyclic Redundancy Check in Python
Explicitly assigning port number to client in Socket
Netstat command in Linux:
nslookup command in Linux with Examples
UDP Server-Client implementation in C
C program for file Transfer using UDP
Java program to find IP address of your computer
Finding IP address of a URL in Java
Program to calculate the Round Trip Time (RTT)
Network configuration and trouble shooting commands in Linux
Implementing Checksum Using Java
C Program to display hostname and IP address
Program to determine class, Network and Host ID of an IPv4 address
Program to determine Class, Broadcast address and Network address of an IPv4 address
Program for IP forwarding table lookup
Wi-Fi Password of All Connected Networks in Windows/Linux
Network Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router and Gateways)
Inside a Router
Bridges (local Internetworking device)
Switch functions at layer 2
Collision Domain and Broadcast Domain
Root Bridge Election in Spanning Tree Protocol
Onion Routing
Types of Server Virtualization
Cloud Computing | Characteristics of Virtualization
On-premises cost estimates of Virtualization
Hardware Based Virtualization
Operating system based Virtualization
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Image Steganography
Network Neutrality
Basics of NS2 and Otcl/tcl script
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
Cisco router modes
Cisco router basic commands
Backing up Cisco IOS router image
Basic configuration of adaptive security appliance (ASA)
Adaptive security appliance (ASA) features
Default flow of traffic (ASA)
Cisco ASA Redistribution example
Telnet and SSH on Adaptive security appliance (ASA)
Near Field Communication (NFC)
Relabel-to-front Algorithm
Berkeley’s Algorithm
Cristian’s Algorithm
Universal Serial Bus (USB) in Computer Network
Type-C Port in Computer Network

FAQs on Computer Networks

Q.1 what are the types of computer network.

PAN(Personal Area Network) : It is the network connecting computer devices for personal use within a range of 10 meters. LAN(Local Area Network) : It is a collection of computers connected to each other in a small area for example school, office, or building. WAN(Wide Area Network) : A Wide Area Network is a large area than the LAN. It is spread across the states or countries. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network) : A Metropolitan area network is the collection of interconnected Local Area Networks.

Q.2 What are link and node?

A link is a connection between two or more computers. Link can be wired or wireless between two nodes. A node is refer to any device in a network like computers, laptops, printers, servers, modems, etc.

Q.3 What is the network topology?

Network topology is the physical design of the network, It represents the connectivity between the devices, cables, computers, etc.

Q.4 What are different types of network topology?

There are different types of topology are given below: Bus Topology Star Topology Ring Topology Mesh Topology Tree Topology Hybrid

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Computer Networks - Types & Functions

Computer Networks - Types & Functions

A computer network is a group of computers that use a set of common communication protocols over digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources located on or provided by the network nodes.

With respect to the Computer Knowledge section in the major Government exams conducted, the Computer Networking forms an extremely important topic and questions are frequently asked from this concept.

In this article, we bring to you the detailed information about the different types of Computer networks, their definition and functions along with the different types of node devices.

Candidates can also take the reference as to what this concept is all about through the video given below. This will enable candidates to get a more interactive interface to understand the topic and get a better analysis of the concept.

What is a Computer Network?

Before moving forward with the article and learning more about the types of computer networks, it is important for candidates to understand what is a network and how it affects the functioning of one or more computers connected with each other.

Definition – A group of computers which are connected to each other and follow similar usage protocols for the purpose of sharing information and having communications provided by the networking nodes is called a Computer Network.

A network may be small where it may include just one system or maybe as large as what one may want. The nodes may further be classified into various types. These include:

Personal Computers
Networking Hardware
General Hosts

Networking can be classified into three types:

Types of Computer Networks

Interpreters

We shall discuss all three in detail further below in this article.

There are five main types of Computer Networks:

Systems connected in a small network like in a building or a small office
It is inexpensive
It uses Ethernet or Token-ring technology
Two or more personal computers can be connected through wires or cables acting as nodes
Transfer of data is fast and is highly score
The smallest computer network
Devices may be connected through Bluetooth or other infra-red enables devices
It has a connectivity range of upto 10 metres
It covers an area of upto 30 feet
Personal devices belonging to a single person can be connected to each other using PAN
A network that can be connected within a city, for example, cable TV Connection
It can be in the form of Ethernet, ATM, Token-ring and FDDI
It has a higher range
This type of network can be used to connect citizens with the various Organisations
A network which covers over a country or a larger range of people
Telephonic lines are also connected through WAN
Internet is the biggest WAN in the world
Mostly used by Government Organisations to manage data and information
A network which is constructed by using public wires to connect to a private network
There are a number of systems which enable you to create networks using the Internet as a medium for transporting data
These systems use encryptions and other security mechanisms to ensure only authorised users can access

For a few candidates understanding the different computer networking terms may be a bit tough and the same applies to other computer-related terminology, applications and software. So, to upgrade your Computer Awareness, refer to the difference between articles given below:

Difference Between RAM and ROM
Difference Between MS Excel and MS Word
Difference Between IPV4 and IPV 6
Difference Between Firewall and Antivirus
Difference Between WWW and Internet
Difference Between Notepad and WordPad
Difference Between Virus and Malware

Network Topologies

Given below are the eight types of Network Topologies:

Point to Point Topology – Point to Point topology is the simplest topology that connects two nodes directly together with a common link.
Bus Topology – A bus topology is such that there is a single line to which all nodes are connected and the nodes connect only to the bus
Mesh Topology – This type of topology contains at least two nodes with two or more paths between them
Ring Topology – In this topology every node has exactly two branches connected to it. The ring is broken and cannot work if one of the nodes on the ring fails
Star Topology – In this network topology, the peripheral nodes are connected to a central node, which rebroadcasts all the transmissions received from any peripheral node to all peripheral nodes on the network, including the originating node
Tree Topology – In this type of topology nodes are connected in the form of a tree. The function of the central node in this topology may be distributed
Line Topology – in this topology all the nodes are connected in a straight line
Hybrid Topology – When two more types of topologies combine together, they form a Hybrid topology

Network Devices

Discussed below are a few important network devices from the exam point of view:

Network Repeater – Used to generate incoming electrical, wireless or optical signals
Network Hub – It is a small network device. It joins multiple computers together to form a single network segment. On this segment, all computers can interact with each other
Network Switch – It is a small hardware device which joins multiple computers together with a single LAN
Network Router – This device interfaces in multiple networks whose task is to copy packages from one network to another. It provides connectivity inside enterprises, between Enterprises and the Internet and within an ISP
Network Bridge – It reads the outermost section of the data packet to tell where the message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments.
Modem – This device converts digital signals into analog signals. It is always placed between a telephone and a computer system

All the information given above will help candidates prepare themselves for the Computer Knowledge section in the upcoming Government exams and ace it.

Sample Questions – Computer Networks

It is also important to go through the topic of Computer Networks from the examination point of view. Computer Knowledge is included in the syllabus for all major competitive exams and can be one of the most scoring subjects as the questions asked are very basic and not much complex.

Thus, to assist candidates and help them understand the type of questions which may be asked from this concept, discussed below are a few question and answers based on Computer Network. Candidates can refer to these and start their preparation.

Q 1. Which of the following is not a type of network topology?

All of the above are a type of network topology

Answer: (2) Circle

Q 2. The network device converts digital signals into analog signals and can be connected through a telephone is called _____

Answer: (1) Modem

Q 3. Which of the following terms is related to sending data to a satellite?

Answer: (1) Uplink

Q 4. ______ topology is the simplest topology that connects two nodes directly together with a common link.

Point to Point
None of the above

Answer: (1) Point to Point

Q 5. Which is the shortest network covering network?

Answer: (4) Personal Area Network (PAN)

Q 6. When two or more topologies connect together, they are called ______

Tree Topology
Cluster Topology
Hybrid Topology
Mesh Topology
Line Topology

Answer: (3) Hybrid Topology

Q 7. ATM is a form of _____

Local Area Network
Wide Area Network
Metropolitan Area Network
Personal Area Network
Virtual Private Network

Answer: (3) Metropolitan Area Network

Q 8. _______ is a small hardware device which joins multiple computers together with a single LAN.

Answer: (2) Switch

Q 9. A collection of various computers into a single coherent system, provided to a client, is called _______.

Distributed System
Computer Network
Systematic Network
Collective Network

Answer: (1) Distributed System

Q 10. A network which is constructed by using public wires to connect to a private network is called ______

Answer: (5) Virtual Private Network

All the questions given above are of a similar pattern followed in the competitive exams. Computer Network forms an important part from which questions may be asked in the final exam. Thus, preparing it well is extremely important.

Aspirants can also check the detailed Strategy for Competitive Exam Preparation at the linked article and start their preparation accordingly.

Also, for any further update, candidates can visit BYJU’S and get the latest information, study material and tips to prepare.

Government Exams Related Links

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The development of computer networks has enabled the development of gambling platforms

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Core Elements of Computer Networking

Wireless access point
Additionally, some software can be added for performing managing, securing, and monitoring the network.
This network also has standard protocols for communication between nodes.
VoIP is a type of protocol that is used to transfer the IP telephony traffic to the end devices in the network.
Then, TCP/IP is a group of communication protocol for sending and receiving messages; also provide a service for IP networks.
Here one of the common protocols is available for viewing the webpage that is HTTP.

Form the above elements used in the construction of computer networks . If you doing are projects in the Computer network field, these are important to know for your innovative projects. Our experts are always ready for providing the best service for you. With passion, we are offering plenty of admiring project ideas for students and researchers . The upcoming section contains some topics about recent time projects developed and developing by us.

Top 10 Interesting Computer Network Project Topics

Wireless Multimedia Systems
5G/6G Cellular Systems and Heterogeneous Networks
SDN/NFV and Network Programmability
Big Data / IoT Analytics in Networking
Network Services and Applications
Communication Network Architectures, Protocols, and Design
Network Security and Privacy
Energy Saving Protocols for Ad hoc Networks
Information / Content centric networks
Machine Learning and AI in Networking

These are the project area which is developing in our concern. Do you interested in any other kind of areas in the relevant field. We are giving an idea and explaining projects in-depth manner . Continuously, our experts provide a list of Computer Network Project Topics for your better understanding.

List of projects in computer networks

In a cryptographic system, quantum cryptography is used to implement quantum mechanics principles.
Eavesdropping detection is an important feature of this project. Using quantum principles the probabilistic of eavesdropping is detected and solved.
For increasing message security, the conventional secret-key cryptography technique is used.
The main goal of this project is to construct the collaborative interaction model for client and server communication.
Bluetooth helps to share the streaming data among Maxell Digital Pen and servers.
In this project data, traffic handling is solved by TCP and UDP protocols.
In some critical situations like emergency operations and efforts for disaster relief, it is necessary to establish a fast and secure connection.
This project contains the concept of ORWAR (Opportunistic DTN Routing with Window-aware Adaptive Replication).
This ORWAR protocol is used to minimize the delay time and make the connection fast and secure.
This project has some issues that are due to the use of efficient network resources the rate of success is decreased.
To overcome this problem, it can be extended this architecture with an NS3 network simulator. It consists of a group of protocols that are used to maintain the delay for this network.
The main purpose of this project is to improve the flooding mechanism.
This goal is attained in this project using the special method that is SMF (statistic matric form) by selecting the nearby nodes based on capability.
The transmission distance between nearby neighbors
Number of shared files
Query service
Content quality
This project produces an effective result for increasing the flooding mechanism inefficient manner.
When the SMF method is compared to dynamic unstructured P2P networks, it gives 80% of the best result, a high success rate, and minimum response time.
Heterogeneous networks are used to improve the cellular network and its performance.
But, in some interference of new scenarios, it makes some problems in the heterogeneity of the system.
To overcome this problem, in this project 3GPP and three types of network configuration are used to gain a better result.

Generally, these kinds of projects are widely used in modern technologies. In this case, many of these projects are developed by our developers . They are updating their knowledge themselves and adapting to recent technology. In our concern, we are always providing guidance that helps in your submission of projects by choosing novel Computer Network Project Topics .

Future Directions in Computer Networks

5G networks for decoupled network and user control techniques.
Detect the Hyperspectral Anomaly for spectral constrained generative networks using weakly supervised discriminative learning algorithms.
Blockchain to construct the Lyapunov-based MEC network using robust and adaptive routing protocols.
Computer vision techniques to generate the automatic preview of the images based on video-based sequence analysis.
Traffic control model for an information-centric network with IoT wireless sensors

In the case of, project report/thesis writing we are provides on-time delivery with valuable information and trustworthy data from the benchmark sources and highly rated journals. Choose an interesting Computer Network Project Topics for your research work . So, immediately join us for implementing your innovative project.

Technology	Ph.D	MS	M.Tech
NS2	75	117	95
NS3	98	119	206
OMNET++	103	95	87
OPNET	36	64	89
QULANET	30	76	60
MININET	71	62	74
MATLAB	96	185	180
LTESIM	38	32	16
COOJA SIMULATOR	35	67	28
CONTIKI OS	42	36	29
GNS3	35	89	14
NETSIM	35	11	21
EVE-NG	4	8	9
TRANS	9	5	4
PEERSIM	8	8	12
GLOMOSIM	6	10	6
RTOOL	13	15	8
KATHARA SHADOW	9	8	9
VNX and VNUML	8	7	8
WISTAR	9	9	8
CNET	6	8	4
ESCAPE	8	7	9
NETMIRAGE	7	11	7
BOSON NETSIM	6	8	9
VIRL	9	9	8
CISCO PACKET TRACER	7	7	10
SWAN	9	19	5
JAVASIM	40	68	69
SSFNET	7	9	8
TOSSIM	5	7	4
PSIM	7	8	6
PETRI NET	4	6	4
ONESIM	5	10	5
OPTISYSTEM	32	64	24
DIVERT	4	9	8
TINY OS	19	27	17
TRANS	7	8	6
OPENPANA	8	9	9
SECURE CRT	7	8	7
EXTENDSIM	6	7	5
CONSELF	7	19	6
ARENA	5	12	9
VENSIM	8	10	7
MARIONNET	5	7	9
NETKIT	6	8	7
GEOIP	9	17	8
REAL	7	5	5
NEST	5	10	9
PTOLEMY	7	8	4

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Computer Networks Term Paper Topics
Computer Networks Term Paper Topics. Term paper topics. Open to non-CS majors only! You may also pick (and are in fact encouraged to pick) your own topic, but you must get the topic approved by me . Current allocation strategies for IP addresses. Say something about the market for IP-address blocks. History and current status of Internet ...
Computer Networking Dissertation Topics
Topic 1: An evaluation of the network security during machine to machine communication in IoT. Research Aim: The research aims to evaluate the network security issues associated with M2M communication in IoT. Objectives: To evaluate the factors affecting the network security of IoT devices. To determine the methods for increasing data integrity ...
1000 Computer Science Thesis Topics and Ideas
This section offers a well-organized and extensive list of 1000 computer science thesis topics, designed to illuminate diverse pathways for academic inquiry and innovation. Whether your interest lies in the emerging trends of artificial intelligence or the practical applications of web development, this assortment spans 25 critical areas of ...
15 Latest Networking Research Topics for Students
That being the case, this list contains 15 latest research topics in the field of networking. Whether you are a seasoned researcher or just starting, this list can provide you with ample inspiration and guidance to drive your research forward in the dynamic and evolving field of Networking. Explore a curated list of 15 research topics covering ...
PDF Lesson 1
This lesson provides a broad overview of the Computer Networking and the Internet. The lesson begins with an overview of the Internet and of networking protocols, introducing several key terms and concepts. We also examine the 'core' of a computer network, examining the links and switches that transport data.
Computer Networking
In subject area: Computer Science. Computer networking refers to the process of connecting computers together to enable communication between them. This involves the use of networks, which can be wired or wireless, to transmit data packets between computers. The field of computer networking originated in the 1960s with the development of packet ...
CS 550: Advanced Computer Networks (Modern Datacenters)
Course Overview. This advanced graduate-level course focuses on the key aspects of modern datacenter networking. Students will explore the differences between traditional Internet architectures and modern datacenters, with an emphasis on cutting-edge technologies, practical applications, and ongoing research.
Top 13 Thesis Topics in Computer Networking
Trending Thesis Topics in Computer Networking. Reliable Future Technologies of WBAN Security. Enhanced QoS Provisioning and Control. RFID assisted Mobile Devices Identification in WSN. Node Mobility and Spectrum Handoff Management. Controlling of Radio Resources for Improved Packet Access.
290334 PDFs
Deals with the various aspects and domain of Computer Networks and Communication, Cloud, and Grid Computing | Explore the latest full-text research PDFs, articles, conference papers, preprints and ...
COMP_SCI 397, 497: Selected Topics in Computer Networks
PREREQUISITES: Recommended: CS 340 or equivalent networking course Classes, Textbook, and other readings There will be no textbook for this class. A key part of the class will be to review and discuss networking research papers. Students must read the assigned papers and submit paper reviews before each lecture.
105 Latest Cyber Security Research Topics in 2024
105 Latest Cyber Security Research Topics in 2024
1 An Overview of Networks
1.1 Layers¶. These three topics - LANs, IP and TCP - are often called layers; they constitute the Link layer, the Internetwork layer, and the Transport layer respectively.Together with the Application layer (the software you use), these form the "four-layer model" for networks.A layer, in this context, corresponds strongly to the idea of a programming interface or library, with the ...
Top 5 Interesting Computer Network Research Topics
A computer network is a network of diverse computing hardware linked through different communication technologies to share various resources.The communication links of the network can be either wired (cables) or wireless (radio waves / IR signals).. This page shows you useful information on Computer Network Research Topics, Projects with Source Code, Research Areas, Project Topics, and Tools!!!
(PDF) Computer Networking: A Survey
Computer networks are a. system of i nterconnected computers for the purpose of. sharing digital information. The computer network. enables to analyze, organize and disseminate the. information ...
Computer Science Research Topics (+ Free Webinar)
If you've landed on this post, chances are you're looking for a computer science-related research topic, but aren't sure where to start. Here, we'll explore a variety of CompSci & IT-related research ideas and topic thought-starters, including algorithms, AI, networking, database systems, UX, information security and software ...
An Introduction to Computer Networking: A Survey
Computer networks are a system of interconnected computers for the purpose of sharing digital information. ... Further part of the paper will deal in detail on the topic of networking devices that forms the base of a successful network. ... but smaller than the area covered by a wide area network (WAN). The term is applied to the ...
Network Term Paper Topics
Network Term Paper Topics - Free download as PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. network term paper topics
Top 15+ Latest Research Topics in Networking (Help)
Software defined networking. Network security and also cryptography. Network Function Virtualization. Cognitive computing and also machine learning. Micro services architecture. Adaptive security. Augmented and virtual reality. Cloud networking. Big data analytics in mobile networking.
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10 computer networking concepts you should master
OSI 7 layer model. Routers and Switchs (network hardware) Physical transmission medium (cabling) Wireless Networking. Communication protocols (TCP/IP) DHCP. DNS. Network Security (VPN and Firewall) In this post, I'm going to show you 10 computer networking concepts that every professional should master.
Computer Network Tutorial
Mastering computer network concepts is vital for exams like GATE, where networking is a significant portion of the syllabus. To strengthen your understanding and excel in your preparation, consider the GATE CS Self-Paced Course .This course provides comprehensive coverage of networking topics, including detailed tutorials and explanations, helping you build the expertise needed to succeed in ...
Computer Networks and its Types
There are five main types of Computer Networks: LAN (Local Area Network) -. Systems connected in a small network like in a building or a small office. It is inexpensive. It uses Ethernet or Token-ring technology. Two or more personal computers can be connected through wires or cables acting as nodes.
Top 10 Computer Network Project Topics
The upcoming section contains some topics about recent time projects developed and developing by us. Top 10 Interesting Computer Network Project Topics. Wireless Multimedia Systems. 5G/6G Cellular Systems and Heterogeneous Networks. SDN/NFV and Network Programmability.