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Elementary Architecture: 6 Playful Kindergarten Designs From Around the World

Modern kindergarten design brings a sense of playfulness to the stark minimalism of contemporary architecture..

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An often-overlooked aspect of modernism is a concern with childhood education. Architects and designers from Isamu Noguchi to Harry Weese and psychologists such as Maria Montessori and Loris Malaguzzi reconsidered how kids should play and learn. This broad movement helped to dismiss formal and authoritarian ideas on parenting favored in the Victorian area to a friendlier and more egalitarian model. However, there have been wildly divergent ideas on what environment best suits these ideas. In contemporary kindergarten design, distinctive colors and playful flourishes proliferate. Spaces are brightly lit, often with skylights or glass curtain walls. These six kindergartens bring a sense of playfulness to the stark minimalism of contemporary architecture.

The Reggio-Emilia region has long been a world-leader in new approaches to childhood education. After the devastating May 2012 earthquake, Mario Cucinella Architects proposed a bold vision for rebuilding damaged facilities in the small town of Guastalla, located by the Po River north of Reggio Emilia. The kindergarten was designed as a laboratory that would allow for exploration and curiosity. Each classroom is separated by a glass wall, connected by a segmented vertebrae-shaped wooden tunnel. The interior is bright and open, with an accordion-like appearance from the exterior.

Wood is integral to traditional Japanese architecture. While planning a new kindergarten design in Chiba, S.O.Y. LABO. investigated how precision technology could help to create new forms for wooden construction. While the Lunch House may appear as a standard a-frame, the plan is asymmetrical, with a gently curved edge. This detail necessitated precise calculations and careful selection of the correct pieces of timber. On either end, the hall opens to floor-to-ceiling glass windows.

A local furniture company commissioned this kindergarten for their employees’ children. The structure is one-story with a large roof overhang supported by a row of slanted joint columns. The vivid color palette includes mint green, magenta and teal. Space allocation within the kindergarten was influenced by available sunlight, with well-lit spaces for studying and darker spaces for nap time. In addition to the school, there is a large playground with a sandpit.

A rainbow of dyed planks cascade over a corrugated polycarbonate core in the Little Hall at Prestwood Infant School. Each plank is differently sized to create an organic landscape around the edge of the structure. The interior is more muted, but maintains a connection to the hues of the facade with colorful storage boxes. The space has an assortment of windows and skylights, letting in plenty of sunlight that bounces off the plywood paneling. As the interior space is composed a single hall, one cement slab covers the floor.

Just outside of Paris, SCHEMAA designed an addition for a local elementary school to house recreation facilities. The new wing helps to create a distinct space for students between the roadway and the main school building, with concrete courts in the middle. The wood-clad extension references the school’s geometric wall of windows with framed segments. The shed-style architecture calls to mind Sea Ranch and the architecture of the 1970s. Skylights and ground level windows contribute to the luminous interior.

Providing ample space for play while meeting stringent energy efficiency measure was the intention behind Abar Arquitecto’s kindergarten design in Sant Pere Pescador. In addition to a green roof, there is a rolling shade that provides solar insulation in the summer as well as shade for the broad courtyard. In contrast to the building’s pre-cast concrete, the fence surrounding the school is in vibrant shades of green.

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Tokyo kindergarten by Tezuka Architects lets children run free on the roof

The oval-shaped roof deck of this playful Tokyo  kindergarten  allows children to play and run endless laps around it – a feature that has just won it the 2017 Moriyama RAIC International Prize.

Completed by  Tezuka Architects  10 years ago, Fuji Kindergarten is located in the Tachikawa suburb of the city. It accommodates 600 children aged between two and six.

The school follows the Montessori Method, an educational approach where children are given freedom to range around the classroom and learn via discovery.

Rather than impose physical boundaries on the children, Tokyo-based architect Takaharu Tezuka designed the kindergarten as a continuous space that allows for unfettered learning and play.

He calls his concept the "nostalgic future", where he looks at the way children would naturally choose to play without gadgets and screens, then facilitates it with future-forward designs.

The project has been awarded this year's  Moriyama RAIC International Prize , which recognises a work of architecture considered "transformative within its societal context".

There is no play equipment installed, instead the architecture itself functions as a giant playground. Children are allowed to move about freely, fall down and get wet within a safe environment.

"Because the building is a ring they are looking at each other, Tezuka told Dezeen. "There is no sense of a middle. The children learn to be fair to everybody, they learn how to be a part of a nice group."

The roof area doubles as a playground and a running track, giving the students an endless ring to chase each other around. The deck was built around the existing zelkova trees, with nets placed around the base to allow for easy climbing.

When the children first started interacting the building it was an emotional moment.

"It was simple, they just started running, said Tezuka. "It was beyond our expectations. I was sitting with the principal and everyone had tears. It was amazing, an instant reaction."

Handrails around the edge act as a safety barrier and allow the inner courtyard to be turned into an arena. The railings are close enough together that children won't get their heads stuck, but allow them to sit with their legs dangling through.

The roof height is only 2.1 metres tall, allowing a close connection between the levels. Children can scramble up a bank and climb a set of stairs to reach a slide from the deck back to the ground.

Skylights are built into the deck, letting natural light into the classrooms below and providing the children with a porthole to peek at their classmates through. Five gargoyles channel rainwater into water butts, creating impromptu waterfalls for students to play in during wet weather.

At ground level, sliding doors allow the classrooms to be open to the elements during good weather. Instead of dividing walls, the architects created child-sized boxes made from light wood with rounded edges that can be stacked to create shelves and display areas.

Tezuka believes standard classroom design is unnatural and counter productive to a positive learning environment. The free plan design encourages independence and collaboration, without forcing children to sit still and silent for long periods of time.

By leaving the classrooms open, the sound of 600 children creates the level of white noise found in natural environments. Tezuka got the idea when he met the composer and molecular biologist Tsutomu Ohashi while on holiday in Bali.

Listening back to a recording of an Indonesian music performance Ohashi invited him to, he realised the sound was obscured by the noise of the jungle he had been able to unconsciously filter whilst watching the show.

"Just as a fish cannot live in purified water, children cannot live in a clean, quiet and controlled environment," he said.

Photography is by Katsuhisa Kida.

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Inside the world’s best kindergarten

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At Fuji Kindergarten outside Tokyo, kids make the most of a magical environment designed just for them. The roof of their oval-shaped school, designed by Tokyo-based firm Tezuka Architects, is an endless playground, and trees grow right through classrooms.

So how do you build to let children be children? Says Takaharu Tezuka (TED Talk: The best kindergarten you’ve ever seen ): Think like a kid. He was inspired by his own daughter and son, now twelve and nine, who he says “have become a part of his body.” As they grew up, their habits and desires became his, and in designing his school with his wife, Yui, he only needed to channel them to know what to build. Explore the school and dive into Daddy and Mommy Tezuka’s kid-centered design thinking.

The playground lets kids run forever

“We designed the school as a circle, with a kind of endless circulation. When we started, I had no preconceived notions. Studying other kindergartens was like looking in the rearview mirror of a car: Even if you look very closely, you can’t see anything in front.”

Kids can slide to class

“We put in a small mound of dirt at the bottom of the stairs leading from the roof — this was a trick to make the stairs shorter. But then the children started taking away the dirt to make mud bowls — 6oo kids take mud away, and the mound started to disappear! The school had to keep asking the construction company to put mud back. (As the soil got harder, the kids stopped taking it home.) See the slide? I knew kids love to slide, but I actually wasn’t very keen on putting it in, because it tells children what they should and shouldn’t do. Without tools, the kids have to think for themselves and create games. But in the end we kept it: We needed a fire escape.”

Safety drills are super cute

“Japan gets ten percent of the world’s big earthquakes, so children have these earthquake drills. They take these cotton hats from under the table to protect their heads in case something falls. It’s a very Japanese thing.”

Being a non-human animal is encouraged

“Japanese building code says you have to have a vertical handrail with bars 100 millimeters apart so the kids can’t put their heads through. But: They can put their legs in, and kids love to swing their legs. Chimpanzees do the exact same thing — it’s a kind of instinct. And the way they do that is so cute.”

Anything can be a toy

“We had to build around the trees already there on the land. It wasn’t easy — we couldn’t cut the roots, which spread as wide as the tree crowns. We added these safety nets so the students wouldn’t fall through the holes around the trees. But I know kids, and they love to play with nets. Whenever they see a hammock, they want to jump into it, to shake it. These were really just an excuse for me to give the kids another way to play.”

Skylights for peekaboo

“The kids love to look through the skylights from the roof. ‘Where’s my friend?’ ‘What’s going on underneath in class?’ And when you look down, you always see kids looking up from below. Here, distraction is supposed to happen. There are no walls between classrooms, so noise floats freely from one class to the other, and from outside to inside. We consider noise very important. When you put children in a quiet box, some of them get really nervous.”

A chair can be a train

“Every month at Fuji the teachers and kids rearrange the classroom furniture. This little boy and girl were supposed to help make a new configuration, but they’re useless! They’re playing train instead. We filled the school with about 600 of these boxes, which are made from this very light wood known as kiri wood. It won’t hurt the kids if they hit their heads on the corner.”

A place for water-cooler talk

“These days Japanese kids only talk to computers. I hate it. I thought, if we put a well in each classroom, they’ll be forced to talk to each other. There’s a phrase in Japanese, ido bata kaigi , which means, ‘conference around the well.’ Women used to meet and exchange information when they went to get water. I wanted the children to do the same.”

Kids can also climb to class

“In 2011, we built an annex to the school with two more classrooms and some playing areas. We called it ‘Ring around the Tree,’ because when the architect Peter Cook visited he said it reminded him of the song ‘Ring Around the Rosie.’ I thought the tree should be more important than the building, so I made the building as light as possible. In this school, children are encouraged to climb trees. If a kid is strong enough, they can reach the upper level without using the stairs. Other schools might not allow this, but the principal here believes children know their own limits. They stop when they have to stop.”

Photos courtesy of Tezuka Architects. Photo of the “Ring Around the Tree” building by Katsuhisa Kida/FOTOTECA.

About the author

Thu-Huong Ha is a freelance writer. Previously she was the books and culture reporter for Quartz and the context editor at TED. Her writing has also appeared on Slate and in The New York Times Book Review. Her debut novel, Hail Caesar, was published in 2007 by PUSH, a YA imprint of Scholastic, and was named an NYPL Book for the Teen Age. Follow her at twitter.com/thu

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This fully illustrated guide to the planning and design of pre-school facilities for children is supported by a broad range of case studies, drawn from around the world. Both new buildings and adapted premises are covered. Essays on social development and childcare put the projects in context. Based on extensive research, Kindergarten Architecture offers the designer a unique survey of the best designs in kindergarten architecture. Two new kindergarten buildings are added to the case study section and the author provides guidance on the practical implications of recent changes to pre-school education. Contains two new case studies, 1. Corning Child Development Centre, New York and 2. Bornehaven De Fire Arstider, Copenhagen.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 | 29  pages, an architectural framework for an educational discussion: conceptions and contradictions, chapter 2 | 40  pages, a selective history: aspects of children's culture and architecture for children, chapter 3 | 26  pages, meaning in contemporary kindergarten architecture, chapter 4 | 38  pages, defining quality: characteristics of space within the kindergarten environment, chapter | 76  pages, the projects.

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Nandanam Kindergarten | PATH Architects & Planners

Nandanam Kindergarten is located in Cultural Zone, close to Matrimandir- the spiritual center of Auroville, Tamil Nadu, India. It was conceived when the children in Auroville outgrew the student intake capacity of the existing Kindergarten. The project was built in four phases starting from 2006 and was completed in 2014. Each phase took 9 months to complete and commenced as funds were available.

Global Architecture & Design Awards 2018 First Award | Category: Institutional (Built)

Architects: PATH Architects & Planners Country: India

Specification: Site Area: 6150sqm Ground Coverage: 925sqm Built Up Area: 737sqm Number of Floors: 1

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This kindergarten in Ahmedabad is built like a sensory-rich Legoland

A kindergarten in Ahmedabad has an open layout that promotes seamless learning, transforming the surroundings, building design, and nature into the foundation for a child's overall development.

In the realm of early childhood development, the initial six years of learning and discovery play a key role in crafting the trajectory of a child's future. While fostering holistic growth and development in the tender years, every interaction becomes a canvas for a lifetime of curiosity and achievement. In such a context, Toy Blocks kindergarten school in Ahmedabad explores and integrates the rich tapestry of early education models, each with unique philosophies, approaches, and advantages, within its design.

Designed by Blocher Partners India, this two-level kindergarten , spread over 5,700 square metre, seamlessly integrates principles from the Reggio Emilia approach into the intersection of child psychology and progressive educational methods. Led by principal architect Hartmut Wurster, the design team delved into the Reggio Emilia philosophy, alongside Waldorf and Montessori, emphasising the profound connection between physical space and a child's comprehensive growth. The school's design transforms the environment, architecture, and nature into a pivotal third teacher, nurturing young minds with an intimate connection to nature as its foundation.

Also read: Through the classic British Barrack architecture of The Scindia School in Gwalior

The front panel of the reception table mimics the look of a stack of colourful books.

The concept plan of this kindergarten in Ahmedabad moves beyond the traditional boundaries and adopts an open-concept plan that fosters a seamless flow within the learning space. The vibrant central courtyard forms the heart of the kindergarten, surrounded by nine cube-shaped buildings representing island structures that are interconnected to blur indoor-outdoor boundaries. Arranged strategically to create numerous small side courtyards , each building maintains a scale suitable for children, with broad overhangs ensuring shaded and well-ventilated outdoor areas. The school’s design aesthetics are defined by an interplay of open spaces and unobstructed views of nature, forging an immersive connection with the environment that simultaneously promotes sensory exploration.

The climate-sensitive design seamlessly integrates shaded areas, deep-set, the use of natural materials, and greenery to combat heat.

Also read: An architect transformed an all-girls school from the 60s into a welcoming home

The buildings have been designed using simple lime-plastered facades, stone, wood, and sleek Swiss steel windows. A vast play area at the entrance emphasises the belief that play precedes learning, encouraging exploration from the start while creepers and trees transform the building’s façade as an extension of the natural world. Water features enhance sensory experiences, immersing young learners in soothing sounds and textures of nature.

Skylights fill classrooms with natural light and a chromotherapy-influenced colour palette, inspired by distinct themes.

Every design element, from custom furniture to furnishings, creates a visually stimulating and comforting atmosphere. The colour palette, based on chromotherapy and colour psychology, promotes an active yet calming ambience. Each classroom, whether delving into outer space or constructing Lego worlds, addresses ergonomic requirements and emphasises safety and comfort for both children and educators. Graphics on the walls, skillfully crafted by Kalakaari Haath, envelop young minds in visually captivating experiences inspired by the distinctive themes. A standout characteristic of the design lies in the north-facing skylights, reminiscent of soaring chimneys, symbolising the limitless potential of young minds as they punctuate the space, filling the interiors with natural light and creating an ambience of boundless possibilities.

Also read: This school in Bengaluru shows that design and nature are interconnected

An aerial view of the school distinctively reveals the nine interconnected cube-shaped blocks with skylights, surrounding a central courtyard.

The sustainability of the buildings is achieved through a commitment to sustainable practices, relying on the choice of materials such as insulating and aerating AAC blocks and locally sourced resources. The climate-sensitive design seamlessly incorporates shade and playful deep-set windows at varying heights and angles, utilising natural materials to keep the heat at bay. Every aspect of construction aims to minimise its ecological footprint, ensuring that the kindergarten not only nurtures young minds but also leaves a minimal impact on the planet they would inherit.

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Some parts of this article have been translated using google’s translation engine. we understand the quality of this translation is not excellent and we are working to replace these with high quality human translations., introduction, the ceiling, sliding panels, no divisions.

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Transforming the Kindergarten Experience by Design: A Comparative Research Case Study

2020, Journal of Education and Learning

Kindergarten education is becoming a priority throughout the USA as research shows its importance on later in life outcomes. The State of Washington instated full-day kindergarten for all public-school students beginning in 2016-2017. It "…is part of the state's constitutionally protected definition of 'Basic Education'" (Reykdal, n.d., n.p.), working to support all children in the state. Acting on this new state requirement, one school district chose to design and build a center dedicated solely to kindergarten education, housing approximately 600 kindergarteners. The school was divided into four 'neighborhood pods' each with immediate access to specific activity programs (i.e., dining, interventionists, elective functions) reflecting a new 'expanded push-in' model and reduce transition times. This model was compared with a 'traditionally' operated kindergarten where learners travel to activity programs throughout a campus (i.e., dining, interventionists, electives). A human-centered research design using mixed-methods for this comparison study between an 'expanded push-in' and a 'traditional' model was used to understand the impact of this new architectural solution particularly focused on timing transitions between the classroom and activity program settings. Findings discovered a reduction in the length of transitions between accessing the programs by recaptured seven school days of learning time (approximately 45 hours), when compared to the traditional one, and more positive connections between students/students, teachers/teachers, and students/teachers to build community.

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The Pueblo of Laguna Head Start program is on an American Indian reservation and housed portable classroom buildings. Recognizing the need for a more permanent environment and to offer extended family services, a planning grant was awarded to the Department of Early Childhood to develop a process to engage teachers, staff, parents, and community members in identifying the requirements for a new 320-child facility. Teachers and community members conducted an assessment of their present facilities, explored alternative playroom shapes, and proposed a facility layout using graphic symbols corresponding to all functions. The design of the Center represents the culmination of community workshops and interviews with teachers, staff, administrators and pueblo residents.

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What is a Case Study?

An architecture case study is a detailed analysis of a particular architectural project, design concept, or process. The goal is to examine and understand how a specific project was conceived, developed, and executed. This involves exploring various aspects, such as the design brief, construction methods, materials used, and the project’s overall impact.

It can be confusing to distinguish between a case study and a precedent study in architecture. A case study provides a detailed examination of a single project. A precedent study, on the other hand, compares multiple projects with similar themes to identify patterns and best practices. The confusion often arises because thematic case studies, which are a type of case study, explore how a specific concept is applied across different projects, can resemble precedent studies.

In this post, we guide you through the purpose, types, and formats of architecture case studies, as well as provide key steps and top tips for creating an impactful case study.

Scroll to the end to download this article as a handy PDF guide!

Let’s Break It Down

Detailed Analysis A case study isn’t just a surface-level look. It is a deep dive into the specifics of a project, that allows us to have a comprehensive overview. This might include architectural drawings, photographs, design narratives, and performance analyses.

Architectural Project or Thematic Exploration The subject of a case study can be anything from a completed building to a theoretical idea. For example, it might focus on a landmark skyscraper, a small residential renovation, or a new material approach to sustainable design.

Design and Execution The case study aims to uncover how a project was designed and brought to life. This includes understanding the choices made during the design phase, the challenges faced during construction, and how well the final outcome matches the initial vision.

Purpose of an Architecture Case Study

In architecture, case studies offer deep insights into the complexities of real world projects. They help architects, students, and professionals learn from past experiences to improve future designs. Architecture case studies serve multiple purposes:

Learning Tool Case studies are invaluable learning resources for architecture students. They provide real world examples of how architectural principles are applied and offer insights that theoretical studies alone might not provide.

Analysing Successes and Challenges A well-rounded case study highlights both the successes and the difficulties encountered. By examining these aspects, students can learn about effective design strategies and common pitfalls.

Inspiration and Innovation Studying a variety of projects can inspire new ideas and innovative approaches. Seeing how others have tackled design problems can spark creativity and offer fresh perspectives on your own projects.

Documentation and Reflection Case studies serve as a record of architectural practices and ideas. They allow for reflection on past projects, providing a basis for evaluating what worked well and what could be improved.

Best Practice Case studies often serve as benchmarks, allowing architects to compare their work against industry standards or exemplary projects. By understanding best practices through case studies, architects can refine their methods and aim for higher standards in their own designs.

Client Communication In professional practice, case studies can be a powerful tool for communicating with clients. They can be used as examples to justify your design decisions, demonstrate the feasibility of certain approaches, and build trust by showcasing previous successes. This makes it easier to align client expectations with your vision.

Context Architecture is deeply influenced by its context—cultural, environmental, and social. Case studies help architects understand how different contexts affect design decisions and outcomes. This understanding is crucial for creating buildings that are not only functional but also resonate with their surroundings and users.

Types of Architecture Case Studies

Architecture case studies can be categorised in several ways depending on their focus and purpose. Understanding the different types can help you decide which approach best fits your research goals and interests. The two main types of architecture case studies include:

Project Based Case Studies These case studies focus on specific buildings or structures. They provide us with a comprehensive overview of one particular project from start to finish.

Project based case studies can typically cover the design process, materials used, construction techniques, as well as the project’s impact on its environment and users. They may also explore the project’s history, the architect’s vision, and any unique features or innovations that define the project.

They can be based on anything from a residential home to a public building or an iconic skyscraper.

Thematic Case Studies These can explore particular architectural concepts, ideas, theories or themes rather than individual projects. They could also cover a recurring theme or issue in the architecture industry. Additionally, thematic case studies could also focus on architectural styles or movements.

They may often include multiple projects to illustrate the application of the concept or idea in different contexts. The similarities and differences are highlighted by taking a comparative approach. Similar to project based case studies, various aspects such as design process, material choices, and project impacts are analysed.

An example is a case study on adaptive reuse that examines historic buildings that have been repurposed for modern use to suit different locations.

Formats of Architecture Case Studies

When presenting an architecture case study, the format you choose can significantly affect how your information is communicated and understood. Different formats cater to different needs and audiences. The right one for you depends on the type of case study you are creating and the message you want to convey. Let’s take a closer look at the different formats for architecture case studies:

Written Written case studies are narrative documents that provide a detailed account of the project or concept being studied. They are often structured like a typical report or essay. Written case studies provide an in depth view of your chosen subject with comprehensive descriptions and thorough analysis.

Visual These case studies focus on visual elements such as drawings, diagrams, and photographs to convey information about your selected project, concept or theme. They can help us provide our audiences with a clear understanding of the design features in our project. Visual case studies are very useful for presenting complex information in simple, easy to understand formats.

Mixed Media Mixed media case studies combine written content with visual elements and multimedia components to provide a well rounded and engaging presentation. You may include videos, interactive models, or animations to enhance understanding and information delivery. This approach also ensures you cater to different learning styles by combining text, visuals, audio, and interactive elements.

Presentational These case studies are designed for oral delivery and are often used in academic or professional settings such as studio crits, conferences or client meetings. You will typically put together a set of slides summarising key points about your case study using bullet points, key images, and diagrams. You may also prepare speaker notes to provide additional explanations and details as you present.

In addition to this, presentational case studies may also include live demonstrations, Q&A sessions, or interactive discussions, allowing for real time interaction and feedback from the audience.

Digital  Digital case studies are designed for online platforms and can include various interactive and multimedia elements. These can take the form of websites or blog pages that contain online articles with embedded images, videos, clickable diagrams, etc to enhance the way you represent your findings.Such formats can be more accessible and easily shared.

Steps for Preparing an Architecture Case Study

Creating an effective architecture case study involves several key steps, from selecting a subject to presenting your findings. We have put together the following steps to guide you through the process:

Selecting a Subject Select a project or concept that is relevant to your study or interests and one that you are genuinely interested in. It should have enough depth and detail to help you explore it effectively.

Consider projects or concepts that have made an impact in the field of architecture, either through innovative design, historical importance, or unique challenges.

Ensure there is sufficient information available about your chosen subject. This includes access to plans, photographs, reports, and any other relevant documentation.

Research and Documentation Collect detailed information from original documents such as architectural plans, construction records, and design reports. If possible, interview key stakeholders like architects, builders, or clients.

Also look for information through secondary sources like published articles, books, and any previous case studies that contain additional context and analysis. These can help offer insights into the project’s background and impact.

Always gather high quality images, diagrams, and sketches of the project. These visuals will help illustrate your case study and support your analysis.

Create a Research Log in order to keep track of sources, notes, and any important findings. Organising your research helps ensure you don’t overlook critical details and will make it easier to structure your case study.

We have our very own Dissertation Source Log, which you can download and use for free:

Analysis and Evaluation Examine the original design goals and objectives. Understand what the architect aimed to achieve with the project. Identify any challenges faced during the design and construction phases and how they were addressed. This might include issues with site conditions, budget constraints, or technical problems.

Then assess how well the project meets its intended goals. Consider aspects like functionality, aesthetic appeal, user satisfaction, and environmental impact. You may also evaluate how it may have influenced subsequent projects.

Structuring the Case Study You may be given a set structure to follow by your academic institution or architectural practice. If not you may follow a more general structure such as the following:

Introduction: Give an overview of your topic. Background: Describe the context of the project. Methodology: Explain the research methods you used. Outline how you collected and analysed your data. Main Body: Present your detailed analysis. Break down key findings and observations. Conclusion: Summarise your findings. Reflect on the significance of the topic. Highlight lessons for future initiatives. References: Add your list of sources or bibliography.

Presentation and Visualisation It is important that you choose the right format to present your case study. As we have seen in the previous section of this post, there are various different formats for you to choose from. Whether you’re preparing a written report or a visual presentation, careful planning and organisation are key to producing high quality work.

You can also benefit from including a variety of visual elements to make your work more dynamic and interesting.

Be sure to carefully proofread your case study to catch any errors and to check for clarity, accuracy, and coherence. Seek feedback from peers or mentors for some valuable insights on areas for improvement. Use their feedback, along with your own review, to make necessary revisions to enhance the quality and effectiveness of your case study.

Tips for Writing an Effective Architecture Case Study

Crafting an effective architecture case study involves more than just presenting information; it’s about communicating your findings clearly in an engaging and informative manner. Here are some practical tips to ensure your case study truly stands out:

Be Clear and Concise Use simple and easy to understand language, avoiding any unnecessary jargon that might confuse readers who may not be all too familiar with architectural terminology. Break down complex concepts into clear, straightforward explanations.

Maintain the focus on the most important aspects of the project or concept. Try to avoid unnecessary details that do not add value to your analysis.

Structure your case study so it has a logical flow. Use headings and subheadings to guide readers through different sections, making it easy to follow your narrative.

Provide Context Give a brief overview of the project’s context, including its location, historical significance, and any relevant cultural or environmental factors.

Include your explorations of how the project was influenced by existing conditions, client requirements, or design trends. Understanding these factors can help provide you with a deeper appreciation of the project’s development.

It is crucial that you try to connect the project or concept to broader architectural trends or movements. This helps readers see how the case study fits into the larger context of architecture.

Highlight Design Innovations Emphasise any innovative design elements or techniques used in the project. This might include new materials, construction methods, or design solutions that address specific challenges.

Then explain how these innovations have contributed to the success of the project or influenced the field of architecture. You can highlight any awards or recognitions received by the project if needed.

Engage the Reader Try and design your case study to engage and inform your audience. Take into consideration what they will find most interesting or useful, and tailor your content accordingly.

Then, present your findings following a logical narrative, telling the story of your chosen project or concept. This can make the case study more compelling and easier to follow.

If you are using digital or interactive formats, try to incorporate elements that encourage reader interaction, such as clickable diagrams, interactive 3D models, or video explanations.

Include Visuals Use clear, high resolution photographs of the project. These should show various angles and details, including both exterior and interior views.

Be sure to include architectural drawings, floor plans, and sections to help your readers understand the design and layout. Add your annotations to highlight key features or explain design decisions.

You can also venture out to create your own infographics and present your data or any complex information in more digestible formats. Some examples include charts, graphs, or timelines.

Reflect on Lessons Learned Summarise the main lessons learned from the project, concept or topic. This could include design challenges, solutions, and how the project contributed to the wider architecture industry.

Also, consider how your findings might influence future projects or design practices. If relevant, offer recommendations based on the insights you have gained or highlight any best practices that could benefit others.

Ensure Accuracy and Credibility You will need to double, maybe even triple check all the information you include to ensure accuracy. Make sure you verify key details such as dates, names, and technical specifications.

You should be using reliable sources for any data or references mentioned in your case study. This adds credibility and supports your analysis.

Do not forget to also credit the sources you used during your research in a list of references or bibliography. This allows readers to further explore these topics if they are interested in learning more.

Review and Revise Go through your case study to ensure that it is clear and coherent. Make sure each section flows logically into the next and that your arguments are well supported by reliable sources.

It is also important that you proofread it for any grammatical, typographical, and formatting errors. Errors can distract your readers from your message and reduce the overall quality of your case study.

Finally, whenever possible try to get feedback from your peers, mentors, or available industry professionals. They can help provide you with a fresh perspective on your work and help you identify areas for improvement.

Conducting an effective architecture case study requires a thoughtful approach. By following the steps outlined in this post, you can produce a case study that not only informs but also inspires. Whether you are preparing a case study for academic purposes, professional practice, or for some personal development, the insights gained from this process can significantly enhance your architectural understanding.

We hope this post has provided you with some valuable guidance on architecture case studies.

Thank you for reading!

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• Published: 01 September 2024

Utilisation of rondavel space by amaXhosa people: a case of Mbhashe local municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

• Africa Ndude 1 &
• Sinenhlanhla Memela 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1122 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Anthropology

Traditional rondavel building patterns, designs and materials have changed due to urbanisation, economic status, globalisation, and modernisation. There is limited understanding of how the architectural change has impacted the utilisation of rondavel space. This study uses the concept of habitus to understand whether the changing design of traditional rondavels has influenced their utilisation, based on a case study of the Mbhashe Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape province, South Africa. The data was collected using semi-structured interviews. The findings reveal the habitus of the AmaXhosa people on how they utilise traditional rondavels (family house) for childbirth, placing a deceased’s coffin, sleeping, seating, food preparation, serving and storage, keeping the spear, hosting ceremonies, communicating with ancestors, and interacting with the living. While the influence of contemporary architecture has changed the construction of rondavels, the inhabitants have not resisted changes to the architecture or cultural values as they have found different ways to adapt. Certain old dispositions are adaptable to contemporary structures, but some people are uninterested in adapting elements to the contemporary rondavel. Some habits of utilising traditional rondavels cannot be adapted to the contemporary rondavel because of health and medical innovations.

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Introduction.

Based on archaeological evidence, rondavels have existed since pre-colonial times as a prime settlement form in homesteads in much of South Africa and other African countries, including Botswana, Kenya, Lesotho and Eswatini (Schoenauer 2000 ; Steyn 2006 ). The rondavel is considered as a vernacular architecture: it is built using locally sourced material and forms part of a region’s culture and heritage (OpenHeritage 2016 ). Steyn ( 2006 :1) describes the rondavel as a “drum”, often built with mud and grass-thatched roofs (Fig. 1A ). They are popular indigenous settlements which are still prevalent in the rural areas. While most households have more than one rondavels (Fig. 1B ), some indigenous settlements are now roofed with zinc materials (Fig. 1B ). Going forward, this article refers to indigenous settlements as traditional rondavels.

A traditional rondavel with grass-thatched roof and ( B ) household two rondavels with zinc roof.

Traditional rondavels were used for dwelling and hosting important customary rituals and celebrations in Africa (Steyn 2006 ). Modern day rondavels exist with flat-roofed rectangular buildings or structures built using cement and zinc roofs, which will be referred to as contemporary rondavel design henceforth (Van Vuuren 2017 ).

Steyn ( 2006 ) argues that the change is a result of urbanisation and economic status because people admire urban architecture and can afford their desired building materials. A study by Aikpehae et al. ( 2016 ) reveals that globalisation, urbanisation and modernisation transformed building patterns, designs and materials used for construction. They illustrate how Nigerian building patterns and housing have transformed because of the influence of colonisation (Aikpehae et al. 2016 ). Guerrieri ( 2020 ) adds that migration has allowed the export of architecture and urban planning models from one country to another; hence, we see the same style across countries. The global intercultural contact led to the change in dwellings in southern Africa (Frescura 1981 , 2015 ) where traditional dwellings were constructed using mud, wattle and thatch grass. Missionaries introduced contemporary building constructed using sun brick and mortar with corrugated iron sheet for roofing as well as highveld and parapet housing styles, the contemporary building is illustrated in Fig. 2 .

Illustration of the contemporary building under construction.

Tapiero et al. ( 2024 ) indicates that in Montesinho Natural Park, north-east of Portugal, residents had vernacular buildings constructed using locally available wood, slate stone tiles, lime mortar, schist and granite. The availability of industrialised material and decreasing traditional labour posed a threat vernacular buildings.

The following section discusses the evolution of the traditional and modern rondavel followed by the utilisation of rondavels by amaXhosa people, detailing the study area, research methods, results, discussion and conclusion.

Traditional and modern rondavel evolution

Early African dwellings were caves, stone-walled iron shelters or houses quickly erected and dismantled as nomadic societies followed herds of animals (Frescura, 1981 ; Moremoholo, 2021 ). Frescura ( 1981 ) explains the historical development of dwelling types, presented in Fig. 3 . The earliest traditional dwelling was a beehive hut also known as ngqu-phantsi . It was made up of stakes organised in a circle with their tops arched inward to a point. The stakes were then bound together by hoops and the frame was insulated with thatched grass (Walton, 1949 ). It is possible that the need for more living space resulted in the rondavel, which is a cone-on-cylinder rondavel with a wall and roof. Although its doorway was raised higher compared to the beehive hut, it was still lower than the height of a man. The material used to construct traditional rondavel was either a thatch roof with stones and mud bricks or sticks mixed clay and dung mortar or mud and wattle (Walton 1949 ; Frescura 1981 ; Oliver 2006 ; Moremoholo 2021 ; Onyejegbu et al. 2023 ). These vernacular dwellings were constructed using locally available materials (Tapiero et al. 2024 ).

This figure is covered by Creative Commons licence.

The third iteration of dwelling development was influenced by Western ideas of hipped-on-cone, which had a linear floor plan, rooms divided into rows and triangulation of the thatch roof. The fourth dwelling type was an introduction of the highveld style with iron-sheet roofing and sun brick (Frescura 1981 ).

Western ideas influenced the cone-on-cylinder rondavel design and materials used which included the use of iron-sheet roofing and sun brick. Despite the Western influences, the traditional rondavel still exists while others have modernised (Moremoholo 2021 ; Onyejegbu et al. 2023 ). Vellinga ( 2006 ) notes that the traditional vernacular architecture has not vanished, but has rather merged with modern styles to suit the current circumstances. Tapiero et al. ( 2024 ) argue that the use of modern materials in construction does not compromise the values of the dwelling in the community. They also note that conserving vernacular architecture plays an essential role in the preservation of culture and sustainable practises by optimising energy usage (Tapiero et al. 2024 ). Onyejegbu et al. ( 2023 ) argue that some Nigerian households still have traditional mud huts that were built by their forefathers in commemoration of their culture, tradition and prowess.

Moremoholo ( 2021 ) used a case study of the Sotho community in Makgabeng, a rural area in Limpopo to investigate how indigenous values have been incorporated or retained on houses built using brick and mortar. The findings show that both traditional rondavel and modern dwellings exist and residents were able to adapt values of indigenous rondavel to modern dwellings, including practising ancestral ceremonies.

Smith ( 2022 ) suggests that the modernisation of the traditional rondavel design into contemporary sensibilities reflects the development of awareness of the diverse heritage that connects South Africa to the rest of the African continent and its people. Thus, the integration and adaptation of indigenous values into modernisation promotes self-definition for many South Africans. Moreover, it encourages a deeper appreciation of the connections between South Africa and the rest of the world. Bianco ( 2022 ) states that this hybrid form of building reflects the evolution of local culture and ways of life so that one can imagine new development aspects entrenched in the culture and environment (Bianco 2022 ). Thus, currently, vernacular architecture can be understood as the foundation of the contemporary architectural type that is rooted in integrating local building traditions (Naude 2010 ; Bianco 2022 ). The current study focuses on the amaXhosa people and intends to understand whether the changing design of traditional rondavels has influenced their utilisation.

The utilisation of rondavels by amaXhosa people

The amaXhosa people are predominantly located in the Eastern Cape province (Nyamende 1994 ; Mokhoathi 2021 ). A rondavel in a Xhosa home ( umzi ) typically exists in a cluster of other structures. Umzi , plural imizi , is a collection of physical, social and organic elements constituting a settlement component known as homestead. It typically comprises several rondavels or huts (the family house, with middle huts reserved for children and visitors as well as a traditional dispensary and consultation), an adjacent garden and a kraal with tools and equipment often used in various ways (Perry 2013 ).

The family house ( indlu enkulu ) is the main hut where everyone meets to socialise and prepare, store and eat food (McAllister 2004 ). It is a space where all rituals take place and people communicate with their ancestors (McAllister 2004 ; Mlisa 2009 ). In the past, following the birth of a child in the family house, children and men were prohibited from using the space (Kobo 2016 ). McAllister ( 2004 ) illustrates how the family house is divided, as shown in Fig. 4 .

This figure was reproduced with permission: Ethnology, Department of Anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh.

The upper part, called entla , is associated with ancestors; an appointed person will commune with the ancestors, and it serves a storage space for meat and beer if there is a ritual planned (McAllister 2004 ; Reeve 2011 ). The right side is the sitting area for men while the left is reserved women. Older people sit next to the door on either side, while the youngest generation often sits next to the upper part of the rondavel (McAllister 2004 ). At the centre is a hearth ( eziko ), where they make fire for cooking (McAllister, 2004 ; Brocious 2021 ). Kobo ( 2016 ) identifies the hearth as a pedagogical space for the girl child to learn food preparation. The way the amaXhosa people utilise the traditional family house can be purported as a gendered space.

A gendered space is “…more attractive for women than for men; men and women use the same space in different ways: some spaces give feelings of comfort and belonging to men, while women feel excluded; in some spaces, women have authority, while other spaces are under male authority” (Fortuijn et al. 2004 : 215). This is a gendered space because of how a spatial order of seating and gender roles in the utilisation of the space is enforced (McAllister 2004 ; Kobo 2016 ).

It should be noted that the number of rondavels in a homestead depends on the family’s needs. In addition to the family house, a rondavel may be reserved as a bedroom for younger family members and to accommodate visitors (Mlisa 2009 ). Moreover, a rondavel may be used by traditional healers for consultations and storing dispensary (umrawule) items. Certain people are often excluded from using such a space. Menstruating women are prohibited from accessing this space while on their cycle because of a belief that they will defile the herbs (Mlisa, 2009 ). The dispensary is only built once a rondavel has been revealed to a potential traditional healer in a dream, and a ritual is performed to officially open the rondavel and the dispensary prior to consultations being held (Mlisa, 2009 ).

Literature is ambiguous as to whether the recorded rondavel uses are performed in traditional or contemporary rondavels and whether the uses are adaptable to current rondavel designs (McAllister 2004 ; Mlisa 2009 ; Perry 2013 ; Kobo 2016 ; Brocious 2021 ). The available literature focuses on understanding traditional rondavel architecture, its utilisation, history and the changes in the design and structure (Schoenauer 2000 ; Steyn 2006 ). Vellinga ( 2006 ) also notes that publications on vernacular architecture are rarely featured and those that are available focus on drawings, forms and material. The impact of changing building designs and structures in traditional space utilisation is inadequately understood. It is against this backdrop that this study uses the concept of habitus to understand whether the changing design and structure of rondavels has influenced the traditional utilisation of rondavel spaces, based on a case study of the Mbhashe Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa.

Pierre Bourdieu, a French sociologist who was concerned with what motivates social action and behaviour (Navarro 2006 ), developed the concept of habitus, which refers to the norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviour of a particular group. Each society has its own habitus. Habitus can then guide how a particular group feels, thinks, acts and uses the space (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Habitus can be a product of past experiences and practices learned from parents, family experiences, and society (Hong and Zhao 2015 ). It is created and reproduced by the structures and practices of society (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). People with similar backgrounds (social class, religion, nationality, ethnicity, education and profession) usually share habitus which shapes how individuals perceive or receive the world. It is not fixed; it changes due to circumstances (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). However, when change occurs, some within the group may resist the change while others adapt to a new style of doing things. Often, others combine the traits of new and old habitus. Therefore, the theory seeks to provide an in-depth understanding of how people adapt in a changing world and circumstances resulting to change.

Bourdieu used this concept to study how the Algerian habitus changed during the liberation struggle in the 1950s (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). He analysed their norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviour before and after colonisation. He defined Algerian peasantry as a traditional society which believed in:

the importance of group solidarity;

kinship based on patriarchal and patrilineal relationships;

patriarchal division of labour;

marriage as the primary concern of the family; and

an economy governed by pre-capitalist methods such as

subsistence farming,

products not sold but shared by the community

goods exchanged for social capital (i.e. a neighbour will lend you an ox in exchange for fresh produce).

The economy was governed by strict reciprocity and non-payment. The blacksmith was expected to provide each peasantry with all repairs in exchange for goods and services (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Their habitus was passed from generation to generation. As determined by Bourdieu, habitus changes over time due to circumstances. The change in the Algerian habitus was a result of French colonial imposition which introduced a capitalist economy leading to a decline in agricultural activities and the establishment of factories in urban areas (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Due to this increased urbanisation, people started working for wages, which resulted in the development of social classes (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Subsequently, women were granted access to receiving an education and earning a living. Likewise, society was introduced to the concept of bachelorhood, with marriage being an individual choice. Communal living with neighbours sharing their fresh produce evolved into neighbours selling their produce for cash (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Ultimately, the culture of group solidarity was destroyed, and the focus was on individualism.

Bourdieu argues that change can be adopted or resisted, as evidenced in Algeria (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Certain Algerian norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviours were influenced by innate traditions of peasantry and colonial imposition (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). Most older people resisted the change and continued to be trapped in the old way of life.

This study focuses on the traditional family house rondavel with the users’ social activities derived from the norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviours of amaXhosa. Premised on the concept of habitus used by Bourdieu et al. ( 2000 ) and Navarro ( 2006 ) in the analysis of Algerian peasantry, this study unpacks the utilisation of the traditional family house rondavel before the introduction of contemporary architecture and design changes. Before the introduction of the contemporary architecture, the traditional family house rondavel was spatially divided based on gender and used for childbirth, communicating with ancestors and hosting rituals, serving and storing food and igniting a fire for warmth (McAllister 2004 ; Kobo 2016 ; Brocious 2021 ). This paper intends to understand whether the changing design and structure of rondavels has influenced its utilisation, using the case of Mbhashe Local Municipality.

Mbhashe local municipality

The Mbhashe Local Municipality extends over a geographic area of over 3200 km² and is situated within the Amathole District Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa (Mbhashe Local Municipality IDP, 2016 ; 2023 a). The municipality is named after the Mbhashe River, which tracks between the municipality’s major urban regions of Willowvale (Gatyane), Xhorha and Dutywa, the latter being the administrative centre or municipal headquarters. The municipality has a total population of approximately 240 020 people (Municipalities of South Africa 2023 ), 94% of whom speak the isiXhosa language (Mbhashe Local Municipality IDP, 2016 ; 2023 b). It is a rural region facing various challenges, including poor road infrastructure, high unemployment and inadequate access to essential services such as water and electricity (Mbhashe Local Municipality IDP, 2016 ; 2023 a). It finds significant economic leverage from tourism nodes through coastal, inland and historic or heritage site attractions.

Rondavel structures are prominent in every homestead. Over 66% of households in the municipality are traditional dwellings Footnote 1 , followed by 21 and 5% of households living in brick or concrete block structures and flat blocks, respectively (Mbhashe Local Municipality IDP, 2021 ). However, some households have a modernised rondavel and, more commonly, an octagonal-shape veranda structure, sometimes with an attached garage. Others tend not to have a rondavel at all albeit infrequently. In rural areas, the process of domestic building is not influenced by planning schemes and policies (Oliver 2006 ). Instead, rural architecture is enriched by the surrounding natural environment, local economy and livelihood of villagers (Pirzad and Moghaddam 2023 ). This offers villagers free will to build the type and design of house they desire.

Figure 5 represents the spatial location and geographical extent of Mbhashe Local Municipality in the Amathole District Municipality, with reference to the Eastern Cape Province and South Africa, respectively. The points of interest indicated in the map are examples of homesteads and places across the municipality where:

contemporary rondavels at the Village Lodge in the Dutywa urban region,

rondavel clusters in the homestead of Nqadu great place (Komkhulu ) in rural Willowvale,

Emanzothweni , a multitype dwelling homestead in Bende location, rural Dutywa (Photo: Lilitha Breakfast), and

Kwa-Nonyameko, a multitype dwelling homestead in the Mbhangcolo administration area in rural Willowvale (Photo: Luyanda Ndude).

A map representing a study area—Mbhashe Local Municipality.

Methodology

Ethical clearance was received from Rhodes University. Purposive sampling was used to select a sample population, which included participants of amaXhosa descent with a rondavel structure in their homesteads and residing within the Mbhashe Local Municipality. Ten participants, aged 24–48 years old, were interviewed; they are referred to as Participants 1 to 10 (P01–P10).

Data was collected using participatory mapping and semi-structured interviews consisting of open-ended questions. The interview schedule was developed with a purpose of obtaining an in-depth understanding of the utilisation of rondavels and changes that occurred over time because of the new architectural style. The interviews were conducted face-to-face at the participants’ residences. The participants were also given a rondavel diagram to illustrate the spatial ordering of how the rondavel family house was utilised in the Mbhashe Local Municipality. The results are presented in Fig. 6 .

Spatial ordering of how the amaXhosa family house rondavel was utilized in the Mbhashe Municipality.

The information from the participants' drawings were then used to create Fig. 6 diagram, which was constructed using ArcMap 10.7.1 software for visualisation of the activities undertaken in the family house. The circle represents a typical rondavel floorplan with a diameter of 6 m (3 m radius). The diameter of the rondavel intersects the doorway and therefore dictates the gendered sides. The points in the diagram do not represent actual geometric values, instead they are ordinal representations of circular living in the AmaXhosa family house. Data was analysed and presented using thematic analysis. The concept of habitus guided the development of the themes presented. The first theme related to the amaXhosa habitus and the utilisation of traditional rondavels in the Mbhashe Local Municipality and the second was the amaXhosa habitus and the changing rondavel design in the Mbhashe Local Municipality

In both themes, specialised quotations to highlight some pertinent statements and demonstrate how the participants make sense of the rondavels and their utilisation, using their exact words.

amaXhosa habitus and the utilisation of traditional rondavel in the Mbhashe municipality

The section of findings only focus on the traditional family house rondavel before the introduction of the contemporary architecture. Adapted from McAllister ( 2004 ), the participants were given a circle to explain the use of each space and its purpose. They also revealed some uses that were not presented in earlier sections. First, the spatial division of the family house based on gender was discussed, followed by how the Mbhashe people utilised the family house. Figure 6 illustrates the spatial division between men (right) and women (left) inside the family house. Women married into the family ( makoti ) are forbidden to access the men’s side. The mud bench, known as soze , is built on the men’s side by the door for seating.

Women sit on the floor on handcrafted mats woven from reeds or grass known as ikhukho . Behind the door on the women’s side is a place for childbirth. The participants also alluded to the statement made by Kobo ( 2016 ) that during the birthing process, children and men are prohibited from using the space. They revealed that there was no cultural significance in giving birth at home. Instead, the inaccessibility of health facilities necessitated home births. Booysen ( 2003 ) argues that, in South African rural areas, women give birth at home because health facilities are located remotely to the homesteads and they do not have the means to access them.

Regarding funeral rites, the deceased’s coffin will arrive at the homestead the day before the funeral and a night vigil – a ceremony to honour the deceased—will be held in the family house. The coffin is usually placed on the women’s side and senior women will gather to sleep next to the coffin until the funeral. An elderly family member will burn impepho (incense) and request the ancestors to welcome the deceased. It is believed that if this ritual is not performed, the deceased will not rest in peace.

In households that use the family house for sleeping, designated spaces will be allocated for men and women. A handcrafted mat is used as a base for the foam mattress on both sides. The seating arrangement in the family house is based on seniority, with younger members of the household placed toward the upper layer, as noted by McAllister ( 2004 ). The participants further explained that seniority was not based on age: married women were regarded as senior and women who were not related by blood or matrimony would occupy the upper end of the women’s side. Men’s seating arrangements depend on when one was initiated, with the youngest (the last to go to the bush) towards the upper layer.

McAllister ( 2004 ) and Reeve ( 2011 ) reveal that an appointed person will commune with the ancestors, and store meat and beer in the upper part of the rondavel if there is a ritual. Their findings concur with how the Mbhashe people utilise the space, further indicating that the upper layer is divided into A and B, as shown in Fig. 6 . On the right (men’s side) is where slaughtered meat and beer is stored. It is the responsibility of the men to serve both the meat and beer; hence, it is located on their side. Section B in Fig. 6 is a space in the uppermost end of the rondavel on the women’s side. It contains domestic essentials such as a table and cupboard, crockery, and cutlery and ilitye lokuguba , which is a flat rock which is used to grind food.

In the centre of the family house is a hearth. Kobo ( 2016 ) argues that this is where women are taught to prepare food. The findings of this study also reveal that men also use the space to roast corn. So, there are no gender-based restrictions on the use of this space. The centre also has a pole called intsika , which supports the roof structure. The door is positioned in the lower part of the family house. Section C, illustrated in Fig. 6 , is where the spear ( umkhonto) is kept by sticking it on the roof above the doorway on the men’s side. The spear is used for the slaughter of traditional animals if there is a ritual or ceremony. The spear is believed to obstruct lightning during a storm and is placed in the doorway.

The participants also utilised the rondavel for interacting with each other and the ancestors. Interaction takes place through song and dance during ceremonies. People also interact through spoken word to communicate with or appease ancestors, to socialize with each other by telling stories of love, horror, fiction, and the past, and to play games. The study’s participants expressed clearly how the family house is used which they learned from growing up in rural areas and passed from generation to generation. They have the duty to continue passing this information to the younger members of the family.

amaXhosa habitus and the changing rondavel design in the Mbhashe local municipality

People in the rural areas of the Mbhashe Local Municipality were inclined to architectural change and desire contemporary architecture and luxury, including those who did not currently own it. The contemporary rondavel design was considered progressive, cognisant of the times and, for that matter, the contemporary way of life to which there was a strong inclination to conform: “I too [wish to have a modern house] because these are the houses that are built nowadays, and they make the home beautiful” (P 01).

Notwithstanding, there was a strong consensus to preserve conventional ways of using space and adapt to the contemporary design, including the structure and shape (multi-room), the material used (no longer a thatched roof or mud walls), or hard surfaces (tiles/concrete). The respondents preferred contemporary structures because of their aesthetic and convenience: “…contemporary houses have better aesthetical value, spacious and are functional (e.g., energy consumption, natural lighting)” ( P 09).

Other uses were not adopted in the contemporary house design such as utilising the family house for childbirth because modern women mostly give birth in hospitals and clinics. Statistics South Africa ( 2020 ) revealed that the number of home deliveries has decreased from 14% in 1998 to 4% in 2016 while health facility deliveries have increased from 83.4% in 1998 to 96.7% in 2016 (Statistics South Africa 2020 ). Both 1998 and 2016 home deliveries statistics are indicative of the national level (Statistics South Africa 2020 ).

Placing the deceased’s coffin in the upper part of the family house (section B in Fig. 6 ) was adopted in contemporary rondavel utilisation until the Covid-19 pandemic when people became sceptical of disease transmission. Before the pandemic, the deceased’s body would arrive at home a day before burial, and people would gather for a final ceremony the night before the funeral (night vigil) inside the family house to honour the deceased (Bambalele 2020 ). A South African Covid-19 restriction prohibited corpses being sent home prior to the funeral and the hosting of night vigils (Bambalele 2020 ). This practice has continued since Covid-19 restrictions were relaxed, while others have stopped. However, once the deceased’s coffin arrives on the funeral day, it is taken to the upper part of the family house and a ritual will still be performed where incense is burnt and a request is made to the ancestors to welcome the deceased. Therefore, the cultural significance of the whole process does not rest with the placement of the deceased’s body a day before the funeral but the performance of the ritual.

The presence of mud benches on the men’s side no longer exists. Although the traditional rondavel structure is diminishing in the physical environment, modernisation has certainly swayed people’s sense of feeling, thinking, acting and their use of space. Admittedly, modernisation has not entirely appropriated the Xhosa people’s habitus. Some people were uninterested in adapting to some elements of the contemporary rondavel and house design: “A traditional rondavel must be present in a home. You can make fire, but it is difficult to do that on floor tiles. Still, you perform customs in traditional rondavel” (P 03).

These people continue to use traditional rondavels for the above purposes while also adapting the contemporary rondavel or house design for other uses such as sleeping, unless there is a ceremony when there is no space: “ People do not want to sleep on the floor in the rondavel, and there is no privacy and tile, or cemented floor is cold” (P 04).

While other participants preferred to continue performing traditional ceremonies and communicating with ancestors in the traditional rondavel structure, there were respondents who were open to communicating with ancestors and interacting with the living, and divide space based on gender in the contemporary rondavel – as indicated in Fig. 6 . The cultural strongholds continued to be practiced regardless of the house structure. Therefore, in the absence of a traditional rondavel structure in a homestead, any other house design such as butterfly or flat-roof corner houses can be used for traditional ceremonies: “any house structure can be used as a rondavel; it does not change the culture. It is the same” (P01).

Regarding food preparation, serving and storage, some people used the contemporary rondavel with slight changes for cooking. For example, food is prepared in the family house’s upper part (B section in Fig. 6 ) using a gas or electric stove instead of a hearth at the centre. Others will prepare food and store it in the kitchen of the main house, but people will be served in the contemporary rondavel.

This paper used the concept of habitus to understand whether the changing design and structure of rondavels has influenced its utilisation. Habitus refers to the norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviours of a particular group, which can then guide how they feel, think, act, and use the space. Habitus can be a product of past experiences and practices learned from parents, family experiences, and society (Hong and Zhao 2015 ). It is created and reproduced by structures and practices of society; it is not fixed and changes over time due to particular circumstances (Bourdieu et al. 2000 ; Navarro 2006 ). The study discussed the amaXhosa people’s habitus on the utilisation of the traditional family house rondavel and how it has been influenced by the introduction of contemporary architectural designs. It is noted that architectural change brought by society does not change cultural norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviours attached to rondavels but results in finding ways to accommodate and preserve its utilisation in new architectural developments and selectively choosing ideas to be transmitted to the contemporary house design. The cultural norms, values, habits, dispositions, and behaviours attached to rondavels have also been influenced by advancements in health and medical innovation, as well as Covid-19.

The findings revealed the habitus of the amaXhosa people at the Mbhashe Local Municipality. The utilisation of the traditional family house rondavel includes childbirth, placement of the deceased’s coffin, sleeping, seating, food preparation, serving and storage, keeping the spear, hosting ceremonies, communicating with ancestors, and interacting with the living. The amaXhosa habitus is acquired by growing up in the Xhosa society, being taught by parents, and observing how things are done, which has been passed down from generation to generation. The influence of contemporary architecture brought changes in the construction of rondavel.

Home births are no longer practised because of advancements in health and medicine. The placement of the deceased’s coffin in the upper part of the rondavel a day prior to the funeral has been adopted in the use of a contemporary rondavel; however, it is no longer prevalent because of the Covid-19 restrictions. However, on the day of the funeral, the deceased’s coffin is placed in the upper part of the rondavel for a shorter period and a ritual burning incense and asking the ancestors to welcome the deceased is performed because it is a critical cultural practice.

People also do not opt to sleep on the floor unless there is a ceremony. The preparation of food, its serving and storage differs in that there is no hearth in the new contemporary house; so food is prepared in the main house or the upper part of the rondavel. The gendered division of space, hosting ceremonies, communicating and interacting with ancestors has been adopted in contemporary houses too. However, some still prefer to host ceremonies and communicate with the ancestors in traditional rondavels instead.

People have not resisted new architectural designs or changing cultural norms, values, habits, dispositions and behaviours but have found ways to adapt. Certain old dispositions are adaptable to contemporary structures. Also, a study conducted by Moremoholo ( 2021 ) reveals that some indigenous values such as practising ancestral ceremonies can be incorporated or retained in modern house structure. However, some people are not interested in adapting elements to the contemporary rondavel. They would rather have two structures – the current rondavel design and a traditional rondavel to be utilised for uses that cannot be adapted to the contemporary rondavel. The presence of traditional rondavel in modern times is also witnessed even in Nigeria (Onyejegbu et al. 2023 ).

Some cultural norms, values, old habits, dispositions, and behaviours of utilising traditional rondavels were not adapted to the contemporary rondavel because of health and medical innovations such as childbirth and placing the deceased’s coffin in the rondavel. Clearly, some amaXhosa cultural practices are modified but not completely forgotten.

Future studies can focus on profiling architectural designs found in the Mbhashe Local Municipality and investigate their origins and influencing factors. Others could also focus on rondavels utilised by traditional healers to understand how they have been impacted by architectural changes to space utilisation. It will be also interesting to understand why people still opt for traditional rondavels despite the existence of beautiful modern buildings.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article and additional information is available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Ndude, A., Memela, S. Utilisation of rondavel space by amaXhosa people: a case of Mbhashe local municipality, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1122 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03649-3

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Neuroarchitecture Applied in Children's Design

• Written by Audrey Migliani | Translated by José Tomás Franco
• Published on July 08, 2020

It is unquestionable that environments directly influence the behavior and emotions of their users. Human beings spend approximately 90% of their lives indoors, making it imperative that the spaces we inhabit stimulate positive behavior and emotions, or at least don't influence us negatively. There exists a specific term describing the stimuli that the brain receives from its environment: neuroarchitecture. Several studies have been published on this topic, most focusing on its impact on work environments. This article approaches this concept through a different, yet essential lens: emphasizing its importance in the design of spaces for children in early childhood.

The Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture (ANFA) was formed in San Diego, California, in 2003, during the AIA convention. Dr. Fred Gage, a senior neuroscientist at the Salk Institute and former president of the Society for Neuroscience, posited the term neuroarchitecture during a speech where he closely linked the two disciplines.

In simple terms, neuroarchitecture refers to the different responses produced by the brains of users during their presence in a certain environment. These neural responses can directly alter the mood and behavior of users in any space, both in the short and long term.

Among other parameters, these effects can be measured by analyzing: 1) brain stimuli (in areas of the brain that are active during the period that the user is in the environment); 2) the responses produced by the brain in that environment; 3) vital signs that change in the environment (for example, heart rate).

When designing spaces based on neuroarchitecture, it is necessary to take into account that each user receives and decodes the stimuli of the environment in a unique way. In other words, there are no rules, just a few things to consider. One such consideration addresses the human being's need to belong. The need to belong, according to the definition by the American psychologist Abraham Maslow, refers to the urge to be part of a social group. This theory of belonging was widely disseminated and adapted in neuroarchitecture, which considers the human need to feel like part of a physical space. For example, it is well known that good memories are positively decoded by the brain. That is why investing in visual, auditory, or olfactory memories can be quite important when designing interiors in which users feel belonging.

Special attention must be paid to projects for children. According to the studies of doctor and teacher Maria Montessori, the first years of an individual's life are the most important for their education, determining the constitution of their personality, self-esteem, and character. We have already talked in more depth about the benefits of designing environments based on this philosophy .

'We could say that adults acquire knowledge through our intelligence, while the child absorbs it with his psychic life. [...] Thus, the child undergoes a transformation: impressions not only penetrate her mind, but form it. They fit into it. The child creates her own 'mental flesh', using the things found in her environment. We call her mental type, the absorbing mind' - Maria Montessori in 'The Absorbent Mind'. 1949, p. 36

As with adults (according to the theory of belonging), children need to feel that they belong to their environments for their brains to react best to the stimuli. Among the advantages of preparing environments to meet the needs of children is the strengthening of their self-esteem. Using child-sized furniture and facilitating easy access to items of interest (to their eyes and hands) are important steps to take. So how can a child, even so young, be stimulated by their environment?

How Does a Child Perceive the Environment?

Maria Montessori's studies of how children's brains work have been heavily praised by neuroscience. We will address this concept in laymen's terms, but essentially what Montessori discovered was that the child's mind during early childhood can be divided into two phases: the unconscious absorbent mind (from 0 to 3 years old) and the conscious absorbent mind (from 3 to 6 years). This theory establishes that, from birth, the child absorbs all the stimuli from the environment in which they find themselves in the same way that a sponge does. This is why it is so important to design suitable spaces for them.

'If we prepare an environment at home that is appropriate to the dimensions of the child, to his strengths, to his psychic faculties, and if we let them live in freedom, we will have taken an immense step towards the solution of the educational problem in general, because we will have given the child his environment' - Maria Montessori in 'The Child in the Family', 1929, p. 65.

But how does such a small child absorb these stimuli? Through their senses! A child who has grown up in a suitable environment for them since birth will produce more positive brain responses. And children growing up in environments that positively stimulate their brains take on a few characteristics: they learn faster and feel more motivated and focused. We have selected some factors that can be applied to any environment inhabited by children, but which will be most efficient when incorporated into bedrooms, playrooms, and classrooms. Below, we discuss in detail four of these factors: sight, smell, hearing, and touch.

In consideration of the child's vision, it is important to address account the colors and lighting of their surroundings. Light and pastel tones inspire a calmer and more peaceful atmosphere, whereas warm, strong colors might encourage children to have more energy than usual.

If possible, it is preferable to incorporate natural light, but it is also important to include enough artificial lighting to keep the child active and focused. Some studies show that learning improves up to 20% in better-lit classrooms. Check out more tips for lighting kids' indoor spaces here .

Spatial organization, an important pillar of neuroarchitecture, helps a lot in improving the visual aspect of an environment. It is important to plan ways to keep children's toys and supplies as organized as possible.

For children (especially younger children), being able to touch objects is extremely important. Feeling the textures and temperatures of different objects is actually enriching for children's development. To this end, it is recommended to design an environment with textures accessible to the touch.

Regarding the sensory development of children's hearing, it is essential to address two parameters that seem to contradict, but which are actually complementary in children's environments: music and silence. There are several studies proving the benefits of classical music in fetal development and also during early childhood. On the other hand, silence is essential to guarantee greater concentration in children. The ideal is to find a balance between sound and its absence .

Much is said about olfactory memory being the strongest type of memory in human brains. Therefore, it is important to consider the smells of an environment that, in the future, might become part of the olfactory memory of children. A good strategy to improve smell may be to include indoor plants . In addition to improving relaxation and providing daily contact with more living things, the olfactory possibilities of a home garden , for example, are endless.

Recommended Reading

• How to Stimulate Children's Autonomy Through Architecture and the Montessori Method
• How to Design Schools and Interiors Based on Waldorf Pedagogy
• Schools of the Future: How Furniture Influences Learning
• Wooden Architecture for Children: Designing Warm and Playful Spaces

Referências

• MONTESSORI, Maria. Mente absorvente . Rio de Janeiro: Editorial Nórdica, 1987 (tradução de Wilma Freitas Ronald de Carvalho),1987.
• MONTESSORI, Maria. Montessori en familia . Rio de Janeiro: Editorial Nórdica, 1987 (tradução de Wilma Freitas Ronald de Carvalho),1987.
• Neuroarq Academy / Academia Brasileira de Neurociência e Arquitetura . Accessed June 22, 2020.
• Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture (ANFA) . Accessed June 22, 2020.
• 5 mudanças simples para repaginar a casa / Gazeta Do Povo . Accessed June 22, 2020.
• Neuroarquitetura: entenda a ciência que cria espaços para estimular o bem-estar / Casa e Jardim . Accessed June 22, 2020.
• Neuroarquitectura: Como os ambientes impactan no cérebro? / Marelli . Accessed June 22, 2020.

Publicado originalmente em 2 de julho de 2020, atualizado em 1 de julho de 2021.

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