woman career essay

• SUGGESTED TOPICS
• The Magazine
• Newsletters
• Managing Yourself
• Managing Teams
• Work-life Balance
• The Big Idea
• Data & Visuals
• Reading Lists
• Case Selections
• HBR Learning
• Topic Feeds
• Account Settings
• Email Preferences

How Successful Women Sustain Career Momentum

• Brenda F. Wensil
• Winifred Ernst

Three strategies, based on interviews with 37 senior leaders.

The authors, executive coaches for women leaders, wanted to understand why some women are able to sustain and maintain career momentum, despite the systemic, structural problems women — and especially women of color — face in the workplace. They interviewed 37 women in senior leadership roles, identifying three behaviors that helped these women sustain momentum: a focused drive, an incessant desire to learn, and an agile mindset.

Jackie began her career as a scientist doing drug discovery. After a few years, she realized she wanted to work on the strategy side of the business. But every time she tried to make the shift, she was turned down.

• BW Brenda F. Wensil is managing director with Bravanti , a global provider leadership acceleration practices and executive and career coaching expertise.
• WE Winifred Ernst , PhD, leads research and facilitates learning and development as a Bravanti consultant.  She also coaches executive level women at health, educational and Fortune 500 companies who have earned prestigious fellowships such as Carol Emmot, Stanford, Amazon and the Betsy Magness programs.

Partner Center

The history of women’s work and wages and how it has created success for us all

As we celebrate the centennial of the 19th Amendment, giving women the right to vote, we should also celebrate the major strides women have made in the labor market. Their entry into paid work has been a major factor in America’s prosperity over the past century and a quarter.

Despite this progress, evidence suggests that many women remain unable to achieve their goals. The gap in earnings between women and men, although smaller than it was years ago, is still significant; women continue to be underrepresented in certain industries and occupations; and too many women struggle to combine aspirations for work and family. Further advancement has been hampered by barriers to equal opportunity and workplace rules and norms that fail to support a reasonable work-life balance. If these obstacles persist, we will squander the potential of many of our citizens and incur a substantial loss to the productive capacity of our economy at a time when the aging of the population and weak productivity growth are already weighing on economic growth.

A historical perspective on women in the labor force

In the early 20th century, most women in the United States did not work outside the home, and those who did were primarily young and unmarried. In that era, just 20 percent of all women were “gainful workers,” as the Census Bureau then categorized labor force participation outside the home, and only 5 percent of those married were categorized as such. Of course, these statistics somewhat understate the contributions of married women to the economy beyond housekeeping and childrearing, since women’s work in the home often included work in family businesses and the home production of goods, such as agricultural products, for sale. Also, the aggregate statistics obscure the differential experience of women by race. African American women were about twice as likely to participate in the labor force as were white women at the time, largely because they were more likely to remain in the labor force after marriage.

If these obstacles persist, we will squander the potential of many of our citizens and incur a substantial loss to the productive capacity of our economy at a time when the aging of the population and weak productivity growth are already weighing on economic growth.

The fact that many women left work upon marriage reflected cultural norms, the nature of the work available to them, and legal strictures. The occupational choices of those young women who did work were severely circumscribed. Most women lacked significant education—and women with little education mostly toiled as piece workers in factories or as domestic workers, jobs that were dirty and often unsafe. Educated women were scarce. Fewer than 2 percent of all 18- to 24-year-olds were enrolled in an institution of higher education, and just one-third of those were women. Such women did not have to perform manual labor, but their choices were likewise constrained.

Despite the widespread sentiment against women, particularly married women, working outside the home and with the limited opportunities available to them, women did enter the labor force in greater numbers over this period, with participation rates reaching nearly 50 percent for single women by 1930 and nearly 12 percent for married women. This rise suggests that while the incentive—and in many cases the imperative—remained for women to drop out of the labor market at marriage when they could rely on their husband’s income, mores were changing. Indeed, these years overlapped with the so-called first wave of the women’s movement, when women came together to agitate for change on a variety of social issues, including suffrage and temperance, and which culminated in the ratification of the 19th Amendment in 1920 guaranteeing women the right to vote.

Between the 1930s and mid-1970s, women’s participation in the economy continued to rise, with the gains primarily owing to an increase in work among married women. By 1970, 50 percent of single women and 40 percent of married women were participating in the labor force. Several factors contributed to this rise. First, with the advent of mass high school education, graduation rates rose substantially. At the same time, new technologies contributed to an increased demand for clerical workers, and these jobs were increasingly taken on by women. Moreover, because these jobs tended to be cleaner and safer, the stigma attached to work for a married woman diminished. And while there were still marriage bars that forced women out of the labor force, these formal barriers were gradually removed over the period following World War II.

Over the decades from 1930 to 1970, increasing opportunities also arose for highly educated women. That said, early in that period, most women still expected to have short careers, and women were still largely viewed as secondary earners whose husbands’ careers came first.

As time progressed, attitudes about women working and their employment prospects changed. As women gained experience in the labor force, they increasingly saw that they could balance work and family. A new model of the two-income family emerged. Some women began to attend college and graduate school with the expectation of working, whether or not they planned to marry and have families.

By the 1970s, a dramatic change in women’s work lives was under way. In the period after World War II, many women had not expected that they would spend as much of their adult lives working as turned out to be the case. By contrast, in the 1970s young women more commonly expected that they would spend a substantial portion of their lives in the labor force, and they prepared for it, increasing their educational attainment and taking courses and college majors that better equipped them for careers as opposed to just jobs.

These changes in attitudes and expectations were supported by other changes under way in society. Workplace protections were enhanced through the passage of the Pregnancy Discrimination Act in 1978 and the recognition of sexual harassment in the workplace. Access to birth control increased, which allowed married couples greater control over the size of their families and young women the ability to delay marriage and to plan children around their educational and work choices. And in 1974, women gained, for the first time, the right to apply for credit in their own name without a male co-signer.

By the early 1990s, the labor force participation rate of prime working-age women—those between the ages of 25 and 54—reached just over 74 percent, compared with roughly 93 percent for prime working-age men. By then, the share of women going into the traditional fields of teaching, nursing, social work, and clerical work declined, and more women were becoming doctors, lawyers, managers, and professors. As women increased their education and joined industries and occupations formerly dominated by men, the gap in earnings between women and men began to close significantly.

Remaining challenges and some possible solutions

We, as a country, have reaped great benefits from the increasing role that women have played in the economy. But evidence suggests that barriers to women’s continued progress remain. The participation rate for prime working-age women peaked in the late 1990s and currently stands at about 76 percent. Of course, women, particularly those with lower levels of education, have been affected by the same economic forces that have been pushing down participation among men, including technical change and globalization. However, women’s participation plateaued at a level well below that of prime working-age men, which stands at about 89 percent. While some married women choose not to work, the size of this disparity should lead us to examine the extent to which structural problems, such as a lack of equal opportunity and challenges to combining work and family, are holding back women’s advancement.

Recent research has shown that although women now enter professional schools in numbers nearly equal to men, they are still substantially less likely to reach the highest echelons of their professions.

The gap in earnings between men and women has narrowed substantially, but progress has slowed lately, and women working full time still earn about 17 percent less than men, on average, each week. Even when we compare men and women in the same or similar occupations who appear nearly identical in background and experience, a gap of about 10 percent typically remains. As such, we cannot rule out that gender-related impediments hold back women, including outright discrimination, attitudes that reduce women’s success in the workplace, and an absence of mentors.

Recent research has shown that although women now enter professional schools in numbers nearly equal to men, they are still substantially less likely to reach the highest echelons of their professions. Even in my own field of economics, women constitute only about one-third of Ph.D. recipients, a number that has barely budged in two decades. This lack of success in climbing the professional ladder would seem to explain why the wage gap actually remains largest for those at the top of the earnings distribution.

One of the primary factors contributing to the failure of these highly skilled women to reach the tops of their professions and earn equal pay is that top jobs in fields such as law and business require longer workweeks and penalize taking time off. This would have a disproportionately large effect on women who continue to bear the lion’s share of domestic and child-rearing responsibilities.

But it can be difficult for women to meet the demands in these fields once they have children. The very fact that these types of jobs require such long hours likely discourages some women—as well as men—from pursuing these career tracks. Advances in technology have facilitated greater work-sharing and flexibility in scheduling, and there are further opportunities in this direction. Economic models also suggest that while it can be difficult for any one employer to move to a model with shorter hours, if many firms were to change their model, they and their workers could all be better off.

Of course, most women are not employed in fields that require such long hours or that impose such severe penalties for taking time off. But the difficulty of balancing work and family is a widespread problem. In fact, the recent trend in many occupations is to demand complete scheduling flexibility, which can result in too few hours of work for those with family demands and can make it difficult to schedule childcare. Reforms that encourage companies to provide some predictability in schedules, cross-train workers to perform different tasks, or require a minimum guaranteed number of hours in exchange for flexibility could improve the lives of workers holding such jobs. Another problem is that in most states, childcare is affordable for fewer than half of all families. And just 5 percent of workers with wages in the bottom quarter of the wage distribution have jobs that provide them with paid family leave. This circumstance puts many women in the position of having to choose between caring for a sick family member and keeping their jobs.

This possibility should inform our own thinking about policies to make it easier for women and men to combine their family and career aspirations. For instance, improving access to affordable and good quality childcare would appear to fit the bill, as it has been shown to support full-time employment. Recently, there also seems to be some momentum for providing families with paid leave at the time of childbirth. The experience in Europe suggests picking policies that do not narrowly target childbirth, but instead can be used to meet a variety of health and caregiving responsibilities.

The United States faces a number of longer-term economic challenges, including the aging of the population and the low growth rate of productivity. One recent study estimates that increasing the female participation rate to that of men would raise our gross domestic product by 5 percent. Our workplaces and families, as well as women themselves, would benefit from continued progress. However, a number of factors appear to be holding women back, including the difficulty women currently have in trying to combine their careers with other aspects of their lives, including caregiving. In looking to solutions, we should consider improvements to work environments and policies that benefit not only women, but all workers. Pursuing such a strategy would be in keeping with the story of the rise in women’s involvement in the workforce, which has contributed not only to their own well-being but more broadly to the welfare and prosperity of our country.

This essay is a revised version of a speech that Janet Yellen, then chair of the Federal Reserve, delivered on May 5, 2017 at the “125 Years of Women at Brown Conference,” sponsored by Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island. Yellen would like to thank Stephanie Aaronson, now vice president and director of Economic Studies at the Brookings Institution, for her assistance in the preparation of the original remarks. Read the full text of the speech here »

About the Author

Janet l. yellen, distinguished fellow in residence – economic studies, the hutchins center on fiscal and monetary policy, more from janet yellen.

Former Fed chair Janet Yellen on gender and racial diversity of the federal government’s economists

Janet Yellen delivered this remark at the public event, “The gender and racial diversity of the federal government’s economists” by Hutchins Center on Fiscal & Monetary Policy at Brookings on September 23, 2019. 

The gender and racial diversity of the federal government’s economists

The lack of diversity in the field of economics – in addition to the lack of progress relative to other STEM fields – is drawing increasing attention in the profession, but nearly all the focus has been on economists at academic institutions, and little attention has been devoted to the diversity of the economists employed […]

MORE FROM THE 19A SERIES

Leaving all to younger hands: Why the history of the women’s suffragist movement matters

Dr. Susan Ware places the passage of the 19th Amendment in its appropriate historical context, highlights its shortfalls, and explains why celebrating the Amendment’s complex history matters.

Women warriors: The ongoing story of integrating and diversifying the American armed forces

General (ret.) Lori J. Robinson and Michael O’Hanlon discuss the strides made toward greater participation of women in the U.S. military, and the work still to be done to ensure equitable experiences for all service members.

Women’s work boosts middle class incomes but creates a family time squeeze that needs to be eased

Middle-class incomes have risen modestly in recent decades, and most of any gains in their incomes are the result of more working women. Isabel Sawhill and Katherine Guyot explain the important role women play in middle class households and the challenges they face, including family “time squeeze.”

• Media Relations
• Terms and Conditions
• Privacy Policy

When Women Choose Children Over a Career

“I went to a job interview after my first daughter was born and cried the whole way home.”

This is the third story in a seven-part series looking at women’s ambitions in the years following college.

When we began interviewing our former classmates at Northwestern, we expected to encounter a few stay-at-home mothers. Even though no one in college had explicitly stated that they planned on stopping work to raise children, we understood that many women make this choice for a range of reasons. The Pew Research Center reports that 10 percent of highly educated mothers (those who earned a master’s degree or greater) stay home. We found that for the 37 women in our sorority’s 1993 graduating class, the percent was more than double: One-quarter are at home raising children—10 people, six of whom hold advanced degrees. These numbers surprised us, to put it mildly. We weren’t the only ones.

Each of the women in this group had been on a successful track after leaving Northwestern, and wanted and intended to have a career after having kids. They were a television writer, teacher, opera singer, public relations manager, lawyer, management consultant, fundraiser and financial adviser, among other professions. Many described their decision to stay home as something that came as a complete surprise.

That becoming a mother changes one’s worldview isn’t news. But while some women had their worlds rocked and then picked themselves up, put on their business casual, and went back to the office, others decided to upend their careers and refashion themselves as full-time mothers. What accounted for the vastly different reactions to the same life-changing event?

While one school of thought is that inadequate family-leave policies inhibit women’s professional advancements, we didn’t encounter a single interviewee who said something like “I didn’t have any maternity leave so I quit,” or, “My maternity leave was too short so I quit.” In fact, most of our interviewees were relatively happy with their maternity benefits . Rather, we observed a number of factors that collectively provide a good indication as to whether someone would keep advancing her career or opt out.

A small minority of our former classmates described a physical and emotional bond with their new children that they simply couldn’t reconcile with going back to work. This was the case among women who both contributed significantly to the family income and who felt stimulated and engaged by their work. A lawyer in a patent-law firm in Kansas City gave birth to her first child a few years after making partner. She had a nanny lined up and was ready to start work as soon as her maternity leave ended. During her leave, she went into the office once a week. A few weeks in she realized “something’s gotta give. I can’t give 100 percent to everything.” Even though she believes the firm would have allowed her to work part-time and still retain her partner status, she says she couldn’t imagine not being available to her clients around the clock; nor could she imagine letting anyone else take care of her child during the day. She walked into her supervisor’s office in tears, and delivered her resignation. “I was not thinking this was temporary,” she said. “I knew I was leaving something big.”

A teacher also felt a switch flip once she had kids: “I never [thought I would want] to stay home with my kids, ever. But then I went to a job interview after my first daughter was born and cried the whole way home. I called and told them I didn’t want the position. I was lucky, because my husband made enough money that I could stay home.”

But the remaining women engaged in a kind of childcare calculus where they factored in their salary, the cost of childcare, their long-term career prospects, and the degree to which their working would negatively affect their family. For those with jobs that were either low-paying or unfulfilling, many stated that “it just made sense” for them to stay home. One former classmate, a singer who worked in sales at UBS to make ends meet while she auditioned, and whose husband is an estate-planning lawyer, left her job toward the end of her first pregnancy. At that point she had abandoned her music career, and a random office job just for the sake of having a job seemed pointless. “The cost of childcare was more than my salary. If I was doing something I loved, I would’ve been more insistent [on staying in].”

A financial planner with a large Wall Street firm left her job while she was pregnant—the job was no longer exciting for her, and she knew there would be no flexibility for time with her new baby. A former lacrosse player at Northwestern, she enrolled in a master’s program in physical therapy at Columbia University, moving toward a career she thought would afford her a more flexible schedule. But even that proved too difficult.

“I was studying for an exam at the library, and making a grocery list at the same time,” she recounted. “I couldn’t handle it. I called my husband and said, ‘I’m dropping out.’” She now has three children, is a full-time stay-at-home mom, and would “love to go back to work,” but doesn’t see how her family would function logistically. With a husband who works long hours in finance and travels often, she’s been managing their home life for eight years. “Being a hands-on parent, and running the whole house, and doing everything, I don’t know how we would do it,” she told us.

In some cases, our former classmates tried to negotiate a part-time situation that would make the prospect of leaving their newborn more tenable. One woman who worked in public relations in North Carolina had carefully researched her daycare options and chose one close to her office. She took her new daughter there the week before she was due back at work to meet the staff and get familiar with the space. “The woman in charge was sitting on the floor with babies all around her. She didn’t even get up or look at my daughter. I couldn’t get out of there fast enough.” The new mother canceled the daycare plan and made other arrangements. She returned to work torn, tried to negotiate flexible hours, and was turned down. A few months later she quit. She’s been a full-time mother for the last 14 years.

One commonality among our interviewees who chose to stay home is that they held jobs that, once their first child was born, no longer “worked” for the family: The job wasn’t sufficiently flexible for a new parent; it didn’t pay enough to cover the cost of childcare; or it simply wasn’t so fulfilling as to warrant the disruption it would cause the family. So they left.

It’s worth noting here the wealth of research that points to the fact that women are not rewarded at work on par with their male colleagues. Women are promoted more slowly , they’re judged more harshly , and they aren’t compensated the same. A 2010 study by professors at MIT and Indiana University found that organizations whose cultures emphasize meritocracy when it comes to bonuses and promotions are biased towards men. Among the inequities the study unearthed: When women and men received the same level of performance reviews, the men were given bigger bonuses. In their book What Works For Women at Work , Joan Williams and Rachel Dempsey identify four obstacles that nearly all women encounter at work, including the need to “prove-it again” and “the tightrope” women must walk between being too aggressive and not aggressive enough. They note that men are often hired on the basis of their potential, while women are judged on past performance.

While few women we interviewed pointed to sexism as a factor in leaving the workforce, workplace sexism is often also oblique and subtle . We tended to hear stories about blatant sexism rather than the kind where you might not be sure where the fault lies. As Ann Friedman put it in New York Magazine , “In real time, it’s hard to be sure what’s sexism and what’s you.” An advertising agency copywriter who clocked 80 hours a week and was constantly praised for her work told us she’d been passed over for promotion to associate creative director when her boss chose to promote a man with less experience. At another company a couple years later, the same subject was poised for another promotion, only to have her boss question her readiness when he discovered she was pregnant. She fought for the promotion and was set to receive it, but then, near the end of her pregnancy and soured by the experience, she left the company to stay home with her newborn.

We don’t know if many of our other Opt Out subjects weren’t moving up at the pace they should have been; we don’t know if they were tired of the dance they had to perform on a daily basis between aggression and sweetness, the constant adjusting of one’s personality to meet someone else’s needs. We only know that many felt dissatisfied at work. They used phrases like, “it wasn’t a fit for me” frequently. They said that a job didn’t work or wasn’t rewarding or deeply satisfying; they never stated outright that they thought they were being judged too harshly. But the odds are strong that they were, and then when the time came to choose between a career that wasn’t proceeding quite right for a range of reasons or their children, they chose their children.

Some of our former classmates’ children are now edging into their teen years, and many of these mothers are considering their future in the workplace. Having taken a pause in their careers to have and raise children, they’re struggling to reengage in the professional world. Five have returned to work part-time, or in flexible jobs, but only one has managed to accelerate her career beyond where it was when she left. Though these women were high achievers when they graduated, they lost much of their professional currency and earning power. For those with children nearing college age, economic privilege has shifted into economic need—the need to pay for their kids’ higher education. One woman who holds a J.D. but was in the process of getting credentialed as a teacher when her husband got a job in the foreign service hasn’t worked in the 15 years she and her family have lived overseas. She has wanted to go back to school to get her master’s in teaching, but admits, with not a little sadness, “We’re saving for our kids’ college, not mine.”

We heard a mixture of pride and sadness in the voices of most of our stay-at-home moms. They love being involved in the details of their children’s lives, and feel pride in making a home that functions well for their kids and their spouse, but were also ambivalent about having left the workforce. The former financial planner feels that while she is fully present for her children, she may be doing them a disservice by not having a career.

“I fully intend to go back to work,” she said. “I feel I’m letting my girls down by not working.” But she isn’t sure the grass is greener for those moms who take the train into the city to their midtown office jobs every day, either. “I don’t feel like anybody’s thrilled with their choice. The women who work feel badly about it and are disconnected, and the women at home, all of them have fantasies about going back to work.”

Read the next piece in this series here .

About the Authors

How Gender Stereotypes Kill a Woman’s Self-Confidence

Women make up more than half of the labor force in the United States and earn almost 60 percent of advanced degrees, yet they bring home less pay and fill fewer seats in the C-suite than men, particularly in male-dominated professions like finance and technology.

This gender gap is due in part to “occupational sorting,” with men choosing careers that pay higher wages than women do, labor economists say. For example, women represent only 26 percent of US workers employed in computer and math jobs, according to the Department of Labor.

New research identifies one reason women might be shying away from certain professions: They lack confidence in their ability to compete in fields that men are stereotypically believed to perform more strongly in, such as science, math, and technology.

Women are also more reluctant to share their ideas in group discussions on these subjects. And even when they have talent—and are actually told they are high-achievers in these subjects—women are more likely than men to shrug off the praise and lowball their own abilities.

This weak self-confidence may hold some women back as they count themselves out of pursuing prestigious roles in professions they believe they won’t excel in, despite having the skills to succeed, says Harvard Business School Assistant Professor Katherine B. Coffman .

“Our beliefs about ourselves are important in shaping all kinds of important decisions, such as what colleges we apply to, which career paths we choose, and whether we are willing to contribute ideas in the workplace or try to compete for a promotion,” Coffman says. “If talented women in STEM aren’t confident, they might not even look at those fields in the first place. It’s all about how good we think we are, especially when we ask ourselves, ‘What does it make sense for me to pursue?’”

Coffman has recently co-written an article in the American Economic Review as well as two working papers, all aimed at studying men’s and women’s beliefs about their own abilities.

“Women are more likely than men to shrug off the praise and lowball their own abilities.”

What she found, in essence, is that gender stereotypes distort our views of both ourselves and others—and that may be especially troubling for women, since buying into those stereotypes could be creating a bleak self-image that is setting them back professionally.

Here’s a snapshot of findings from all three research studies:

Women are less confident than men in certain subjects, like math

In a study for the journal article Beliefs about Gender , Coffman and her colleagues asked participants to answer multiple-choice trivia questions in several categories that women are perceived to have a better handle on, like the Kardashians, Disney movies, cooking, art and literature, and verbal skills. Then they were quizzed in categories considered favorable for men, such as business, math, videogames, cars, and sports.

Respondents were asked to estimate how many questions they answered correctly on tests, and to guess the performance of a random partner whose gender was revealed. Both men and women exaggerated the actual gender performance gaps on average, overstating the male advantage in male-typed domains as well as overstating the female advantage in female-typed questions. And in predicting their own abilities, women had much less confidence in their scores on the tests they believed men had an advantage in.

“Gender stereotypes determine people’s beliefs about themselves and others,” Coffman says. “If I take a woman who has the exact same ability in two different categories—verbal and math—just the fact that there’s an average male advantage in math shapes her belief that her own ability in math is lower.”

Women discount positive feedback about their abilities

In an experiment for Coffman’s working paper Stereotypes and Belief Updating , participants completed a timed test of cognitive ability in five areas: general science, arithmetic reasoning, math knowledge, mechanical comprehension, and assembling objects. They were asked to guess their total number of correct answers, as well as how their performance compared to others. A woman who actually had the same score as a man estimated her score to be 0.58 points lower, a statistically significant gap. Even more surprising, even after participants were provided with feedback about how they performed, this gender gap in how well they perceived they did continued.

In a second study participants were asked to guess how they performed on a test in a randomly assigned subject matter and to predict their own rank relative to others completing the same test. The researchers then provided participants with feedback about their performance. They found that both men and women discounted good news about their scores in subjects that their gender was perceived to have more trouble with.

Stereotypes play on our minds so strongly that it becomes tougher to convince people of their talent in fields where they believe their gender is weak, Coffman says.

“A policy prescription to correct a confidence gap in women might be: Let’s find talented women and tell them, ‘Hey, you’re good at math. You got a really good score on this math test,'" she says. “But our results suggest that this feedback is less effective in closing the gender gap than we might hope. It’s harder than we thought to convince women in male-typed fields that they’ve performed well in these fields.”

It’s unclear whether women would feel better about their abilities if they received repeated rounds of positive feedback, rather than one piece of good news. “I’d be interested to find out if the gender bias gets smaller over time, once a woman has heard that she’s good at math over and over again,” Coffman says. “You might have to encourage women a few times if you want to close these gaps.”

"Our work suggests a need for structuring group decision-making in a way that assures the most talented members both volunteer and are recognized for their contributions, despite gender stereotypes.”

It's important to note, Coffman says, that these studies also show that men have less confidence than women in their ability to shine in fields dominated by women. “It’s not that women are simply less confident; what we find consistently is that individuals are less confident in fields that are more stereotypically outside of their gender’s domain,” Coffman says.

Women hold back on expressing ideas on ‘male topics’

In a third paper, Gender Stereotypes in Deliberation and Team Decisions, Coffman and colleagues studied how teams discuss, decide on, and reward ideas in a group.

The research team compared the behavior of two groups that had free-form discussions in response to questions that varied in the amount of “maleness” of the topic. In one group, the gender of each participant was known, and in the other group, the gender of speakers was not identifiable. They found that men and women had the same ability to answer the questions, yet once again, gender stereotypes warped people’s responses.

As the “maleness” of the question increased, women were significantly less likely than men to self-promote their ideas within the group when their gender was known, particularly in cases where only one woman was talking with a bunch of men. But in the groups where gender was unknown, no gender differences were found in terms of how much women and men talked up their ideas or were recognized by others for their input.

The researchers even found that stereotypes seemed to play a role in the way outside evaluators rated the contributions of each group member after reading transcripts of the conversations. Without knowing the gender of speakers, these evaluators were significantly more likely to guess that participants who came across in the transcripts as “warm,” or friendly, were female and that a negative or critical participant was male—even though researchers found no actual differences in how men and women in the group communicated. Male raters also were significantly less likely to believe that speakers who were judged as “competent” were female. In addition, warmer participants, particularly warmer women, were less likely to be rewarded for their input in the discussions.

Speak up for success

To achieve professional success, people must voice opinions and advocate for their ideas while working in decision-making teams, so it’s a problem if women are staying quiet when it comes to male-typed subjects—and if their ideas are appreciated less when they do express them, Coffman says.

“Our work suggests a need for structuring group decision-making in a way that assures the most talented members both volunteer and are recognized for their contributions, despite gender stereotypes,” the paper says.

It’s also important for managers to be aware of how confidence gaps may impact the workplace, particularly in professions long dominated by men, and to realize that women may need extra encouragement to express their ideas or to throw their hat in the ring for a promotion, Coffman says.

“I would encourage business leaders to think about how [workers’ confidence levels] impact the processes in their organizations,” Coffman says. “I would say providing extra feedback is a good start. If you as an employer see talent somewhere, reaching out to make sure the person is encouraged, recognized, and rewarded—not just once, but repeatedly—could be a helpful thing to do.”

With this new data on gender stereotyping, Coffman and her colleagues hope their work will help inform future research to piece together answers to some puzzling questions, like why men and women alike believe that men will perform better than women in some domains and what interventions can be considered to close this gender gap in self-confidence.

“Stereotypes are pervasive, widely-held views that shape beliefs about our own and others’ abilities, likely from a very young age,” Coffman says. “Until we can change these stereotypes, it’s essential to think about how we can better inoculate individuals from biases induced by stereotypes, helping people to pursue fulfilling careers in the areas where their passions and talents lie.”

Dina Gerdeman is senior editor at Harvard Business School Working Knowledge.

Image: Willbrasil21

Related Reading:

Women Receive Harsher Punishment at Work Than Men Sponsorship Programs Could Actually Widen the Gender Gap Gender-Diverse Companies Thrive Only Where Diversity is Embraced

Related reading from the Working Knowledge Archives

Women at Work

What do you think of this research?

How much intuition goes into your own decision making? Share your insights below.

• 25 Jun 2024
• Research & Ideas

Rapport: The Hidden Advantage That Women Managers Bring to Teams

• 11 Jun 2024
• In Practice

The Harvard Business School Faculty Summer Reader 2024

How transparency sped innovation in a $13 billion wireless sector.

• 24 Jan 2024

Why Boeing’s Problems with the 737 MAX Began More Than 25 Years Ago

• 27 Jun 2016

These Management Practices, Like Certain Technologies, Boost Company Performance

• Equality and Inequality
• Organizational Culture
• Groups and Teams
• Prejudice and Bias

Sign up for our weekly newsletter

Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World

Read our research on:

Full Topic List

Regions & Countries

• Publications
• Our Methods
• Short Reads
• Tools & Resources

Read Our Research On:

Women more than men adjust their careers for family life

For working parents in the U.S., the challenge of juggling careers and family life continues to be a front-burner issue – one that is being recognized by a growing number of employers who have adopted family-friendly policies such as paid leave. But while few Americans want to see a return to traditional roles of women at home and men in the workplace, one reality persists: Women most often are the ones who adjust their schedules and make compromises when the needs of children and other family members collide with work, Pew Research Center data show.

In a 2013 survey , we found that mothers were much more likely than fathers to report experiencing significant career interruptions in order to attend to their families’ needs. Part of this is due to the fact that gender roles are lagging behind labor force trends. While women represent nearly half of the U.S. workforce, they still devote more time than men on average to housework and child care and fewer hours to paid work, although the gap has narrowed significantly over time. Among working parents of children younger than 18, mothers in 2013 spent an average of 14.2 hours per week on housework, compared with fathers’ 8.6 hours. And mothers spent 10.7 hours per week actively engaged in child care, compared with fathers’ 7.2 hours.

Another factor is the way that society views the bond between mothers and their children. In a 2012 Pew Research survey, the vast majority of Americans (79%) rejected the notion that women should return to  their traditional role in society . Yet when they were asked what is best for young children, very few adults (16%) said that having a mother who works full time is the “ideal situation.” Some 42% said that having a mother who works part time is ideal and 33% said what’s best for young children is to have a mother who doesn’t work at all. Even among full-time working moms, only about one-in-five (22%) said that having a full-time working mother is ideal for young children.

When asked what’s best for women themselves, the public expressed a similar sentiment. Only 12% of adults said the ideal situation for women with young children is to work full time. About half (47%) said working part time is ideal for these women, while 33% said not working at all would be the best situation.

The public applies a much different standard to fathers. When we asked about the ideal situation for men with young children, fully seven-in-ten adults said working full time would be ideal for these fathers. One-in-five adults said part-time work would be ideal and only 4% said it would be best for these dads not to work at all.

In reality, the “ideal” situation is not always the most practical, nor is it always attainable. In fact, according to U.S. government data , 64% of mothers with children younger than 6 are in the labor force, and among working mothers, 72% work full time.

One result is that while 42% of mothers with some work experience reported in 2013 that they had reduced their work hours in order to care for a child or other family member at some point in their career, only 28% of fathers said the same. Similarly, 39% of mothers said they had taken a significant amount of time off from work in order to care for a family member (compared with 24% of men). And mothers were about three times as likely as men to report that at some point they quit a job so that they could care for a family member (27% of women vs. 10% of men).

It’s important to note that when we asked people whether they regretted taking these steps, the resounding answer was “No.” However, it’s also important to note that women who had experienced these interruptions were much more likely than men to say that this had a negative impact on their career. For example, women who took time off at some point in their work life to care for a child or other family member were twice as likely as men who did the same to say that this hurt their career overall (35% vs. 17%). Similarly, among those who took a significant amount of time off from work to look after a family member, 32% of women compared with 18% of men said doing this hurt them professionally.

According to many economists, family-related career interruptions can undermine women’s economic prospects in a variety of ways, by contributing to the gender wage gap and by narrowing the pipeline that feeds top-level jobs. Of course, for lots of women these interruptions may serve as the catalyst to a more balanced life which may in turn outweigh any lost financial benefits.

In her new book “Unfinished Business: Women, Men, Work, Family ,” Anne-Marie Slaughter raises many of these issues, and in a recent New York Times article , Slaughter said that what is needed in order to change individual workplaces is a “culture change: fundamental shifts in the way we think, talk and confer prestige.” Our data suggest that a generational shift, if not a culture change, may be coming. When we asked young adults (ages 18 to 32) who don’t yet have children whether they anticipate that becoming a parent will make it harder or easier for them to advance in their job or career, young men were just as likely as young women to say that children will likely slow down their career advancement (roughly 60% in each group). This suggests that Millennial men may be entering their careers with a different set of expectations about what balancing family life and work will entail.

At the same time, though, among young adults with children, women are much more likely than men to say being a working parent makes it harder for them to get ahead at work (58% of Millennial moms say this, versus 19% of Millennial dads).

These issues raise anew debates over government and workplace policies designed to support parents and families. While the national conversation continues, working parents across America will continue to juggle their many responsibilities – making time for caregiving along the way.

• Business & Workplace
• Economics, Work & Gender
• Family Caregiving
• Gender & LGBTQ
• Gender & Work
• Gender Equality & Discrimination
• Gender Roles

Kim Parker is director of social trends research at Pew Research Center .

A look at small businesses in the U.S.

A look at black-owned businesses in the u.s., 2023 saw some of the biggest, hardest-fought labor disputes in recent decades, do you tip more or less often than the average american, diversity, equity and inclusion in the workplace, most popular.

901 E St. NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20004 USA (+1) 202-419-4300 | Main (+1) 202-857-8562 | Fax (+1) 202-419-4372 |  Media Inquiries

Research Topics

• Email Newsletters

ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER  Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of  The Pew Charitable Trusts .

© 2024 Pew Research Center

About Stanford GSB

• The Leadership
• Dean’s Updates
• School News & History
• Commencement
• Business, Government & Society
• Centers & Institutes
• Center for Entrepreneurial Studies
• Center for Social Innovation
• Stanford Seed

About the Experience

• Learning at Stanford GSB
• Experiential Learning
• Guest Speakers
• Entrepreneurship
• Social Innovation
• Communication
• Life at Stanford GSB
• Collaborative Environment
• Activities & Organizations
• Student Services
• Housing Options
• International Students

Full-Time Degree Programs

• Why Stanford MBA
• Academic Experience
• Financial Aid
• Why Stanford MSx
• Research Fellows Program
• See All Programs

Non-Degree & Certificate Programs

• Executive Education
• Stanford Executive Program
• Programs for Organizations
• The Difference
• Online Programs
• Stanford LEAD
• Seed Transformation Program
• Aspire Program
• Seed Spark Program
• Faculty Profiles
• Academic Areas
• Awards & Honors
• Conferences

Faculty Research

• Publications
• Working Papers
• Case Studies

Research Hub

• Research Labs & Initiatives
• Business Library
• Data, Analytics & Research Computing
• Behavioral Lab

Research Labs

• Cities, Housing & Society Lab
• Golub Capital Social Impact Lab

Research Initiatives

• Corporate Governance Research Initiative
• Corporations and Society Initiative
• Policy and Innovation Initiative
• Rapid Decarbonization Initiative
• Stanford Latino Entrepreneurship Initiative
• Value Chain Innovation Initiative
• Venture Capital Initiative
• Career & Success
• Climate & Sustainability
• Corporate Governance
• Culture & Society
• Finance & Investing
• Government & Politics
• Leadership & Management
• Markets and Trade
• Operations & Logistics
• Opportunity & Access
• Technology & AI
• Opinion & Analysis
• Email Newsletter

Welcome, Alumni

• Communities
• Digital Communities & Tools
• Regional Chapters
• Women’s Programs
• Identity Chapters
• Find Your Reunion
• Career Resources
• Job Search Resources
• Career & Life Transitions
• Programs & Webinars
• Career Video Library
• Alumni Education
• Research Resources
• Volunteering
• Alumni News
• Class Notes
• Alumni Voices
• Contact Alumni Relations
• Upcoming Events

Admission Events & Information Sessions

• MBA Program
• MSx Program
• PhD Program
• Alumni Events
• All Other Events

The Impact of a Woman's Personal Style on Career Success

New research suggests that ambition and assertive behavior from women may set them back at certain firms.

January 01, 2005

Are women still at a disadvantage when it comes to attaining career success? Yes and no, says a new study. Women across the board seem to be enjoying greater parity with men—except in “good-old-boy companies,” where a woman’s personal style and needs for work/family balance may clash with organizational expectations, values, and demands.

Stanford Graduate School of Business professor Charles O’Reilly and doctoral student Olivia O’Neill have been able to tease out this subtle distinction by looking at the relationship of careers not only to people’s biological sex but also to their preferences in workplace environment and work style. The researchers looked specifically at gender “identity”—that is, how “masculine” or “feminine” subjects’ goals and behaviors were. Previous studies have ignored the fact that gender behaviors might not correspond with one’s biological sex, and this confusion has led to conflicting findings about women’s professional status and career trends.

In the brave new world of business, destiny may no longer be the result of biology, but rather of subtle interactions between sex and learned gender behavior. It may also be the result of how such characteristics are viewed in particular organizational settings.

To test this hypothesis, in 1987 O’Reilly and O’Neill separated out more than 100 MBA students from the University of California at Berkeley into four “gender” groups: women who were “masculine” or “feminine” identified, and men who were “masculine” or “feminine” identified. “Masculine-identified” people were defined as those who wished to work for firms characterized by aggressiveness, while “feminine-identified” people were those who preferred companies that valued supportiveness and solidarity. Trained researchers observed the subjects and affirmed that individuals tended to exhibit behaviors similar to those they said they desired in firms, said O’Neill.

The two researchers then checked in with the MBAs four and eight years after graduation and compared them on salaries, promotions, and major life changes such as marriage, divorce, health, and shifts in employment status. Those who fare the best overall are masculine-identified men. This is not surprising, say the researchers, given that the business world in general still tends to promote and reward aggressive behavior by males.

Women who sought cooperative, supportive “feminine” firms and career paths seem to do pretty well across the board. Although their salaries start out lower overall, this group eventually ends up earning as much as masculine-identified men—even while they work 13 percent fewer hours. This suggests that there are now working environments that not only validate women’s preferences for supportiveness and flexibility but also reward women financially.

It is widely assumed that ambition and assertive behavior always win out in the workplace, regardless of an employee’s biological sex. However, the researchers found the lowest salaries were earned by masculine-identified women. O’Neill cautions that the correlations in the study cannot necessarily be used to determine causes, but she does hazard an explanation.

“Gender incongruity—that is, acting more like the opposite biological sex—is basically not rewarded, particularly in women,” says O’Neill. Masculine-identified women sometimes experience a “backlash” in male-oriented workplaces, she explains. That is, their aggressive style can rub their male counterparts the wrong way and can lead to fewer promotions.

Also, women in masculine-oriented firms eventually face child-rearing and family demands, a potential deterrent to their careers. Women with families may be less willing to relocate or put in as many hours as men and so are unable to compete equally for the highest-level jobs in these aggressive firms.

As to feminine-identified men, although they, too, go against the grain of cultural expectations, they do not seem to suffer as much as masculine-identified women. Their salaries at the end of eight years are on par with those of masculine-identified men, and they work 10 percent fewer hours. In short, the study suggests that women and men who do not want to compete on masculine terms now have valid options.

“One way to think about careers in organizations is as a series of tournaments at which employees at lower levels compete with each other for promotion to higher levels,” O’Reilly says, reflecting on the results. “Gaining a promotion—winning a round in the tournament—enables a person to compete in the next round. Over the years, those with less motivation and ability are eliminated, and the remaining participants compete for the top-level positions in the firm.

“What we see in this study is that those who choose to enter the tournament and put in more effort and sacrifice seem to be traditional males,” O’Reilly continues. “But others may choose not to play the game, including men and women who want more balance in their lives. Since we find no differences across groups in terms of satisfaction, it appears as though differences in career attainment are the result of choices rather than discrimination. However, the story for more aggressive women may not be so straightforward. This group seems to be opting out—perhaps because they don’t fit the traditional gendered model. In the end, this study uses a very modest sample and, while we find the results provocative, we hardly want to claim that this is anything more than suggestive.”

For media inquiries, visit the Newsroom .

Explore More

Can we be candid how to communicate clearly and directly, directive speech vs. dialogue: how leaders communicate with clarity, balance, class takeaways — how to run a meeting effectively, editor’s picks.

May 07, 2013 Debra Meyerson: How Companies Can Boost Gender Equity A study of oil rigs shows that a different approach to male-dominated environments can change corporate culture.

March 12, 2004 How Do White Males Fare in the Heterogeneous Workplace? A study shows that diversity didn't have as strong an effect on women and minorities as it did on white male workers.

• See the Current DEI Report
• Supporting Data
• Research & Insights
• Share Your Thoughts
• Search Fund Primer
• Teaching & Curriculum
• Affiliated Faculty
• Faculty Advisors
• Louis W. Foster Resource Center
• Defining Social Innovation
• Impact Compass
• Global Health Innovation Insights
• Faculty Affiliates
• Student Awards & Certificates
• Changemakers
• Dean Jonathan Levin
• Dean Garth Saloner
• Dean Robert Joss
• Dean Michael Spence
• Dean Robert Jaedicke
• Dean Rene McPherson
• Dean Arjay Miller
• Dean Ernest Arbuckle
• Dean Jacob Hugh Jackson
• Dean Willard Hotchkiss
• Faculty in Memoriam
• Stanford GSB Firsts
• Class of 2024 Candidates
• Certificate & Award Recipients
• Dean’s Remarks
• Keynote Address
• Teaching Approach
• Analysis and Measurement of Impact
• The Corporate Entrepreneur: Startup in a Grown-Up Enterprise
• Data-Driven Impact
• Designing Experiments for Impact
• Digital Marketing
• The Founder’s Right Hand
• Marketing for Measurable Change
• Product Management
• Public Policy Lab: Financial Challenges Facing US Cities
• Public Policy Lab: Homelessness in California
• Lab Features
• Curricular Integration
• View From The Top
• Formation of New Ventures
• Managing Growing Enterprises
• Startup Garage
• Explore Beyond the Classroom
• Stanford Venture Studio
• Summer Program
• Workshops & Events
• The Five Lenses of Entrepreneurship
• Leadership Labs
• Executive Challenge
• Arbuckle Leadership Fellows Program
• Selection Process
• Training Schedule
• Time Commitment
• Learning Expectations
• Post-Training Opportunities
• Who Should Apply
• Introductory T-Groups
• Leadership for Society Program
• Certificate
• 2024 Awardees
• 2023 Awardees
• 2022 Awardees
• 2021 Awardees
• 2020 Awardees
• 2019 Awardees
• 2018 Awardees
• Social Management Immersion Fund
• Stanford Impact Founder Fellowships
• Stanford Impact Leader Prizes
• Social Entrepreneurship
• Stanford GSB Impact Fund
• Economic Development
• Energy & Environment
• Stanford GSB Residences
• Environmental Leadership
• Stanford GSB Artwork
• A Closer Look
• California & the Bay Area
• Voices of Stanford GSB
• Business & Beneficial Technology
• Business & Sustainability
• Business & Free Markets
• Business, Government, and Society Forum
• Get Involved
• Second Year
• Global Experiences
• JD/MBA Joint Degree
• MA Education/MBA Joint Degree
• MD/MBA Dual Degree
• MPP/MBA Joint Degree
• MS Computer Science/MBA Joint Degree
• MS Electrical Engineering/MBA Joint Degree
• MS Environment and Resources (E-IPER)/MBA Joint Degree
• Academic Calendar
• Clubs & Activities
• LGBTQ+ Students
• Military Veterans
• Minorities & People of Color
• Partners & Families
• Students with Disabilities
• Student Support
• Residential Life
• Student Voices
• MBA Alumni Voices
• A Week in the Life
• Career Support
• Employment Outcomes
• Cost of Attendance
• Knight-Hennessy Scholars Program
• Yellow Ribbon Program
• BOLD Fellows Fund
• Application Process
• Loan Forgiveness
• Contact the Financial Aid Office
• Evaluation Criteria
• GMAT & GRE
• English Language Proficiency
• Personal Information, Activities & Awards
• Professional Experience
• Letters of Recommendation
• Optional Short Answer Questions
• Application Fee
• Reapplication
• Deferred Enrollment
• Joint & Dual Degrees
• Entering Class Profile
• Event Schedule
• Ambassadors
• New & Noteworthy
• Ask a Question
• See Why Stanford MSx
• Is MSx Right for You?
• MSx Stories
• Leadership Development
• How You Will Learn
• Admission Events
• Personal Information
• GMAT, GRE & EA
• English Proficiency Tests
• Career Change
• Career Advancement
• Daycare, Schools & Camps
• U.S. Citizens and Permanent Residents
• Requirements
• Requirements: Behavioral
• Requirements: Quantitative
• Requirements: Macro
• Requirements: Micro
• Annual Evaluations
• Field Examination
• Research Activities
• Research Papers
• Dissertation
• Oral Examination
• Current Students
• Education & CV
• International Applicants
• Statement of Purpose
• Reapplicants
• Application Fee Waiver
• Deadline & Decisions
• Job Market Candidates
• Academic Placements
• Stay in Touch
• Faculty Mentors
• Current Fellows
• Standard Track
• Fellowship & Benefits
• Group Enrollment
• Program Formats
• Developing a Program
• Diversity & Inclusion
• Strategic Transformation
• Program Experience
• Contact Client Services
• Campus Experience
• Live Online Experience
• Silicon Valley & Bay Area
• Digital Credentials
• Faculty Spotlights
• Participant Spotlights
• Eligibility
• International Participants
• Stanford Ignite
• Frequently Asked Questions
• Operations, Information & Technology
• Organizational Behavior
• Political Economy
• Classical Liberalism
• The Eddie Lunch
• Accounting Summer Camp
• California Econometrics Conference
• California Quantitative Marketing PhD Conference
• California School Conference
• China India Insights Conference
• Homo economicus, Evolving
• Political Economics (2023–24)
• Scaling Geologic Storage of CO2 (2023–24)
• A Resilient Pacific: Building Connections, Envisioning Solutions
• Adaptation and Innovation
• Changing Climate
• Civil Society
• Climate Impact Summit
• Climate Science
• Corporate Carbon Disclosures
• Earth’s Seafloor
• Environmental Justice
• Operations and Information Technology
• Organizations
• Sustainability Reporting and Control
• Taking the Pulse of the Planet
• Urban Infrastructure
• Watershed Restoration
• Junior Faculty Workshop on Financial Regulation and Banking
• Ken Singleton Celebration
• Marketing Camp
• Quantitative Marketing PhD Alumni Conference
• Presentations
• Theory and Inference in Accounting Research
• Stanford Closer Look Series
• Quick Guides
• Core Concepts
• Journal Articles
• Glossary of Terms
• Faculty & Staff
• Researchers & Students
• Research Approach
• Charitable Giving
• Financial Health
• Government Services
• Workers & Careers
• Short Course
• Adaptive & Iterative Experimentation
• Incentive Design
• Social Sciences & Behavioral Nudges
• Bandit Experiment Application
• Conferences & Events
• Reading Materials
• Energy Entrepreneurship
• Faculty & Affiliates
• SOLE Report
• Responsible Supply Chains
• Current Study Usage
• Pre-Registration Information
• Participate in a Study
• Founding Donors
• Location Information
• Participant Profile
• Network Membership
• Program Impact
• Collaborators
• Entrepreneur Profiles
• Company Spotlights
• Seed Transformation Network
• Responsibilities
• Current Coaches
• How to Apply
• Meet the Consultants
• Meet the Interns
• Intern Profiles
• Collaborate
• Research Library
• News & Insights
• Program Contacts
• Databases & Datasets
• Research Guides
• Consultations
• Research Workshops
• Career Research
• Research Data Services
• Course Reserves
• Course Research Guides
• Material Loan Periods
• Fines & Other Charges
• Document Delivery
• Interlibrary Loan
• Equipment Checkout
• Print & Scan
• MBA & MSx Students
• PhD Students
• Other Stanford Students
• Faculty Assistants
• Research Assistants
• Stanford GSB Alumni
• Telling Our Story
• Staff Directory
• Site Registration
• Alumni Directory
• Alumni Email
• Privacy Settings & My Profile
• Success Stories
• The Story of Circles
• Support Women’s Circles
• Stanford Women on Boards Initiative
• Alumnae Spotlights
• Insights & Research
• Industry & Professional
• Entrepreneurial Commitment Group
• Recent Alumni
• Half-Century Club
• Fall Reunions
• Spring Reunions
• MBA 25th Reunion
• Half-Century Club Reunion
• Faculty Lectures
• Ernest C. Arbuckle Award
• Alison Elliott Exceptional Achievement Award
• ENCORE Award
• Excellence in Leadership Award
• John W. Gardner Volunteer Leadership Award
• Robert K. Jaedicke Faculty Award
• Jack McDonald Military Service Appreciation Award
• Jerry I. Porras Latino Leadership Award
• Tapestry Award
• Student & Alumni Events
• Executive Recruiters
• Interviewing
• Land the Perfect Job with LinkedIn
• Negotiating
• Elevator Pitch
• Email Best Practices
• Resumes & Cover Letters
• Self-Assessment
• Whitney Birdwell Ball
• Margaret Brooks
• Bryn Panee Burkhart
• Margaret Chan
• Ricki Frankel
• Peter Gandolfo
• Cindy W. Greig
• Natalie Guillen
• Carly Janson
• Sloan Klein
• Sherri Appel Lassila
• Stuart Meyer
• Tanisha Parrish
• Virginia Roberson
• Philippe Taieb
• Michael Takagawa
• Terra Winston
• Johanna Wise
• Debbie Wolter
• Rebecca Zucker
• Complimentary Coaching
• Changing Careers
• Work-Life Integration
• Career Breaks
• Flexible Work
• Encore Careers
• Join a Board
• D&B Hoovers
• Data Axle (ReferenceUSA)
• EBSCO Business Source
• Global Newsstream
• Market Share Reporter
• ProQuest One Business
• RKMA Market Research Handbook Series
• Student Clubs
• Entrepreneurial Students
• Stanford GSB Trust
• Alumni Community
• How to Volunteer
• Springboard Sessions
• Consulting Projects
• 2020 – 2029
• 2010 – 2019
• 2000 – 2009
• 1990 – 1999
• 1980 – 1989
• 1970 – 1979
• 1960 – 1969
• 1950 – 1959
• 1940 – 1949
• Service Areas
• ACT History
• ACT Awards Celebration
• ACT Governance Structure
• Building Leadership for ACT
• Individual Leadership Positions
• Leadership Role Overview
• Purpose of the ACT Management Board
• Contact ACT
• Business & Nonprofit Communities
• Reunion Volunteers
• Ways to Give
• Fiscal Year Report
• Business School Fund Leadership Council
• Planned Giving Options
• Planned Giving Benefits
• Planned Gifts and Reunions
• Legacy Partners
• Giving News & Stories
• Giving Deadlines
• Development Staff
• Submit Class Notes
• Class Secretaries
• Board of Directors
• Health Care
• Sustainability
• Class Takeaways
• All Else Equal: Making Better Decisions
• If/Then: Business, Leadership, Society
• Grit & Growth
• Think Fast, Talk Smart
• Spring 2022
• Spring 2021
• Autumn 2020
• Summer 2020
• Winter 2020
• In the Media
• For Journalists
• DCI Fellows
• Other Auditors
• Academic Calendar & Deadlines
• Course Materials
• Entrepreneurial Resources
• Campus Drive Grove
• Campus Drive Lawn
• CEMEX Auditorium
• King Community Court
• Seawell Family Boardroom
• Stanford GSB Bowl
• Stanford Investors Common
• Town Square
• Vidalakis Courtyard
• Vidalakis Dining Hall
• Catering Services
• Policies & Guidelines
• Reservations
• Contact Faculty Recruiting
• Lecturer Positions
• Postdoctoral Positions
• Accommodations
• CMC-Managed Interviews
• Recruiter-Managed Interviews
• Virtual Interviews
• Campus & Virtual
• Search for Candidates
• Think Globally
• Recruiting Calendar
• Recruiting Policies
• Full-Time Employment
• Summer Employment
• Entrepreneurial Summer Program
• Global Management Immersion Experience
• Social-Purpose Summer Internships
• Process Overview
• Project Types
• Client Eligibility Criteria
• Client Screening
• ACT Leadership
• Social Innovation & Nonprofit Management Resources
• Develop Your Organization’s Talent
• Centers & Initiatives
• Student Fellowships

Report | Wages, Incomes, and Wealth

“Women’s work” and the gender pay gap : How discrimination, societal norms, and other forces affect women’s occupational choices—and their pay

Report • By Jessica Schieder and Elise Gould • July 20, 2016

Download PDF

Press release

Share this page:

What this report finds: Women are paid 79 cents for every dollar paid to men—despite the fact that over the last several decades millions more women have joined the workforce and made huge gains in their educational attainment. Too often it is assumed that this pay gap is not evidence of discrimination, but is instead a statistical artifact of failing to adjust for factors that could drive earnings differences between men and women. However, these factors—particularly occupational differences between women and men—are themselves often affected by gender bias. For example, by the time a woman earns her first dollar, her occupational choice is the culmination of years of education, guidance by mentors, expectations set by those who raised her, hiring practices of firms, and widespread norms and expectations about work–family balance held by employers, co-workers, and society. In other words, even though women disproportionately enter lower-paid, female-dominated occupations, this decision is shaped by discrimination, societal norms, and other forces beyond women’s control.

Why it matters, and how to fix it: The gender wage gap is real—and hurts women across the board by suppressing their earnings and making it harder to balance work and family. Serious attempts to understand the gender wage gap should not include shifting the blame to women for not earning more. Rather, these attempts should examine where our economy provides unequal opportunities for women at every point of their education, training, and career choices.

Introduction and key findings

Women are paid 79 cents for every dollar paid to men (Hegewisch and DuMonthier 2016). This is despite the fact that over the last several decades millions more women have joined the workforce and made huge gains in their educational attainment.

Critics of this widely cited statistic claim it is not solid evidence of economic discrimination against women because it is unadjusted for characteristics other than gender that can affect earnings, such as years of education, work experience, and location. Many of these skeptics contend that the gender wage gap is driven not by discrimination, but instead by voluntary choices made by men and women—particularly the choice of occupation in which they work. And occupational differences certainly do matter—occupation and industry account for about half of the overall gender wage gap (Blau and Kahn 2016).

To isolate the impact of overt gender discrimination—such as a woman being paid less than her male coworker for doing the exact same job—it is typical to adjust for such characteristics. But these adjusted statistics can radically understate the potential for gender discrimination to suppress women’s earnings. This is because gender discrimination does not occur only in employers’ pay-setting practices. It can happen at every stage leading to women’s labor market outcomes.

Take one key example: occupation of employment. While controlling for occupation does indeed reduce the measured gender wage gap, the sorting of genders into different occupations can itself be driven (at least in part) by discrimination. By the time a woman earns her first dollar, her occupational choice is the culmination of years of education, guidance by mentors, expectations set by those who raised her, hiring practices of firms, and widespread norms and expectations about work–family balance held by employers, co-workers, and society. In other words, even though women disproportionately enter lower-paid, female-dominated occupations, this decision is shaped by discrimination, societal norms, and other forces beyond women’s control.

This paper explains why gender occupational sorting is itself part of the discrimination women face, examines how this sorting is shaped by societal and economic forces, and explains that gender pay gaps are present even  within  occupations.

Key points include:

• Gender pay gaps within occupations persist, even after accounting for years of experience, hours worked, and education.
• Decisions women make about their occupation and career do not happen in a vacuum—they are also shaped by society.
• The long hours required by the highest-paid occupations can make it difficult for women to succeed, since women tend to shoulder the majority of family caretaking duties.
• Many professions dominated by women are low paid, and professions that have become female-dominated have become lower paid.

This report examines wages on an hourly basis. Technically, this is an adjusted gender wage gap measure. As opposed to weekly or annual earnings, hourly earnings ignore the fact that men work more hours on average throughout a week or year. Thus, the hourly gender wage gap is a bit smaller than the 79 percent figure cited earlier. This minor adjustment allows for a comparison of women’s and men’s wages without assuming that women, who still shoulder a disproportionate amount of responsibilities at home, would be able or willing to work as many hours as their male counterparts. Examining the hourly gender wage gap allows for a more thorough conversation about how many factors create the wage gap women experience when they cash their paychecks.

Within-occupation gender wage gaps are large—and persist after controlling for education and other factors

Those keen on downplaying the gender wage gap often claim women voluntarily choose lower pay by disproportionately going into stereotypically female professions or by seeking out lower-paid positions. But even when men and women work in the same occupation—whether as hairdressers, cosmetologists, nurses, teachers, computer engineers, mechanical engineers, or construction workers—men make more, on average, than women (CPS microdata 2011–2015).

As a thought experiment, imagine if women’s occupational distribution mirrored men’s. For example, if 2 percent of men are carpenters, suppose 2 percent of women become carpenters. What would this do to the wage gap? After controlling for differences in education and preferences for full-time work, Goldin (2014) finds that 32 percent of the gender pay gap would be closed.

However, leaving women in their current occupations and just closing the gaps between women and their male counterparts within occupations (e.g., if male and female civil engineers made the same per hour) would close 68 percent of the gap. This means examining why waiters and waitresses, for example, with the same education and work experience do not make the same amount per hour. To quote Goldin:

Another way to measure the effect of occupation is to ask what would happen to the aggregate gender gap if one equalized earnings by gender within each occupation or, instead, evened their proportions for each occupation. The answer is that equalizing earnings within each occupation matters far more than equalizing the proportions by each occupation. (Goldin 2014)

This phenomenon is not limited to low-skilled occupations, and women cannot educate themselves out of the gender wage gap (at least in terms of broad formal credentials). Indeed, women’s educational attainment outpaces men’s; 37.0 percent of women have a college or advanced degree, as compared with 32.5 percent of men (CPS ORG 2015). Furthermore, women earn less per hour at every education level, on average. As shown in Figure A , men with a college degree make more per hour than women with an advanced degree. Likewise, men with a high school degree make more per hour than women who attended college but did not graduate. Even straight out of college, women make $4 less per hour than men—a gap that has grown since 2000 (Kroeger, Cooke, and Gould 2016).

Women earn less than men at every education level : Average hourly wages, by gender and education, 2015

The data below can be saved or copied directly into Excel.

The data underlying the figure.

Source :  EPI analysis of Current Population Survey Outgoing Rotation Group microdata

Copy the code below to embed this chart on your website.

Steering women to certain educational and professional career paths—as well as outright discrimination—can lead to different occupational outcomes

The gender pay gap is driven at least in part by the cumulative impact of many instances over the course of women’s lives when they are treated differently than their male peers. Girls can be steered toward gender-normative careers from a very early age. At a time when parental influence is key, parents are often more likely to expect their sons, rather than their daughters, to work in science, technology, engineering, or mathematics (STEM) fields, even when their daughters perform at the same level in mathematics (OECD 2015).

Expectations can become a self-fulfilling prophecy. A 2005 study found third-grade girls rated their math competency scores much lower than boys’, even when these girls’ performance did not lag behind that of their male counterparts (Herbert and Stipek 2005). Similarly, in states where people were more likely to say that “women [are] better suited for home” and “math is for boys,” girls were more likely to have lower math scores and higher reading scores (Pope and Sydnor 2010). While this only establishes a correlation, there is no reason to believe gender aptitude in reading and math would otherwise be related to geography. Parental expectations can impact performance by influencing their children’s self-confidence because self-confidence is associated with higher test scores (OECD 2015).

By the time young women graduate from high school and enter college, they already evaluate their career opportunities differently than young men do. Figure B shows college freshmen’s intended majors by gender. While women have increasingly gone into medical school and continue to dominate the nursing field, women are significantly less likely to arrive at college interested in engineering, computer science, or physics, as compared with their male counterparts.

Women arrive at college less interested in STEM fields as compared with their male counterparts : Intent of first-year college students to major in select STEM fields, by gender, 2014

Source:  EPI adaptation of Corbett and Hill (2015) analysis of Eagan et al. (2014)

These decisions to allow doors to lucrative job opportunities to close do not take place in a vacuum. Many factors might make it difficult for a young woman to see herself working in computer science or a similarly remunerative field. A particularly depressing example is the well-publicized evidence of sexism in the tech industry (Hewlett et al. 2008). Unfortunately, tech isn’t the only STEM field with this problem.

Young women may be discouraged from certain career paths because of industry culture. Even for women who go against the grain and pursue STEM careers, if employers in the industry foster an environment hostile to women’s participation, the share of women in these occupations will be limited. One 2008 study found that “52 percent of highly qualified females working for SET [science, technology, and engineering] companies quit their jobs, driven out by hostile work environments and extreme job pressures” (Hewlett et al. 2008). Extreme job pressures are defined as working more than 100 hours per week, needing to be available 24/7, working with or managing colleagues in multiple time zones, and feeling pressure to put in extensive face time (Hewlett et al. 2008). As compared with men, more than twice as many women engage in housework on a daily basis, and women spend twice as much time caring for other household members (BLS 2015). Because of these cultural norms, women are less likely to be able to handle these extreme work pressures. In addition, 63 percent of women in SET workplaces experience sexual harassment (Hewlett et al. 2008). To make matters worse, 51 percent abandon their SET training when they quit their job. All of these factors play a role in steering women away from highly paid occupations, particularly in STEM fields.

The long hours required for some of the highest-paid occupations are incompatible with historically gendered family responsibilities

Those seeking to downplay the gender wage gap often suggest that women who work hard enough and reach the apex of their field will see the full fruits of their labor. In reality, however, the gender wage gap is wider for those with higher earnings. Women in the top 95th percentile of the wage distribution experience a much larger gender pay gap than lower-paid women.

Again, this large gender pay gap between the highest earners is partially driven by gender bias. Harvard economist Claudia Goldin (2014) posits that high-wage firms have adopted pay-setting practices that disproportionately reward individuals who work very long and very particular hours. This means that even if men and women are equally productive per hour, individuals—disproportionately men—who are more likely to work excessive hours and be available at particular off-hours are paid more highly (Hersch and Stratton 2002; Goldin 2014; Landers, Rebitzer, and Taylor 1996).

It is clear why this disadvantages women. Social norms and expectations exert pressure on women to bear a disproportionate share of domestic work—particularly caring for children and elderly parents. This can make it particularly difficult for them (relative to their male peers) to be available at the drop of a hat on a Sunday evening after working a 60-hour week. To the extent that availability to work long and particular hours makes the difference between getting a promotion or seeing one’s career stagnate, women are disadvantaged.

And this disadvantage is reinforced in a vicious circle. Imagine a household where both members of a male–female couple have similarly demanding jobs. One partner’s career is likely to be prioritized if a grandparent is hospitalized or a child’s babysitter is sick. If the past history of employer pay-setting practices that disadvantage women has led to an already-existing gender wage gap for this couple, it can be seen as “rational” for this couple to prioritize the male’s career. This perpetuates the expectation that it always makes sense for women to shoulder the majority of domestic work, and further exacerbates the gender wage gap.

Female-dominated professions pay less, but it’s a chicken-and-egg phenomenon

Many women do go into low-paying female-dominated industries. Home health aides, for example, are much more likely to be women. But research suggests that women are making a logical choice, given existing constraints . This is because they will likely not see a significant pay boost if they try to buck convention and enter male-dominated occupations. Exceptions certainly exist, particularly in the civil service or in unionized workplaces (Anderson, Hegewisch, and Hayes 2015). However, if women in female-dominated occupations were to go into male-dominated occupations, they would often have similar or lower expected wages as compared with their female counterparts in female-dominated occupations (Pitts 2002). Thus, many women going into female-dominated occupations are actually situating themselves to earn higher wages. These choices thereby maximize their wages (Pitts 2002). This holds true for all categories of women except for the most educated, who are more likely to earn more in a male profession than a female profession. There is also evidence that if it becomes more lucrative for women to move into male-dominated professions, women will do exactly this (Pitts 2002). In short, occupational choice is heavily influenced by existing constraints based on gender and pay-setting across occupations.

To make matters worse, when women increasingly enter a field, the average pay in that field tends to decline, relative to other fields. Levanon, England, and Allison (2009) found that when more women entered an industry, the relative pay of that industry 10 years later was lower. Specifically, they found evidence of devaluation—meaning the proportion of women in an occupation impacts the pay for that industry because work done by women is devalued.

Computer programming is an example of a field that has shifted from being a very mixed profession, often associated with secretarial work in the past, to being a lucrative, male-dominated profession (Miller 2016; Oldenziel 1999). While computer programming has evolved into a more technically demanding occupation in recent decades, there is no skills-based reason why the field needed to become such a male-dominated profession. When men flooded the field, pay went up. In contrast, when women became park rangers, pay in that field went down (Miller 2016).

Further compounding this problem is that many professions where pay is set too low by market forces, but which clearly provide enormous social benefits when done well, are female-dominated. Key examples range from home health workers who care for seniors, to teachers and child care workers who educate today’s children. If closing gender pay differences can help boost pay and professionalism in these key sectors, it would be a huge win for the economy and society.

The gender wage gap is real—and hurts women across the board. Too often it is assumed that this gap is not evidence of discrimination, but is instead a statistical artifact of failing to adjust for factors that could drive earnings differences between men and women. However, these factors—particularly occupational differences between women and men—are themselves affected by gender bias. Serious attempts to understand the gender wage gap should not include shifting the blame to women for not earning more. Rather, these attempts should examine where our economy provides unequal opportunities for women at every point of their education, training, and career choices.

— This paper was made possible by a grant from the Peter G. Peterson Foundation. The statements made and views expressed are solely the responsibility of the authors.

— The authors wish to thank Josh Bivens, Barbara Gault, and Heidi Hartman for their helpful comments.

About the authors

Jessica Schieder joined EPI in 2015. As a research assistant, she supports the research of EPI’s economists on topics such as the labor market, wage trends, executive compensation, and inequality. Prior to joining EPI, Jessica worked at the Center for Effective Government (formerly OMB Watch) as a revenue and spending policies analyst, where she examined how budget and tax policy decisions impact working families. She holds a bachelor’s degree in international political economy from Georgetown University.

Elise Gould , senior economist, joined EPI in 2003. Her research areas include wages, poverty, economic mobility, and health care. She is a co-author of The State of Working America, 12th Edition . In the past, she has authored a chapter on health in The State of Working America 2008/09; co-authored a book on health insurance coverage in retirement; published in venues such as The Chronicle of Higher Education ,  Challenge Magazine , and Tax Notes; and written for academic journals including Health Economics , Health Affairs, Journal of Aging and Social Policy, Risk Management & Insurance Review, Environmental Health Perspectives , and International Journal of Health Services . She holds a master’s in public affairs from the University of Texas at Austin and a Ph.D. in economics from the University of Wisconsin at Madison.

Anderson, Julie, Ariane Hegewisch, and Jeff Hayes 2015. The Union Advantage for Women . Institute for Women’s Policy Research.

Blau, Francine D., and Lawrence M. Kahn 2016. The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations . National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper No. 21913.

Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). 2015. American Time Use Survey public data series. U.S. Census Bureau.

Corbett, Christianne, and Catherine Hill. 2015. Solving the Equation: The Variables for Women’s Success in Engineering and Computing . American Association of University Women (AAUW).

Current Population Survey Outgoing Rotation Group microdata (CPS ORG). 2011–2015. Survey conducted by the Bureau of the Census for the Bureau of Labor Statistics [ machine-readable microdata file ]. U.S. Census Bureau.

Goldin, Claudia. 2014. “ A Grand Gender Convergence: Its Last Chapter .” American Economic Review, vol. 104, no. 4, 1091–1119.

Hegewisch, Ariane, and Asha DuMonthier. 2016. The Gender Wage Gap: 2015; Earnings Differences by Race and Ethnicity . Institute for Women’s Policy Research.

Herbert, Jennifer, and Deborah Stipek. 2005. “The Emergence of Gender Difference in Children’s Perceptions of Their Academic Competence.” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology , vol. 26, no. 3, 276–295.

Hersch, Joni, and Leslie S. Stratton. 2002. “ Housework and Wages .” The Journal of Human Resources , vol. 37, no. 1, 217–229.

Hewlett, Sylvia Ann, Carolyn Buck Luce, Lisa J. Servon, Laura Sherbin, Peggy Shiller, Eytan Sosnovich, and Karen Sumberg. 2008. The Athena Factor: Reversing the Brain Drain in Science, Engineering, and Technology . Harvard Business Review.

Kroeger, Teresa, Tanyell Cooke, and Elise Gould. 2016.  The Class of 2016: The Labor Market Is Still Far from Ideal for Young Graduates . Economic Policy Institute.

Landers, Renee M., James B. Rebitzer, and Lowell J. Taylor. 1996. “ Rat Race Redux: Adverse Selection in the Determination of Work Hours in Law Firms .” American Economic Review , vol. 86, no. 3, 329–348.

Levanon, Asaf, Paula England, and Paul Allison. 2009. “Occupational Feminization and Pay: Assessing Causal Dynamics Using 1950-2000 U.S. Census Data.” Social Forces, vol. 88, no. 2, 865–892.

Miller, Claire Cain. 2016. “As Women Take Over a Male-Dominated Field, the Pay Drops.” New York Times , March 18.

Oldenziel, Ruth. 1999. Making Technology Masculine: Men, Women, and Modern Machines in America, 1870-1945 . Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). 2015. The ABC of Gender Equality in Education: Aptitude, Behavior, Confidence .

Pitts, Melissa M. 2002. Why Choose Women’s Work If It Pays Less? A Structural Model of Occupational Choice. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta, Working Paper 2002-30.

Pope, Devin G., and Justin R. Sydnor. 2010. “ Geographic Variation in the Gender Differences in Test Scores .” Journal of Economic Perspectives , vol. 24, no. 2, 95–108.

See related work on Wages, Incomes, and Wealth | Women

See more work by Jessica Schieder and Elise Gould

• Work & Careers
• Life & Arts

Practical ways for women to reshape their careers

• Practical ways for women to reshape their careers on x (opens in a new window)
• Practical ways for women to reshape their careers on facebook (opens in a new window)
• Practical ways for women to reshape their careers on linkedin (opens in a new window)
• Practical ways for women to reshape their careers on whatsapp (opens in a new window)

Kate Bassett

Roula Khalaf, Editor of the FT, selects her favourite stories in this weekly newsletter.

In the middle of the pandemic, Crystal Eisinger reinvented her career. She quit a senior marketing job at Google, used her savings to buy her favourite local café, and became chief executive of a music-streaming start-up, Keakie .

“Big corporations are a brilliant training ground but they can also be hierarchical and slow-moving,” she says. “Lockdown forced me to get off the treadmill, identify what was making me unhappy and make some dramatic changes.” Now, Eisinger is raising £3mn for Keakie’s pre-Series A funding round and has revamped the café, Urban Pantry , in Chiswick, London.

She is one of many who have re-evaluated their careers.

In last year’s so-called Great Resignation , swaths of workers left their jobs for better paid and/or more fulfilling work.

“Unexpected events or shocks like the pandemic create fertile conditions for major career changes by causing us to reflect on our priorities,” says Herminia Ibarra, organisational behaviour professor at London Business School, and author of Act Like a Leader, Think Like a Leader . “Faced with mortality, we ask the big existential questions and gather the courage to make changes.” 

Lockdown also disrupted ties to jobs and workplaces, she adds. “It’s easier to consider doing something else when you are no longer immersed in the social circles and daily routines of your job.”

A study last year by McKinsey, the consultancy, found women globally had been disproportionately affected by the pandemic, with more women than men intending to change job or downshift. A Catalyst survey in 2020 had found that 62 per cent of female employees said Covid-19 would hurt their prospects for promotion at work.

A career pivot is a “necessarily messy journey of exploration”, says Ibarra. She suggests it should involve small, practical steps to discover new options, rather than leaping into the unknown and hoping for the best.

Start with a simple exercise, advises Jeremy Borys, a US-based managing director at global consulting firm AlixPartners. First, ask yourself: What do I want? What do I hope for? What can I deal with? What do I not want?

To move forwards, you also need to look back, he says. Think about the jobs you have done, the companies you have worked for and people you have worked with. What did you really enjoy?

“Don’t limit your definition of what the next role could be and don’t be blinded by salary or title,” says Borys. “When you’re doing something meaningful and fulfilling, the other things will come.”

What employers need to know

Encourage self-discovery The post-Covid era will involve career change — wanted or not. Allow staff the opportunity to recharge and reinvent. “Organisations should give people time for self-reflection,” says Aniela Unguresan, at Edge. Indeed, UK fintech Monzo Bank is to offer its 2,200 staff a paid three-month sabbatical every four years, as it rethinks how staff should balance working life after the pandemic.

Stay connected If you do lose employees, be sure to stay in touch. They may be exploring interesting new initiatives, and may even one day rejoin your organisation with new perspectives and ideas. “Nurture your alumni,” says Sarah Ellis, at Amazing If. “Your former employees can be your advocates as well as your future talent.”

Next, build your network. Instead of your safe and established network of friends and family, reconnect with the people you used to know — former colleagues, even people you went to school with. These “weak ties”, as Ibarra calls them, will help you think creatively about the future, open new doors, and avoid pigeonholing you.

Sarah Ellis, co-founder of careers ad­viser Amazing If and co-author of You Coach You , says “curious career conversations” are critical to a successful pivot. “Talk to people who are where you’d like to be. They’ll help you identify how you can transfer your talents in a useful way, and understand whether your assumptions about a career match the reality.”

To test the water, take on a new project at work or an extracurricular activity to boost skills and knowledge — whether that is volunteering, a part-time course or a side-hustle. The point is to try things out, experiment and adjust along the way. You don’t have to make a massive change overnight.

More from this report

Nica Burns: risk-taker who worked to reopen London’s theatreland

The post-Covid contract for dual-career couples

Lucy Kellaway: Getting the most out of a career change

Patience is running out over so-called banter

Why US mothers deserve a $2,400 pay cheque

After the Great Resignation, employers have embarked on the Great Hiring, as companies try to rebuild talent. With businesses reporting a skills shortage, this may also be a good time to change direction in your current organisation.

“Employers should offer staff the chance to explore different opportunities and jobs inside the company — or risk losing them,” says Aniela Unguresan, co-founder of the Edge Certified Foundation, based in Switzerland, which assesses gender equality in the workplace.

“People who go through career shifts are generally more flexible, more agile, more resilient and more courageous,” she explains. “Those are fundamental and necessary skills in today’s workplace.”

In a period of change, there will be dead ends, false starts and unexpected turns. But it is better to try out a variety of options. “You will never have perfect information or get to the point where a pivot is 100 per cent guaranteed to work out well,” adds Ellis.

It has been six months since Eisinger left Google for the top spot at Keakie. At times, she says, what kept her going was the insight of Ginni Rometty, former chief executive of IBM, that growth and comfort rarely coexist.

In short: “You have to increase your tolerance to uncertainty,” says Eisinger.

Essay contest: Women in leadership in climate change

The Financial Times is launching its 10th annual Women in Business essay competition, in partnership with the 30% Club and Henley Business School. The prize is a fully funded place on Henley’s part-time Executive MBA programme, with the winner announced in the FT in the autumn.

The competition is open to women and men who have relevant experience. Entrants should answer this question in no more than 800 words: ‘Would efforts to tackle climate change benefit from more women taking the lead?’

Entries should be sent to [email protected] by 5pm, May 23 2022. Information, terms and conditions can be found at: hly.ac/wil2022

Promoted Content

Follow the topics in this article.

• Women in business Add to myFT
• Managing yourself Add to myFT
• Career change Add to myFT
• Kate Bassett Add to myFT

Women in the Workplace 2023

Women in the Workplace

This is the ninth year of the Women in the Workplace report. Conducted in partnership with LeanIn.Org , this effort is the largest study of women in corporate America and Canada. This year, we collected information from 276 participating organizations employing more than ten million people. At these organizations, we surveyed more than 27,000 employees and 270 senior HR leaders, who shared insights on their policies and practices. The report provides an intersectional look at the specific biases and barriers faced by Asian, Black, Latina, and LGBTQ+ women and women with disabilities.

About the authors

This year’s research reveals some hard-fought gains at the top, with women’s representation in the C-suite at the highest it has ever been. However, with lagging progress in the middle of the pipeline—and a persistent underrepresentation of women of color 1 Women of color include women who are Asian, Black, Latina, Middle Eastern, mixed race, Native American/American Indian/Indigenous/Alaskan Native, and Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander. Due to small sample sizes for other racial and ethnic groups, reported findings on individual racial and ethnic groups are restricted to Asian women, Black women, and Latinas. —true parity remains painfully out of reach.

The survey debunks four myths about women’s workplace experiences  and career advancement. A few of these myths cover old ground, but given the notable lack of progress, they warrant repeating. These include women’s career ambitions, the greatest barrier to their ascent to senior leadership, the effect and extent of microaggressions in the workplace, and women’s appetite for flexible work. We hope highlighting these myths will help companies find a path forward that casts aside outdated thinking once and for all and accelerates progress for women.

The rest of this article summarizes the main findings from the Women in the Workplace 2023 report and provides clear solutions that organizations can implement to make meaningful progress toward gender equality.

State of the pipeline

Over the past nine years, women—and especially women of color—have remained underrepresented across the corporate pipeline (Exhibit 1). However, we see a growing bright spot in senior leadership. Since 2015, the number of women in the C-suite has increased from 17 to 28 percent, and the representation of women at the vice president and senior vice president levels has also improved significantly.

These hard-earned gains are encouraging yet fragile: slow progress for women at the manager and director levels—representation has grown only three and four percentage points, respectively—creates a weak middle in the pipeline for employees who represent the vast majority of women in corporate America. And the “Great Breakup” trend we discovered in last year’s survey  continues for women at the director level, the group next in line for senior-leadership positions. That is, director-level women are leaving at a higher rate than in past years—and at a notably higher rate than men at the same level. As a result of these two dynamics, there are fewer women in line for top positions.

To view previous reports, please visit the Women in the Workplace archive

Moreover, progress for women of color is lagging behind their peers’ progress. At nearly every step in the pipeline, the representation of women of color falls relative to White women and men of the same race and ethnicity. Until companies address this inequity head-on, women of color will remain severely underrepresented in leadership positions—and mostly absent from the C-suite.

“It’s disheartening to be part of an organization for as many years as I have been and still not see a person like me in senior leadership. Until I see somebody like me in the C-suite, I’m never going to really feel like I belong.”

—Latina, manager, former executive director

Four myths about the state of women at work

This year’s survey reveals the truth about four common myths related to women in the workplace.

Myth: Women are becoming less ambitious Reality: Women are more ambitious than before the pandemic—and flexibility is fueling that ambition

At every stage of the pipeline, women are as committed to their careers and as interested in being promoted as men. Women and men at the director level—when the C-suite is in closer view—are also equally interested in senior-leadership roles. And young women are especially ambitious. Nine in ten women under the age of 30 want to be promoted to the next level, and three in four aspire to become senior leaders.

Women represent roughly one in four C-suite leaders, and women of color just one in 16.

Moreover, the pandemic and increased flexibility did not dampen women’s ambitions. Roughly 80 percent of women want to be promoted to the next level, compared with 70 percent in 2019. And the same holds true for men. Women of color are even more ambitious than White women: 88 percent want to be promoted to the next level. Flexibility is allowing women to pursue their ambitions: overall, one in five women say flexibility has helped them stay in their job or avoid reducing their hours. A large number of women who work hybrid or remotely point to feeling less fatigued and burned out as a primary benefit. And a majority of women report having more focused time to get their work done when they work remotely.

The pandemic showed women that a new model of balancing work and life was possible. Now, few want to return to the way things were. Most women are taking more steps to prioritize their personal lives—but at no cost to their ambition. They remain just as committed to their careers and just as interested in advancing as women who aren’t taking more steps. These women are defying the outdated notion that work and life are incompatible, and that one comes at the expense of the other.

Myth: The biggest barrier to women’s advancement is the ‘glass ceiling’ Reality: The ‘broken rung’ is the greatest obstacle women face on the path to senior leadership

For the ninth consecutive year, women face their biggest hurdle at the first critical step up to manager. This year, for every 100 men promoted from entry level to manager, 87 women were promoted (Exhibit 2). And this gap is trending the wrong way for women of color: this year, 73 women of color were promoted to manager for every 100 men, down from 82 women of color last year. As a result of this “broken rung,” women fall behind and can’t catch up.

Progress for early-career Black women remains the furthest behind. After rising in 2020 and 2021 to a high of 96 Black women promoted for every 100 men—likely because of heightened focus across corporate America—Black women’s promotion rates have fallen to 2018 levels, with only 54 Black women promoted for every 100 men this year.

While companies are modestly increasing women’s representation at the top, doing so without addressing the broken rung offers only a temporary stopgap. Because of the gender disparity in early promotions, men end up holding 60 percent of manager-level positions in a typical company, while women occupy 40 percent. Since men significantly outnumber women, there are fewer women to promote to senior managers, and the number of women decreases at every subsequent level.

Myth: Microaggressions have a ‘micro’ impact Reality: Microaggressions have a large and lasting impact on women

Microaggressions are a form of everyday discrimination that is often rooted in bias. They include comments and actions—even subtle ones that are not overtly harmful—that demean or dismiss someone based on their gender, race, or other aspects of their identity. They signal disrespect, cause acute stress, and can negatively impact women’s careers and health.

Years of data show that women experience microaggressions at a significantly higher rate than men: they are twice as likely to be mistaken for someone junior and hear comments on their emotional state (Exhibit 3). For women with traditionally marginalized identities, these slights happen more often and are even more demeaning. As just one example, Asian and Black women are seven times more likely than White women to be confused with someone of the same race and ethnicity.

As a result, the workplace is a mental minefield for many women, particularly those with traditionally marginalized identities. Women who experience microaggressions are much less likely to feel psychologically safe, which makes it harder to take risks, propose new ideas, or raise concerns. The stakes feel just too high. On top of this, 78 percent of women who face microaggressions self-shield at work, or adjust the way they look or act in an effort to protect themselves. For example, many women code-switch—or tone down what they say or do—to try to blend in and avoid a negative reaction at work. Black women are more than twice as likely as women overall to code-switch. And LGBTQ+ women are 2.5 times as likely to feel pressure to change their appearance to be perceived as more professional. The stress caused by these dynamics cuts deep.

Women who experience microaggressions—and self-shield to deflect them—are three times more likely to think about quitting their jobs and four times more likely to almost always be burned out. By leaving microaggressions unchecked, companies miss out on everything women have to offer and risk losing talented employees.

“It’s like I have to act extra happy so I’m not looked at as bitter because I’m a Black woman. And a disabled Black woman at that. If someone says something offensive to me, I have to think about how to respond in a way that does not make me seem like an angry Black woman.”

—Black woman with a physical disability, entry-level role

Myth: It’s mostly women who want—and benefit from—flexible work Reality: Men and women see flexibility as a ‘top 3’ employee benefit and critical to their company’s success

Most employees say that opportunities to work remotely and have control over their schedules are top company benefits, second only to healthcare (Exhibit 4). Workplace flexibility even ranks above tried-and-true benefits such as parental leave and childcare.

As workplace flexibility transforms from a nice-to-have for some employees to a crucial benefit for most, women continue to value it more. This is likely because they still carry out a disproportionate amount of childcare and household work. Indeed, 38 percent of mothers with young children say that without workplace flexibility, they would have had to leave their company or reduce their work hours.

But it’s not just women or mothers who benefit: hybrid and remote work are delivering important benefits to most employees. Most women and men point to better work–life balance as a primary benefit of hybrid and remote work, and a majority cite less fatigue and burnout (Exhibit 5). And research shows that good work–life balance and low burnout are key to organizational success. Moreover, 83 percent of employees cite the ability to work more efficiently and productively as a primary benefit of working remotely. However, it’s worth noting companies see this differently: only half of HR leaders say employee productivity is a primary benefit of working remotely.

For women, hybrid or remote work is about a lot more than flexibility. When women work remotely, they face fewer microaggressions and have higher levels of psychological safety.

Employees who work on-site also see tangible benefits. A majority point to an easier time collaborating and a stronger personal connection to coworkers as the biggest benefits of working on-site—two factors central to employee well-being and effectiveness. However, the culture of on-site work may be falling short. While 77 percent of companies believe a strong organizational culture is a key benefit of on-site work, most employees disagree: only 39 percent of men and 34 percent of women who work on-site say a key benefit is feeling more connected to their organization’s culture.

Not to mention that men benefit disproportionately from on-site work: compared with women who work on-site, men are seven to nine percentage points more likely to be “in the know,” receive the mentorship and sponsorships they need, and have their accomplishments noticed and rewarded.

A majority of organizations have started to formalize their return-to-office policies, motivated by the perceived benefits of on-site work (Exhibit 6). As they do so, they will need to work to ensure everyone can equally reap the benefits of on-site work.

Recommendations for companies

As companies work to support and advance women, they should focus on five core areas:

• tracking outcomes for women’s representation
• empowering managers to be effective people leaders
• addressing microaggressions head-on
• unlocking the full potential of flexible work
• fixing the broken rung, once and for all

Sixty percent of companies have increased their financial and staffing investments in diversity, equity, and inclusion over the past year. And nearly three in four HR leaders say DEI is critical to their companies’ future success.

1. Track outcomes to improve women’s experience and progression

Tracking outcomes is critical to any successful business initiative. Most companies do this consistently when it comes to achieving their financial objectives, but few apply the same rigor to women’s advancement. Here are three steps to get started:

Measure employees’ outcomes and experiences—and use the data to fix trouble spots. Outcomes for drivers of women’s advancement include hiring, promotions, and attrition. Visibility into other metrics—such as participation in career development programs, performance ratings, and employee sentiments—that influence career progression is also important, and data should be collected with appropriate data privacy protections in place. Then, it’s critically important that companies mine their data for insights that will improve women’s experiences and create equal opportunities for advancement. Ultimately, data tracking is only valuable if it leads to organizational change.

Take an intersectional approach to outcome tracking. Tracking metrics by race and gender combined should be table stakes. Yet, even now, fewer than half of companies do this, and far fewer track data by other self-reported identifiers, such as LGBTQ+ identity. Without this level of visibility, the experiences and career progression of women with traditionally marginalized identities can go overlooked.

Share internal goals and metrics with employees. Awareness is a valuable tool for driving change—when employees are able to see opportunities and challenges, they’re more invested in being part of the solution. In addition, transparency with diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) goals and metrics can send a powerful signal to employees with traditionally marginalized identities that they are supported within the organization.

2. Support and reward managers as key drivers of organizational change

Managers are on the front lines of employees’ experiences and central to driving organizational change. As companies more deeply invest in the culture of work, managers play an increasingly critical role in fostering DEI, ensuring employee well-being, and navigating the shift to flexible work. These are all important business priorities, but managers do not always get the direction and support they need to deliver on them. Here are three steps to get started:

Clarify managers’ priorities and reward results. Companies need to explicitly communicate to managers what is core to their roles and motivate them to take action. The most effective way to do this is to include responsibilities like career development, DEI, and employee well-being in managers’ job descriptions and performance reviews. Relatively few companies evaluate managers on metrics linked to people management. For example, although 61 percent of companies point to DEI as a top manager capability, only 28 percent of people managers say their company recognizes DEI in performance reviews. This discrepancy may partially explain why not enough employees say their manager treats DEI as a priority.

Equip managers with the skills they need to be successful. To effectively manage the new demands being placed on them, managers need ongoing education. This includes repeated, relevant, and high-quality training and nudges that emphasize specific examples of core concepts, as well as concrete actions that managers can incorporate into their daily practices. Companies should adopt an “often and varied” approach to training and upskilling and create regular opportunities for coaching so that managers can continue to build the awareness and capabilities they need to be effective.

Make sure managers have the time and support to get it right. It requires significant intentionality and follow-through to be a good people and culture leader, and this is particularly true when it comes to fostering DEI. Companies need to make sure their managers have the time and resources to do these aspects of their job well. Additionally, companies should put policies and systems in place to make managers’ jobs easier.

3. Take steps to put an end to microaggressions

Microaggressions are pervasive, harmful to the employees who experience them, and result in missed ideas and lost talent. Companies need to tackle microaggressions head-on. Here are three steps to get started:

Make clear that microaggressions are not acceptable. To raise employee awareness and set the right tone, it’s crucial that senior leaders communicate that microaggressions and disrespectful behavior of any kind are not welcome. Companies can help with this by developing a code of conduct that articulates what supportive and respectful behavior looks like—as well as what’s unacceptable and uncivil behavior.

Teach employees to avoid and challenge microaggressions. Employees often don’t recognize microaggressions, let alone know what to say or do to be helpful. That’s why it’s so important that companies have employees participate in high-quality bias and allyship training and receive periodic refreshers to keep key learnings top of mind.

Create a culture where it’s normal to surface microaggressions. It’s important for companies to foster a culture that encourages employees to speak up when they see microaggressions or other disrespectful behavior. Although these conversations can be difficult, they often lead to valuable learning and growth. Senior leaders can play an important role in modeling that it is safe to surface and discuss these behaviors.

4. Finetune flexible working models

The past few years have seen a transformation in how we work. Flexibility is now the norm in most companies; the next step is unlocking its full potential and bringing out the best of the benefits that different work arrangements have to offer. Here are three steps to get started:

Establish clear expectations and norms around working flexibly. Without this clarity, employees may have very different and conflicting interpretations of what’s expected of them. It starts with redefining the work best done in person, versus remotely, and injecting flexibility into the work model to meet personal demands. As part of this process, companies need to find the right balance between setting organization-wide guidelines and allowing managers to work with their teams to determine an approach that unlocks benefits for men and women equally.

Measure the impact of new initiatives to support flexibility and adjust them as needed. The last thing companies want to do is fly in the dark as they navigate the transition to flexible work. As organizations roll out new working models and programs to support flexibility, they should carefully track what’s working, and what’s not, and adjust their approach accordingly—a test-and-learn mentality and a spirit of co-creation with employees are critical to getting these changes right.

Few companies currently track outcomes across work arrangements. For example, only 30 percent have tracked the impact of their return-to-office policies on key DEI outcomes.

Put safeguards in place to ensure a level playing field across work arrangements. Companies should take steps to ensure that employees aren’t penalized for working flexibly. This includes putting systems in place to make sure that employees are evaluated fairly, such as redesigning performance reviews to focus on results rather than when and where work gets done. Managers should also be equipped to be part of the solution. This requires educating managers on proximity bias. Managers need to ensure their team members get equal recognition for their contributions and equal opportunities to advance regardless of working model.

5. Fix the broken rung for women, with a focus on women of color

Fixing the broken rung is a tangible, achievable goal and will set off a positive chain reaction across the pipeline. After nine years of very little progress, there is no excuse for companies failing to take action. Here are three steps to get started:

Track inputs and outcomes. To uncover inequities in the promotions process, companies need to track who is put up for and who receives promotions—by race and gender combined. Tracking with this intersectional lens enables employers to identify and address the obstacles faced by women of color, and companies can use these data points to identify otherwise invisible gaps and refine their promotion processes.

Work to de-bias performance reviews and promotions. Leaders should put safeguards in place to ensure that evaluation criteria are applied fairly and bias doesn’t creep into decision making. Companies can take these actions:

• Send “bias” reminders before performance evaluations and promotion cycles, explaining how common biases can impact reviewers’ assessments.
• Appoint a “bias monitor” to keep performance evaluations and promotions discussions focused on the core criteria for the job and surface potentially biased decision making.
• Have reviewers explain the rationale behind their performance evaluations and promotion recommendations. When individuals have to justify their decisions, they are less likely to make snap judgments or rely on gut feelings, which are prone to bias.

Invest in career advancement for women of color. Companies should make sure their career development programs address the distinct biases and barriers that women of color experience. Yet only a fraction of companies tailor career program content for women of color. And given that women of color tend to get less career advice and have less access to senior leaders, formal mentorship and sponsorship programs can be particularly impactful. It’s also important that companies track the outcomes of their career development programs with an intersectional lens to ensure they are having the intended impact and not inadvertently perpetuating inequitable outcomes.

Practices of top-performing companies

Companies with strong women’s representation across the pipeline are more likely to have certain practices in place. The following data are based on an analysis of top performers—companies that have a higher representation of women and women of color than their industry peers (Exhibit 7).

This year’s survey brings to light important realities about women’s experience in the workplace today. Women, and particularly women of color, continue to lose the most ground in middle management, and microaggressions have a significant and enduring effect on many women—especially those with traditionally marginalized identities. Even still, women are as ambitious as ever, and flexibility is contributing to this, allowing all workers to be more productive while also achieving more balance in their lives. These insights can provide a backdrop for senior leaders as they plan for the future of their organizations.

Emily Field is a partner in McKinsey’s Seattle office; Alexis Krivkovich and Lareina Yee are senior partners in the Bay Area office, where Nicole Robinson is an associate partner; Sandra Kügele is a consultant in the Washington, D.C., office.

The authors wish to thank Zoha Bharwani, Quentin Bolton, Sara Callander, Katie Cox, Ping Chin, Robyn Freeman, James Gannon, Jenn Gao, Mar Grech, Alexis Howard, Isabelle Hughes, Sara Kaplan, Ananya Karanam, Sophia Lam, Nina Li, Steven Lee, Anthea Lyu, Tess Mandoli, Abena Mensah, Laura Padula, David Pinski, Jane Qu, Charlie Rixey, Sara Samir, Chanel Shum, Sofia Tam, Neha Verma, Monne Williams, Lily Xu, Yaz Yazar, and Shirley Zhao for their contributions to this article.

Explore a career with us

Related articles.

Women in the workplace: Breaking up to break through

Women in the Workplace 2022

Friday essay: girls have long been woefully underestimated – but now they’re roaring back

Associate Professor in Literary Studies, Monash University

Disclosure statement

Michelle Smith does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

Monash University provides funding as a founding partner of The Conversation AU.

View all partners

Teenage girls are typically the least powerful and most underestimated group within Western cultures – where adults are seen as superior to children, and men are privileged above women. Girls can also provoke cultural fears and anxieties because they occupy a transitional space between childhood and adulthood.

How old is a “girl”? The definition has shifted, along with things like the age of consent and marriage. The significance of marriage has tended to mean young women are called “girls” even into their early twenties. While female children are also understood as girls, a distinct girls’ culture begins, it’s generally thought, around the pre-teen years.

The separate stage of life we know as girlhood originated in the second half of the 19th century. It was brought into being by two major transformations: the raise of the age of marriage to the early twenties and girls working outside the home. In Britain and the United States, these changes created a time of independence for young women, between being under the control of parents and the confines of marriage, as literary historian Sally Mitchell has written .

The reality of girls having financial and personal freedom was a worrying prospect. As Mitchell writes , the way a girl is seen as both immature and occupying a liminal stage “gives her permission to behave in ways that might not be appropriate for a woman”.

Yet a separately designated period of girlhood also gave rise to a girls’ culture designed to cater to their unique interests, such as books, magazines and organisations. This “girl culture” would expand and become more visible in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Today’s girls enjoy a wide range of interests and pursuits, from Taylor Swift fandom to political action and elite sport. Yet their interests are often trivialised or dismissed.

Girls of substance

Girls are often framed as “ at risk ”, or as potential dangers to themselves via sex and drugs. At the same time, they are typically dismissed in terms of their political or cultural influence. A popular nursery rhyme suggests girls are made of “sugar and spice and all things nice”. This implies a pleasant, compliant nature, rather than challenging the status quo.

When girls have made a political impact and risen to international prominence, they have often been the target of significant hatred. For example, activist Greta Thunberg gained global notoriety as a 15-year-old when she began the School Strike for Climate movement in 2018.

She became a figure of online hate, especially after sailing to the US in 2019 to participate in climate talks. Thunberg was criticised for having political passion (“whining” and exhibiting “anger”), and for daring to speak up when she was only a “child”.

Even Nobel Prize winner Malala Yousafzai, who survived being shot by a Taliban gunman in Pakistan in 2012 and subsequently became an activist for girls’ education, has been the subject of waves of “ Malala hate ”. Her acceptance into Oxford University, her Nobel Peace Prize and high-profile interviews in magazines such as Vogue have only heightened the volume and vitriol of the disapproval.

Girls of substance, such as Thunberg and Yousafzai, defy feminine expectations by being assertive and refusing to accept social and political norms largely established by male leaders. The degree of irritation these outspoken girls have provoked illustrates how they disrupt the cultural expectations of girls as compliant and unimportant.

Boys vs girls in popular culture

Just as girls themselves have been dismissed when they have attempted to influence politics or culture, the interests and passions of girls have typically been derided as trivial in comparison with those of boys and men.

One of the first visible manifestations of female fandom was teenage girls’ early enthusiasm for The Beatles in the 1960s. As expert on media fandom Mark Duffett explains , the enthusiasm of girls and women for the band was distinguished as “feminized ‘hysterical’ affect” in contrast with “intellectually mature, artistic appreciation”.

The idea that the aspects of culture girls are attracted to are inferior or disposable is another way their interests have been belittled.

Words associated with the music girls primarily consume, such as “bubblegum” pop, signal its “sweetness” and lack of substance. In the 1980s and 1990s, girls’ fandom of “boy bands” such as New Kids on the Block and the Backstreet Boys was disparaged.

More recently, there is some animosity towards “Swifties” and dismissal of the musical quality and likely longevity of Taylor Swift’s music. However, her undeniably successful recent tour to Australia attracted reams of positive media coverage. Articles celebrated girls and their mothers wearing glitter and sequins and attending concerts together.

In the realm of cinema, superhero and comic films are big business today: the Marvel cinematic universe is the highest-grossing franchise in history. These films, with huge production and marketing budgets, are derived from publications and toys typically associated with boys. Though some of these fictional universes include female characters, they are less commonly at the forefront.

In contrast, girls’ interests and hobbies have been so derided and marginalised that Greta Gerwig’s Barbie (2023) was one of the first films to elevate a girls’ toy to major cinema prominence.

Unlike the seven-film Transformers franchise , which has grossed over $5 billion , Barbie exhibits a high-degree of self-awareness and irony about the toy and how girls play with it. Barbie, which has grossed 1.45 billion US dollars at the box office, was widely dissected as a measure of contemporary feminism.

While a predominantly male viewership can uncritically watch action films about robots that change form for entertainment, a story about an iconic fashion doll for girls carried many other expectations – because of its rarity and the sense that girls’ toys and interests are frivolous.

From dismissal to lucrative market share

In the 1870s, in both Britain and the United States, doctors argued against the value of girls’ education by suggesting girls entering puberty required the limited supply of energy available within their bodies to prepare their reproductive systems for womanhood. If girls undertook rigorous academic study, their ability to have healthy children and to retain “their natural grace and gentility” might have been compromised, writes historian Kathleen E. McCrone.

These historical opinions highlight two perceptions of girls: first, that they were physically “weaker” beings who were not capable of the same physical and intellectual activities as boys; and second, that their primary purpose was to bear children.

Things have changed a great deal since. Teenage girls, for instance, are participating in the Olympics in notable numbers as peak athletes. Skateboarding in particular features girls such as 14-year-old Australian skateboarder Arisa Trew , who became the youngest ever Australian Olympic gold medallist this week. (She also became the first woman to land a 720 – two full rotations while mid-air – in competition.)

Girls now have a different kind of cachet: market power in a capitalist economy. In 2000, a Disney executive observed the number of girls dressed in generic princess costumes for live Disney on Ice performances. In response, he initiated the Disney Princess line of merchandise. These toys, costumes, books and accessories reached annual sales in the billions in the early 2000s .

In 2023, Taylor Swift’s Eras Tour, which appealed largely to girls and young women, became the highest-grossing tour of all time .

Nevertheless, Swift attracts criticism that her performances are as not as legitimate as those of male bands who cater to an older fanbase (which includes more men). In a direct reference to the Eras Tour, the Foo Fighters’ Dave Grohl, for example, joked with a live audience that his band was undertaking the “Errors Tour”, “because we actually play live”.

One cultural arena where girls dominate is reading. The 2024 Report of the Australian Teen Reading in the Digital Era project shows twice as many girls are “fiction fanatics” (avid readers) as boys. And boys are far more likely than girls to abstain from reading altogether.

Most young adult fiction is written by women , for an audience of primarily girls and young women. Girls are highly influential on the book industry, by sharing their opinions about books on BookTok and exerting pressure on publishers through social media to increase the diversity of published authors .

The gendered nature of teen reading is commonly framed as a “problem”, with campaigns for more fiction to be published that will directly appeal to boys , to improve their rates of literacy. However, research has repeatedly found male characters have been historically overrepresented in children’s literature. This continues to be the case, despite modest improvements in recent years.

Until comparatively recently, girls have been expected to identify vicariously with male protagonists in fiction and film. Yet it is typically presumed that boys are not willing to read or view stories about girls or written by women, just as men largely refuse to read books written by women . Author of the Harry Potter series, Joanne Rowling, famously adopted the pen-name “J.K” because of her publisher’s assumption that boys would not read a book written by a woman .

The women of tomorrow

In 2024, young women comprise around 60 per cent of Australian university students , reflecting women’s entry into numerous professions. Meanwhile Kamala Harris is a serious contender to become the first female US president, showing girls they can aspire to almost any role in life.

Yet despite movements towards equality for girls and women, sexism continues to permeate many institutions and girls continue to experience sexual assault at double the rate of boys .

Girls are the women of tomorrow. To improve the future for women, it is important to reevaluate attitudes towards girls’ culture and interests. We need to consider why they are often dismissed, compared to the hobbies and passions of boys.

For parents, there is a vital role to play in counteracting stereotypes about girls. Adults can also improve their engagement with girls to prepare them to face a sometimes hostile world.

Chelsey Goodan’s Underestimated: The Wisdom and Power of Teenage Girls , for instance, talks about the need to trust girls to make their own choices, the importance of discussing complex issues, such as sexuality, with them honestly, and why we need to listen to them in ways that allow them to reveal difficult emotions, such as shame and fear.

As Goodan suggests, by dismissing girls with labels like “hormonal”, “crazy” and “dramatic”, our culture “minimizes their voice until it’s silent”.

Most importantly, we can empower girls to speak up. We can also improve our level of respect for them and what they have to say. Devaluing the period of youth for half of the population contributes to attitudes that diminish the contributions, achievements and interests of women, too.

• Olympic games
• Taylor Swift
• Malala Yousafzai
• Skateboarding
• Teen reading
• Friday essay
• Teenage girls
• J.K. Rowling
• Greta Thunberg

Educational Designer

Casual Facilitator: GERRIC Student Programs - Arts, Design and Architecture

Senior Lecturer, Digital Advertising

Associate Professor, Psychology

Service Delivery Fleet Coordinator

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Challenges women experience in leadership careers: an integrative review.

1. Introduction

2. external and internal challenges beyond the glass ceiling, 2.1. female leadership challenges as external factors, 2.1.1. gender biases and stereotypes, 2.1.2. glass ceiling and sticky floor, 2.1.3. leadership labyrinth, 2.1.4. female leadership prototypes, 2.1.5. think manager–think male, 2.1.6. think crisis–think female, 2.1.7. double bind, 2.1.8. backlash, 2.1.9. the lack of leadership development, 2.1.10. glass cliff, 2.1.11. queen bee syndrome, 2.2. female leadership challenges as internal factors, 2.2.1. self-gender stereotypes, 2.2.2. tokenism, 2.2.3. gender stereotype threat, 2.2.4. gender stereotype internalization, 3. the integrative model, 3.1. gender stereotypes as internal factors, 3.2. external factors affecting women’s leadership careers, 3.3. internal factors affecting women’s leadership careers, 3.4. vicious cycle that manifests leadership challenges for women, 4. organizational practices that promote women’s leadership careers, 5. future directions, 6. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Cook, A.; Glass, C. Between a rock and a hard place: Managing diversity in a shareholder society. Hum. Resour. Manag. J. 2009 , 19 , 393–412. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wu, J.; Richard, O.C.; Triana, M.C.; Zhang, X. The performance impact of gender diversity in the top management team and board of directors: A multiteam systems approach. Hum. Resour. Manag. 2022 , 61 , 157–180. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cook, A.; Glass, C. Women and top leadership positions: Towards an institutional analysis. Gend. Work. Organ. 2014 , 21 , 91–103. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cook, A.; Glass, C. Leadership change and shareholder value: How markets react to the appointments of women. Hum. Resour. Manag. 2011 , 50 , 501–519. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eagly, A.H.; Johannesen-Schmidt, M.C. The leadership styles of women and men. J. Soc. Issues 2001 , 57 , 781–797. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ely, R.J.; Ibarra, H.; Kolb, D.M. Taking gender into account: Theory and design for women’s leadership development programs. Acad. Manag. Learn. Educ. 2011 , 10 , 474–493. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Heilman, M.E. Gender stereotypes and workplace bias. Res. Organ. Behav. 2012 , 32 , 113–135. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eagly, A.H.; Karau, S.J. Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychol. Rev. 2002 , 109 , 573. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Acker, J. Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Gend. Soc. 1990 , 4 , 139–158. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ridgeway, C.L. Gender, status, and leadership. J. Soc. Issues 2001 , 57 , 637–655. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Morrison, A.M. New solutions to the same old glass ceiling. Women Manag. Rev. 1992 , 7 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Manzi, F.; Heilman, M.E. Breaking the glass ceiling: For one and all? J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2021 , 120 , 257. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sekiguchi, T.; De Cuyper, N. Addressing new leadership challenges in a rapidly changing world. Appl. Psychol. 2022 , 1–10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Williams, C.L. The glass escalator: Hidden advantages for men in the “female” professions. Soc. Probl. 1992 , 39 , 253–267. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kanter, R.M. Some effects of proportions on group life: Skewed sex ratios and responses to token women. Am. J. Sociol. 1977 , 82 , 965–990. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bruckmüller, S.; Ryan, M.K.; Rink, F.; Haslam, S.A. Beyond the glass ceiling: The glass cliff and its lessons for organizational policy. Soc. Issues Policy Rev. 2014 , 8 , 202–232. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bowen, C.C.; Swim, J.K.; Jacobs, R.R. Evaluating gender biases on actual job performance of real people: A meta-analysis 1. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2000 , 30 , 2194–2215. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cortina, C.; Rodríguez, J.; González, M.J. Mind the job: The role of occupational characteristics in explaining gender discrimination. Soc. Indic. Res. 2021 , 156 , 91–110. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lee, M.; Huang, L. Gender bias, social impact framing, and evaluation of entrepreneurial ventures. Organ. Sci. 2018 , 29 , 1–16. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Batara, M.A.; Ngo, J.M.; See, K.A.; Erasga, D. Second generation gender bias: The effects of the invisible bias among mid-level women managers. Asia-Pac. Soc. Sci. Rev. 2018 , 18 , 138–151. Available online: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332154630 (accessed on 20 March 2023).
• Fischbach, A.; Lichtenthaler, P.W.; Horstmann, N. Leadership and Gender Stereotyping of Emotions. J. Pers. Psychol. 2015 , 14 , 153–162. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ryan, M.K.; Haslam, S.A.; Hersby, M.D.; Bongiorno, R. Think crisis–think female: The glass cliff and contextual variation in the think manager–think male stereotype. J. Appl. Psychol. 2011 , 96 , 470. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Koenig, A.M.; Eagly, A.H.; Mitchell, A.A.; Ristikari, T. Are leader stereotypes masculine? A meta-analysis of three research paradigms. Psychol. Bull. 2011 , 137 , 616. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Braddy, P.W.; Sturm, R.E.; Atwater, L.; Taylor, S.N.; McKee, R.A. Gender bias still plagues the workplace: Looking at derailment risk and performance with self–other ratings. Group Organ. Manag. 2020 , 45 , 315–350. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ridgeway, C.L.; Correll, S.J. Unpacking the gender system: A theoretical perspective on gender beliefs and social relations. Gend. Soc. 2004 , 18 , 510–531. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wolfram, H.-J.; Gratton, L. Gender role self-concept, categorical gender, and transactional-transformational leadership: Implications for perceived workgroup performance. J. Leadersh. Organ. Stud. 2014 , 21 , 338–353. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Heilman, M.E. Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organizational ladder. J. Soc. Issues 2001 , 57 , 657–674. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Heilman, M.E.; Wallen, A.S.; Fuchs, D.; Tamkins, M.M. Penalties for success: Reactions to women who succeed at male gender-typed tasks. J. Appl. Psychol. 2004 , 89 , 416. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Heilman, M.E.; Okimoto, T.G. Why are women penalized for success at male tasks?: The implied communality deficit. J. Appl. Psychol. 2007 , 92 , 81. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Correll, S.J. Constraints into preferences: Gender, status, and emerging career aspirations. Am. Sociol. Rev. 2004 , 69 , 93–113. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dreher, G.F. Breaking the glass ceiling: The effects of sex ratios and work-life programs on female leadership at the top. Hum. Relat. 2003 , 56 , 541–562. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ibarra, R.J.E.; Herminia, K.; Deborah, M. Women rising: The unseen barriers. Harv. Bus. Rev. 2013 , 91 , 60–66. [ Google Scholar ]
• Carli, L.L.; Eagly, A.H. Women face a labyrinth: An examination of metaphors for women leaders. Gend. Manag. Int. J. 2016 , 31 , 514–527. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eagly, A.H. Sex differences in social behavior: Comparing social role theory and evolutionary psychology. Am. Psychol. 1997 , 52 , 1380–1383. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eagly, A.H. Few Women at the Top: How Role Incongruity Produces Prejudice and the Glass Ceiling. In Leadership and Power: Identity, Leadership, and Power ; van Knippenberg, D., Hogg, M.A., Eds.; Sage Publications: London, UK, 2003; pp. 79–93. [ Google Scholar ]
• Schock, A.K.; Gruber, F.M.; Scherndl, T.; Ortner, T.M. Tempering agency with communion increases women’s leadership emergence in all-women groups: Evidence for role congruity theory in a field setting. Leadersh. Q. 2019 , 30 , 189–198. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Brescoll, V.L. Leading with their hearts? How gender stereotypes of emotion lead to biased evaluations of female leaders. Leadersh. Q. 2016 , 27 , 415–428. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Giacomin, M.; Tskhay, K.O.; Rule, N.O. Gender stereotypes explain different mental prototypes of male and female leaders. Leadersh. Q. 2022 , 33 , 101578. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eagly, A.H.; Carli, L.L. Through the Labyrinth: The Truth about How Women Become Leaders ; Harvard Business School Press: Boston, MA, USA, 2007. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ridwan, R.; Sudjarwo, S.; Sulpakar, S.; Hariri, H.; Tusianah, R.; Isnainy, U.C.; Zainaro, M.A.; Herdian, H.; Rahman, B. The Effects of Transformational, Transactional, and Laissez-Faire Leadership on Principal’s Self-Efficacy. Wseas Trans. Adv. Eng. Educ. 2022 , 19 , 35–51. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Peterson, S.J.; Galvin, B.M.; Lange, D. CEO servant leadership: Exploring executive characteristics and firm performance. Pers. Psychol. 2012 , 65 , 565–596. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eagly, A.H.; Johannesen-Schmidt, M.C.; Van Engen, M.L. Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychol. Bull. 2003 , 129 , 569. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sims, C.; Carter, A.; Moore De Peralta, A. Do servant, transformational, transactional, and passive avoidant leadership styles influence mentoring competencies for faculty? A study of a gender equity leadership development program. Hum. Resour. Dev. Q. 2021 , 32 , 55–75. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kulich, C.; Gartzia, L.; Komarraju, M.; Aelenei, C. Contextualizing the think crisis-think female stereotype in explaining the glass cliff: Gendered traits, gender, and type of crisis. PLoS ONE 2021 , 16 , e0246576. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Morgenroth, T.; Kirby, T.A.; Ryan, M.K.; Sudkämper, A. The who, when, and why of the glass cliff phenomenon: A meta-analysis of appointments to precarious leadership positions. Psychol. Bull. 2020 , 146 , 797. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Acker, J.A. Inequality regimes: Gender, class, and race in organizations. Gend. Soc. 2006 , 20 , 441–464. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bass, B.M.; Avolio, B.J. Transformational leadership and organizational culture. Public Adm. Q. 1993 , 17 , 112–121. Available online: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40862298 (accessed on 5 April 2023). [ CrossRef ]
• Van Dierendonck, D.; Stam, D.; Boersma, P.; de Windt, N.; Alkema, J. Same difference? Exploring the differential mechanisms linking servant leadership and transformational leadership to follower outcomes. Leadersh. Q. 2014 , 25 , 544–562. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eagly, A.H.; Johnson, B.T. Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 1990 , 108 , 233. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lemoine, G.J.; Hartnell, C.A.; Leroy, H. Taking stock of moral approaches to leadership: An integrative review of ethical, authentic, and servant leadership. Acad. Manag. Ann. 2019 , 13 , 148–187. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lemoine, G.J.; Blum, T.C. Servant leadership, leader gender, and team gender role: Testing a female advantage in a cascading model of performance. Pers. Psychol. 2021 , 74 , 3–28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pradhan, S.; Jena, L.K. Does meaningful work explains the relationship between transformational leadership and innovative work behaviour? Vikalpa J. Decis. Mak. 2019 , 44 , 30–40. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kim, S.; Shin, M. The effectiveness of transformational leadership on empowerment: The roles of gender and gender dyads. Cross Cult. Strateg. Manag. 2017 , 24 , 271–287. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liden, R.C.; Wayne, S.J.; Zhao, H.; Henderson, D. Servant leadership: Development of a multidimensional measure and multi-level assessment. Leadersh. Q. 2008 , 19 , 161–177. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ellemers, N.; Rink, F.; Derks, B.; Ryan, M.K. Women in high places: When and why promoting women into top positions can harm them individually or as a group (and how to prevent this). Res. Organ. Behav. 2012 , 32 , 163–187. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Burke, R.J. Backlash in the workplace. Women Manag. Rev. 2005 , 20 , 165–176. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Schein, V.E. A global look at psychological barriers to women’s progress in management. J. Soc. Issues 2001 , 57 , 675–688. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ciancetta, L.M.; Roch, S.G. Backlash in performance feedback: Deepening the understanding of the role of gender in performance appraisal. Hum. Resour. Manag. 2021 , 60 , 641–657. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• De Pater, I.E.; Van Vianen, A.E.M.; Bechtoldt, M.N. Gender differences in job challenge: A matter of task allocation. Gend. Work. Organ. 2010 , 17 , 433–453. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Stichman, A.J.; Hassell, K.D.; Archbold, C.A. Strength in numbers? A test of Kanter’s theory of tokenism. J. Crim. Justice 2010 , 38 , 633–639. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Samuelson, H.L.; Levine, B.R.; Barth, S.E.; Wessel, J.L.; Grand, J.A. Exploring women’s leadership labyrinth: Effects of hiring and developmental opportunities on gender stratification. Leadersh. Q. 2019 , 30 , 101314. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• King, E.B.; Botsford, W.; Hebl, M.R.; Kazama, S.; Dawson, J.F.; Perkins, A. Benevolent sexism at work: Gender differences in the distribution of challenging developmental experiences. J. Manag. 2012 , 38 , 1835–1866. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ryan, M.K.; Haslam, S.A. The glass cliff: Evidence that women are over-represented in precarious leadership positions. Br. J. Manag. 2005 , 16 , 81–90. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ryan, M.K.; Haslam, S.A. The glass cliff: Exploring the dynamics surrounding the appointment of women to precarious leadership positions. Acad. Manag. Rev. 2007 , 32 , 549–572. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Glass, C.; Cook, A. Leading at the top: Understanding women’s challenges above the glass ceiling. Leadersh. Q. 2016 , 27 , 51–63. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eble, A.; Hu, F. Stereotypes, role models, and the formation of beliefs. CDEP-CGEG Work. Pap. 2017 , 43 , 1–63. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rudman, L.A. Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1998 , 74 , 629. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ely, R.J. The effects of organizational demographics and social identity on relationships among professional women. Adm. Sci. Q. 1994 , 39 , 203–238. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Eagly, A.H.; Carli, L.L. Women and the labyrinth of leadership. Harv. Bus. Rev. 2007 , 85 , 147–162. [ Google Scholar ]
• Derks, B.; Van Laar, C.; Ellemers, N. The queen bee phenomenon: Why women leaders distance themselves from junior women. Leadersh. Q. 2016 , 27 , 456–469. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Derks, B.; Van Laar, C.; Ellemers, N.; De Groot, K. Gender-bias primes elicit queen-bee responses among senior policewomen. Psychol. Sci. 2011 , 22 , 1243–1249. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yoshikawa, K.; Kokubo, A.; Wu, C.-H. A cultural perspective on gender inequity in STEM: The Japanese context. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 2018 , 11 , 301–309. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Arvate, P.R.; Galilea, G.W.; Todescat, I. The queen bee: A myth? The effect of top-level female leadership on subordinate females. Leadersh. Q. 2018 , 29 , 533–548. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Derks, B.; Ellemers, N.; Van Laar, C.; De Groot, K. Do sexist organizational cultures create the Queen Bee? Br. J. Soc. Psychol. 2011 , 50 , 519–535. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Faniko, K.; Ellemers, N.; Derks, B.; Lorenzi-Cioldi, F. Nothing changes, really: Why women who break through the glass ceiling end up reinforcing it. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 2017 , 43 , 638–651. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Hentschel, T.; Heilman, M.E.; Peus, C.V. The multiple dimensions of gender stereotypes: A current look at men’s and women’s characterizations of others and themselves. Front. Psychol. 2019 , 10 , 11. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Hoyt, C.L.; Murphy, S.E. Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership. Leadersh. Q. 2016 , 27 , 387–399. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kossek, E.E.; Su, R.; Wu, L. “Opting out” or “pushed out”? Integrating perspectives on women’s career equality for gender inclusion and interventions. J. Manag. 2017 , 43 , 228–254. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kehr, H.M.; Graff, D.; Bakaç, C. Followers’ Motives as Moderators of the Effects of Transformational Leadership Behaviors on Follower Outcomes and Leaders’ Influence. J. Bus. Psychol. 2022 , 1–22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pohl, S.; Desrumaux, P.; Vonthron, A.-M. The mediating effect on self-efficacy in the relationship between gender identity and leadership style. J. Soc. Sci. Res. 2020 , 15 , 1–10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Morgenroth, T.; Ryan, M.K.; Sønderlund, A.L. Think Manager–Think Parent? Investigating the fatherhood advantage and the motherhood penalty using the Think Manager–Think Male paradigm. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 2021 , 51 , 237–247. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• King, E.B.; Hebl, M.R.; George, J.M.; Matusik, S.F. Understanding tokenism: Antecedents and consequences of a psychological climate of gender inequity. J. Manag. 2010 , 36 , 482–510. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Benan, K.Y.; Olca, S.D. Gender Based Tokenism: A Qualitative Research on Female-Dominated and Male-Dominated Professions. Istanb. Manag. J. 2020 , 88 , 85–125. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Logel, C.; Walton, G.M.; Spencer, S.J.; Iserman, E.C.; von Hippel, W.; Bell, A.E. Interacting with sexist men triggers social identity threat among female engineers. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2009 , 96 , 1089. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Davies, P.G.; Spencer, S.J.; Steele, C.M. Clearing the air: Identity safety moderates the effects of stereotype threat on women’s leadership aspirations. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2005 , 88 , 276. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Madsen, S.R.; Andrade, M.S. Unconscious gender bias: Implications for women’s leadership development. J. Leadersh. Stud. 2018 , 12 , 62–67. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Small, D.A.; Gelfand, M.; Babcock, L.; Gettman, H. Who goes to the bargaining table? The influence of gender and framing on the initiation of negotiation. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 2007 , 93 , 600. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hentschel, T.; Braun, S.; Peus, C.; Frey, D. Sounds like a fit! Wording in recruitment advertisements and recruiter gender affect women’s pursuit of career development programs via anticipated belongingness. Hum. Resour. Manag. 2021 , 60 , 581–602. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fritz, C.; van Knippenberg, D. Gender and leadership aspiration: Supervisor gender, support, and job control. Appl. Psychol. 2020 , 69 , 741–768. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ibarra, H.; Petriglieri, J. Impossible selves: Image strategies and identity threat in professional women’s career transitions. INSEAD Work. Pap. 2016 , 12 , 1–27. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Karelaia, N.; Guillén, L. Me, a woman and a leader: Positive social identity and identity conflict. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 2014 , 125 , 204–219. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Heilman, M.E.; Eagly, A.H. Gender stereotypes are alive, well, and busy producing workplace discrimination. Ind. Organ. Psychol. 2008 , 1 , 393–398. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cohen, P.N. Replacing housework in the service economy: Gender, class, and race-ethnicity in service spending. Gend. Soc. 1998 , 12 , 219–231. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Stainback, K.; Kwon, S. Female leaders, organizational power, and sex segregation. Ann. Am. Acad. Political Soc. Sci. 2012 , 639 , 217–235. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gorman, E.H. Work uncertainty and the promotion of professional women: The case of law firm partnership. Soc. Forces 2006 , 85 , 865–890. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gorman, E.H.; Kmec, J.A. Hierarchical rank and women’s organizational mobility: Glass ceilings in corporate law firms. Am. J. Sociol. 2009 , 114 , 1428–1474. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chambliss, E.; Uggen, C. Men and women of elite law firms: Reevaluating Kanter’s legacy. Law Soc. Inq. 2000 , 25 , 41–68. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Biswas, K.; Boyle, B.; Bhardwaj, S.; editors. Impacts of supportive HR practices and organisational climate on the attitudes of HR managers towards gender diversity–a mediated model approach. Evid.-Based HRM 2021 , 9 , 18–33. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Biswas, P.K.; Roberts, H.; Stainback, K. Does women’s board representation affect non-managerial gender inequality? Hum. Resour. Manag. 2021 , 60 , 659–680. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Konrad, A.M.; Kramer, V.; Erkut, S. The impact of three or more women on corporate boards. Organ. Dyn. 2008 , 37 , 145–164. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hoftede, G.; Hofstede, G.J.; Minkov, M. Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind: Intercultural Cooperation and Its Importance for Survival ; McGraw-Hill: New York, NY, USA, 2010. [ Google Scholar ]
• Gannouni, K.; Ramboarison-Lalao, L. Examining gender effects on leadership among future managers: Comparing Hofstede’s masculine vs. feminine countries. Manag. Int. 2019 , 23 , 42–51. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Enkhzul, G. A study of international human resource management in a japanese company: A case study from mongolia. Hum. Sociol. Res. Collect. 2020 , 15 , 139–165. (In Japanese) [ Google Scholar ]
• Enkhzul, G. A Case Study of the Human Resource Management System in Japanese Investment Companies in Mongolia -Focusing on Female Labor. Hum. Sociol. Res. Collect. 2018 , 13 , 27–55. (In Japanese) [ Google Scholar ]
• Fritz, C.; Van Knippenberg, D. Gender and leadership aspiration: The impact of work–life initiatives. Hum. Resour. Manag. 2018 , 57 , 855–868. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kalysh, K.; Kulik, C.T.; Perera, S. Help or hindrance? Work–life practices and women in management. Leadersh. Q. 2016 , 27 , 504–518. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bowles, H.R.; Thomason, B.; Macias-Alonso, I. When gender matters in organizational negotiations. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 2022 , 9 , 199–223. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Huang, L.; Joshi, P.; Wakslak, C.; Wu, A. Sizing up entrepreneurial potential: Gender differences in communication and investor perceptions of long-term growth and scalability. Acad. Manag. J. 2021 , 64 , 716–740. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Galsanjigmed, E.; Sekiguchi, T. Challenges Women Experience in Leadership Careers: An Integrative Review. Merits 2023 , 3 , 366-389. https://doi.org/10.3390/merits3020021

Galsanjigmed E, Sekiguchi T. Challenges Women Experience in Leadership Careers: An Integrative Review. Merits . 2023; 3(2):366-389. https://doi.org/10.3390/merits3020021

Galsanjigmed, Enkhzul, and Tomoki Sekiguchi. 2023. "Challenges Women Experience in Leadership Careers: An Integrative Review" Merits 3, no. 2: 366-389. https://doi.org/10.3390/merits3020021

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

Women’s Work Advantages and Disadvantages Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

This argumentative essay about women’s work explains all the disadvantages and advantages of being a woman in the workplace. The positive and negative effects of being a working mother are also presented, so you might draw your own conclusion on the issue.

Introduction

• Disadvantages

In today’s world, women take active roles in employment, unlike during the olden days when they stayed at home and took care of their families. Women taking active roles in jobs have advantages and disadvantages. In contemporary society, women and men have equal opportunities for employment.

Working Women Advantages

The advantages of women working include more income for their families, the opportunity to explore their talents, and the promotion of economic growth. When women work, they make money that adds to their families’ financial well-being. This helps pay bills, buy food, and educate children. Women have goals and objectives to achieve in their lives. Working allows them to pursue their dreams and talents, as well as work on their goals by pursuing careers of their choice. Finally, women who work contribute towards economic growth through their jobs.

Women’s Work Disadvantages

Disadvantages for working women include the absence of enough time for their families, pressure from work-related stress, and conflicts of interest. Working women have little time to take care of their families because their jobs are very demanding and time-consuming. Many jobs are very stressful, and many women cannot handle high levels of work-related stress. Their nature predisposes them to anxiety and depression more than when compared to men. Finally, there is a conflict of interests. Their roles as mothers compromise their performance at work. They use working hours to take care of their children at the expense of their jobs.

Today, women seek employment opportunities just like men. This increases income for their families and gives them opportunities to explore their talents by pursuing careers of their choice. However, it affects their families because they do not spend enough time with their children. In addition, their role as mothers has involved my performance at work.

• Sex and Caste: A Kind of Memo
• Gender Stereotypes: Interview with Dalal Al Rabah
• Pros and Cons of Abortion to the Society Argumentative Essay
• Aspects of the Writing an Argumentative Essay
• Washington's “Fences”: Plot, Settings, and Director Work
• Gender Equality Issues in the Workplace Environment
• Gender Equality: Plan to Address the Issue
• Gender Inequality: Reginald Murphy College
• Male-Female Conflict in Education System
• Eliminating Violence Against Woman in Afghanistan
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2021, February 26). Women's Work Advantages and Disadvantages Essay. https://ivypanda.com/essays/working-women-advantages-and-disadvantages/

"Women's Work Advantages and Disadvantages Essay." IvyPanda , 26 Feb. 2021, ivypanda.com/essays/working-women-advantages-and-disadvantages/.

IvyPanda . (2021) 'Women's Work Advantages and Disadvantages Essay'. 26 February.

IvyPanda . 2021. "Women's Work Advantages and Disadvantages Essay." February 26, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/working-women-advantages-and-disadvantages/.

1. IvyPanda . "Women's Work Advantages and Disadvantages Essay." February 26, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/working-women-advantages-and-disadvantages/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Women's Work Advantages and Disadvantages Essay." February 26, 2021. https://ivypanda.com/essays/working-women-advantages-and-disadvantages/.

5 Women Empowerment Essays Everybody Should Read

What does “women’s empowerment” mean? It refers to the process of giving women control over their choices and access to the opportunities and resources that allow them to thrive. While there’s been progress, gender inequality remains a persistent issue in the world. Empowering women politically, socially, economically, educationally, and psychologically helps narrow the gap. Here are five essays about women’s empowerment that everyone should read:

Women’s Movements and Feminist Activism (2019)

Amanda Gouws & Azille Coetzee

This editorial from the “Empowering women for gender equity” issue of the journal Agenda explores the issue’s themes. It gives a big picture view of the topics within. The issue is dedicated to women’s movements and activism primarily in South Africa, but also other African countries. New women’s movements focus on engaging with institutional policies and running campaigns for more female representation in government. Some barriers make activism work harder, such as resistance from men and funding, If you’re interested in the whole issue, this editorial provides a great summary of the main points, so you can decide if you want to read further.

Agenda is an African peer-viewed academic journal focusing on feminism. It was established in 1987. It publishes articles and other entries, and tutors young writers.

5 Powerful Ways Women Can Empower Other Women (2020)

Pavitra Raja

Originally published during Women’s History Month, this piece explores five initiatives spearheaded by women in the Schwab Foundation for Social Entrepreneurship community. Created by women for women, these innovations demonstrate what’s possible when women harness their skills and empower each other. The initiatives featured in this article embrace technology, education, training programs, and more.

Pavitra Raja is the Community Manager for social entrepreneurs in Europe, North America, and Latin America. She’s consulted with the UN Economic Commission for Europe and also has experience in legal affairs and policy in the private and public sectors.

The Key to Improving Women’s Health in Developing Countries (2019)

Because of gender inequality, women’s health is affected around the world. Factors like a lower income than men, more responsibilities at home, and less education impact health. This is most clear in developing countries. How can this be addressed? This essay states that empowerment is the key. When giving authority and control over their own lives, women thrive and contribute more to the world. It’s important that programs seeking to end gender inequality focus on empowerment, and not “rescue.” Treating women like victims is not the answer.

Axa is a leading global insurer, covering more than 100 million customers in 57 countries. On their website, they say they strive for the collective good by working on prevention issues, fighting climate change, and prioritizing protection. The company has existed for over 200 years.

Empowering Women Is Smart Economics (2012)

Ana Revenga and Sudhir Shetty

What are the benefits of women’s empowerment? This article presents the argument that closing gender gaps doesn’t only serve women, it’s good for countries as a whole. Gender equality boosts economic productivity, makes institutions more representative, and makes life better for future generations. This piece gives a good overview of the state of the world (the data is a bit old, but things have not changed significantly) and explores policy implications. It’s based on the World Bank’s World Development Report in 2012 on gender equality and development.

Ana Revenga and Sudhir Shetty both worked at the World Bank at the time this article was originally published. Revenga was the Sector Director of Human Development, Europe and Central Asia. Shetty (who still works at the World Bank in a different role) was the Sector Director, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management, East Asia and Pacific.

The Side Of Female Empowerment We Aren’t Talking About Enough (2017)

Tamara Schwarting

In this era of female empowerment, women are being told they can do anything, but can they? It isn’t because women aren’t capable. There just aren’t enough hours in the day. As this article says, women have “more to do but no more time to do it.” The pressure is overwhelming. Is the image of a woman who can “do it all” unrealistic? What can a modern woman do to manage a high-stakes life? This essay digs into some solutions, which include examining expectations and doing self-checks.

Tamara Schwarting is the CEO of 1628 LTD, a co-working community space of independent professionals in Ohio. She’s also an executive-level consultant in supply chain purchasing and business processes. She describes herself as an “urbanist” and has a passion for creative, empowering work environments.

You may also like

Academia in Times of Genocide: Why are Students Across the World Protesting?

Pinkwashing 101: Definition, History, Examples

15 Inspiring Quotes for Black History Month

10 Inspiring Ways Women Are Fighting for Equality

15 Trusted Charities Fighting for Clean Water

15 Trusted Charities Supporting Trans People

15 Political Issues We Must Address

15 Trusted Charities Fighting for LGBTQ+ Rights

16 Inspiring Civil Rights Leaders You Should Know

15 Trusted Charities Fighting for Housing Rights

15 Examples of Gender Inequality in Everyday Life

11 Approaches to Alleviate World Hunger 

About the author, human rights careers.

Human Rights Careers (HRC) provides information about online courses, jobs, paid internships, masters degrees, scholarships and other opportunities in the human rights sector and related areas.

45,000+ students realised their study abroad dream with us. Take the first step today

Here’s your new year gift, one app for all your, study abroad needs, start your journey, track your progress, grow with the community and so much more.

Verification Code

An OTP has been sent to your registered mobile no. Please verify

Thanks for your comment !

Our team will review it before it's shown to our readers.

Essay on Women Empowerment in English

• Updated on  
• May 3, 2024

Women empowerment is one of the most debated social topics. It means recognising the importance of gender equality, and women’s participation in decision-making and offering them equal opportunities in education, employment, others. Women empowerment talks about making women strong so that they can lead a healthy and prosperous life and contribute to the development of society. Today we will be discussing some sample essay on women empowerment, which will cover details like how can eliminate discrimination against women, challenge traditional gender roles, and promote equal opportunities for women in various aspects of life.

This Blog Includes:

What is women’s empowerment, essay on women empowerment in 300 words, most popular women in the world, need for women empowerment, how to empower women, essay on women empowerment in 150 words, useful tips to ace essay writing, essay on gender equality and women empowerment, role of education in women’s empowerment essay, women empowerment essays pdf, article on women empowerment in 100 words (bonus), article on women empowerment in 200 words (bonus).

Quick Read: Speech About Dreams

Long Essay on Women’s Empowerment

“A woman is like a tea bag – you never know how strong she is until she gets in hot water.” – Eleanor Roosevelt

Women empowerment refers to the practice of making women independent so that they can make their own decisions and take decisions without any familial or societal restrictions. In simple terms, it entitles women to take charge of their personal development. The patriarchal society has always deprived women of their rights.

The main motive of women’s empowerment is to help them stand equally with men. It is a foundational step to ensure the prosperous growth of a family as well as the country. By empowering women, the world would witness gender equality and help women from every stratum of society stand on their own and steer their lives as per their wishes.

Also Read: Essay on Yoga Day

Also Read: Speech on Yoga Day

Women empowerment is the process of giving women the ability to live a happy and respected life in society. Women are empowered when they have unrestricted access to chances in a range of domains, such as education, profession, and lifestyle, among others. It involves things like education, awareness, literacy, and training to help them improve their position. It also involves decision-making authority. A woman feels powerful when she makes a significant decision. Empowering women is the most important factor in a country’s overall growth. If a household has just one earning member, while another family has both men and women earning, who will have a better standard of living? The solution is straightforward: a household in which both men and women work. As a result, a country where men and women work together grows more quickly.

‘Feminism does not aim to make women powerful. Women are already powerful. It is about influencing the way the rest of the world views your strength.” Women have always had fewer opportunities and possibilities to develop their talents and knowledge since ancient times. Although the world is made up of both men and women. But men were regarded as the family’s most powerful members. They were the family’s decision-makers and were in charge of making a living. Women, on the other hand, were believed to be responsible person for all home chores and child-rearing, and they were not engaged in making any important family decisions. The roles were assigned depending on gender. If we look at the whole picture, research shows that women’s subjects are either centred on their reproductive role and their body, or their economic position as workers. However, none of them is aimed at empowering women. Women’s Empowerment is a progressive technique of putting power in the hands of women for them to have a happy and respectable existence in society. Women are empowered when they have access to opportunities in several sectors, such as the right to an education, gender equality, a professional (equal wage) lifestyle, and others. However, there are no constraints or limitations. It involves training, awareness, and increasing their position via education, literacy, and decision-making authority. For the total growth of each country, women’s empowerment is the most essential sector. Previously, the men were the sole breadwinners in the household. Assume the household has one earning person; on the other side, suppose the family has both male and women earning members. Who will have a better way of life? The answer is simple: a household in which both the man and the woman work. As a result, when gender equality is prioritized, a country’s growth rate accelerates. Standing up for equality, women have empowered and spoken up for other women.’

Essay on Women Empowerment in 200 Words

‘Women’s empowerment encompasses more than just ensuring that women get their basic rights. In its truest form, women’s empowerment comprises the aspects of independence, equality as well as freedom of expression. Through this, the real strive lies in ensuring that we bring gender equality.

When given the right support, women have shone brilliantly in every field. Even in India, we have seen women handle diverse roles, be it a Prime Minister, Astronaut , Entrepreneur, Banker and much more. Further, women are also considered the backbone of a family. From domestic chores to nurturing children, they handle multiple responsibilities. This is why they are great at multitasking and often many working women efficiently juggle between professional and personal responsibilities. While the urban cities have working women, the rural areas have still restrained them to household chores. How can we aspire to prosper as a nation where every girl does not get access to education or make their own choices? India is a country where we worship goddesses while we don’t bother thinking about gender equality. 

Hence, for all our mothers, sisters and daughters we must aim at creating an environment of integrity. We must boost their confidence to make them capable enough to make their decisions in every phase of life and this is how we can strive towards bringing women empowerment.’

Recommended Read: Essay on Sustainable Development: Format & Examples

Popular women can play an important role when it comes to empowering other women. These influential women are aware of the difficulties faced by women in our society and can see their problems from their perspectives, as they have experienced similar situations. Nadia Murad Basee, a German human rights activist once said, “I want to be the last girl in the world with a story like mine.” Some other popular and influential women in the world are:

• Gloria Marie Steinem
• Malala Yousafzai
• Joan Ruth Bader Ginsburg
• Jane Seymour Fonda
• Betty Friedan
• Halima Aden

Quick Read: Speech About Life

Almost all countries, regardless of how progressive, have a history of mistreating women. To put it another way, women from all over the world have been defiant to achieve their current standing. While Western nations continue to make progress, third-world countries such as India continue to lag in terms of women’s empowerment. Women’s empowerment is more important than ever in India. India is one of the countries where women are not safe. This is due to a variety of factors.

Not only that, but horrific crimes against women such as rape, acid attacks, the dowry system, honour killings, domestic violence, and other forms of violence against women continue to occur throughout India. Women should account for 50% of the entire population. However, due to female foeticide practises, which are still prevailing in the rural and underprivileged sections of Indian societies, the girl-child population is rapidly declining, affecting the country’s sex ratio. Furthermore, the education and freedom scenario is extremely regressive in this situation.

Women are not permitted to continue their education and are married off at a young age. In certain areas, men continue to dominate women, as though it is the woman’s responsibility to labour for him indefinitely. They don’t let them go out or have any form of freedom and personal life. As a result, we can see how women’s empowerment is a pressing issue. We must equip these women with the tools they need to stand up for themselves and never be victims of injustice.

Also Read: Women’s Equality Day

Also Read: 2-Minute Speech on Holi

There is a wide range of approaches and methods to empower women. Individuals and the government must work together to achieve this. Girls’ education should be made obligatory so that they do not become illiterate and unable to support themselves.

Women, regardless of gender, must be given equal chances in all fields. Women empowerment may also be achieved through government-sponsored programmes as well as on an individual level.

On a personal level, we should begin to appreciate women and provide them with chances equal to males. We should promote and encourage them to pursue jobs, further education, and entrepreneurial endeavours, among other things.

To empower women, the government has implemented programmes such as the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Yojana, Mahila Shakti Kendra, Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana , and others. Apart from these programmes, we can all help women by eradicating societal problems such as the dowry system and child marriage. These simple actions will improve women’s status in society and help them feel more powerful.

Find Out How Falguni Nayar Made Nykaa a Beautiful Success

“To all the little girls who are watching this, never doubt that you are valuable and powerful, and deserving of every chance and opportunity in the world to pursue and achieve your own dreams.” Hillary Clinton

Writing an essay on women empowerment? Check Out Top Women Entrepreneurs !

“It took me quite a long time to develop a voice, and now that I have it, I am not going to be silent.” Madeleine Albright

Before we begin with the essay samples on Women’s Empowerment, take a look at the following tips you must keep in mind while drafting an essay: 

• Analyse the different topics carefully and pick according to your knowledge and familiarisation with the topic.  
• Plan your time wisely and bifurcate it for outlining, writing and revision. 
• Highlight/underline your key sentences for each paragraph.
• Emphasise your introduction and conclusion while also keeping the main body of the content as concise as possible. 
• Thoroughly revise it after completion.

Must Read: How to Write an Essay on Disaster Management?

“Feminism isn’t about making women stronger. Women are already strong, it’s about changing the way the world perceives that strength.” G.D. Anderson

Women are taught to mould themselves based on others’ preferences and men are taught to lead because, at the end of the day, women have to manage household chores whereas men are the heroes saving their families and providing them financial support. This is the stereotype that has existed for centuries in India and one of the reasons women are denied basic human rights in society. A woman is denied the right to raise her opinions even in her household matters, political or financial viewpoints are far behind.  Women are born leaders and if given the opportunity can excel in every field. We live in a male-dominated society where a male has every right to do whatever he desires however thought in women’s minds is sacred. For centuries, women were not allowed to eat before men or sit in front of other men. Gender equality and women empowerment is a major concern globally. Gender equality starts with providing the same and equal resources of education to both genders. Education of girl child should also be a priority and not just an option. An educated woman will be able to build a better life for herself and the ones surrounding her. Gender equality and women’s empowerment are essential for the growth of women in society. Women empowerment ensures that every female gets an opportunity to get an education, seek professional training, and spread awareness. However, gender quality will ensure that access to resources is provided equally to both genders and ensure equal participation. Even at the professional level women face gender inequality because a male candidate is promoted way before a female candidate. The mindset should be changed and only deserving candidates should be promoted. Gender quality is a key step towards sustainable development and ensures basic human rights for everyone.

Must Read: Essay on Scientific Discoveries

“A woman with a voice is, by definition, a strong woman.” Melinda Gates

‘Education is the biggest tool in women’s empowerment and also a factor that helps in the overall development of the country. Education can bring a change in women’s life. As the first prime minister of India once said “If you educate a man you educate an individual, however, if you educate a woman you educate a whole family.

Women empowered means mother India empowered” An educated woman will promote the education of other females around her, mentor them and also be a better guide to her children. Education helps women gain self-confidence, esteem, ability to provide financial support. Education will also help to reduce the infant mortality rate because an educated woman is aware of health care, laws, and her rights.

Educating a woman will benefit her and also the development of society. With proper education, women can achieve more socially, and economically and build their careers. Women are still being denied their right to education in rural parts of India. Education will also reduce child marriage which is still practised in some parts of India also help in controlling overpopulation.

The government has launched various schemes over the years to create awareness around women’s education such as Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan , Operation Black-Board , Beti Padhaoo Beti Bachao , and many more. Education helps women to identify the good and bad and change their outlook, way of thinking, and way of handling things. Education helps women to become independent. Indian women have the lowest literacy rate as compared to other countries.

Education is a fundamental right of all and no one should be denied the right to education. Education helps to meet the necessities of life, and confidence to raise a voice against domestic violence or sexual harassment. Be a part of a change and empower a woman with the help of education.’

Here is an Essay on Education System

“There is no limit to what we, as women, can accomplish.” Michelle Obama

Women have been facing issues since the day they were born. Fighting for their rights, society’s stereotypes, and their freedom. Women’s Empowerment means encouraging women through education, at a professional level, accepting their opinions, and providing them with the right they desire. Women should not stay behind someone’s shadow and not be able to express themselves. The main motive of women’s empowerment is to give women a chance to outshine others and get equal rights in society. The first step of women’s empowerment is literacy. A well-educated woman is confident, outspoken, and able to make decisions. Especially in a country like India, If women get a chance to study they can be a prime minister like Indira Gandhi, IPS like Kiran Bedi , or become a famous CEO like Indira Nooyi .

The need for women’s empowerment has existed for a long time but only in the last few years, it has become popular. Women’s empowerment is not just a fight for equal rights. Women empowerment is the upliftment of women from a society constantly pulling them down. In a country like India where female goddesses are worshipped at the same time a woman faces sexual harassment, is denied the right to education, her voice is suppressed and becomes the next case of domestic violence. Indian society will only be able to evolve when they stop putting constant pressure on women and allow them to share their thoughts with others. A woman in India is restricted to household chores and taking care of family members. Women’s Empowerment is the need of the hour in India because awareness among women is important for them to understand their rights. If they are aware of their basic rights only then women will be able to fight for it. The first step towards women’s empowerment starts with supporting their opinions. Don’t mock them or bury their opinions. Boost their confidence and build their self-esteem. Encourage them to pursue their dreams, provide resources for help and be their mentor. Women have the ability not only to shape their lives but also to shape the world. Equal opportunities and the right to make their own decisions are the basics to start with women’s empowerment.

Women’s empowerment is desperately required in today’s cultures. It is critical for women’s self-esteem as well as for society. Women have the right to participate equally in education, society, the economy, and politics. Women may participate in society because they have the freedom to select their religion, language, employment, and other activities.

Women’s Empowerment is the process of providing women with all of the rights and amenities available in society so that they can live freely and without fear or limitation. Women should be granted the same rights as men in society, with no gender discrimination.

Female or women empowerment, according to Keshab Chandra Mandal, may be classified into five categories: social, educational, economic, political, and psychological.

The Women’s Empowerment Principles (WEPs) are a collection of Principles that provide businesses with direction on how to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment in the workplace, marketplace, and community.

Improved female education leads to higher levels of economic growth because women spend 90%of their earnings back on their families, whereas males only invest 30-40% of their earnings. This is only one example of how women’s empowerment has a beneficial impact. Like this, there are several other benefits and positive sides of women’s empowerment

Gender Discrimination, Sexual Abuse and Harassment, Education, Child Marriage, etc.

Great social reformers in the past like  Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Swami Vivekananda, Acharya Vinobha Bhave and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar  etc abolished ghastly practices like sati and child marriage and worked relentlessly in the past for the upliftment of women in India.

Equal pay, financial independence etc are some examples of women empowerment.

In the Indian constitution, many provisions include women empowerment such as Article 15 which enables the state to make special provisions for women.

Related Essay Topics

This was all about an essay on women empowerment. We hope the above-listed essays will help you understand all dimensions of this important essay topic. For more information on such creative essay articles, visit our essay writing page and make sure to follow Leverage Edu .

Sonal is a creative, enthusiastic writer and editor who has worked extensively for the Study Abroad domain. She splits her time between shooting fun insta reels and learning new tools for content marketing. If she is missing from her desk, you can find her with a group of people cracking silly jokes or petting neighbourhood dogs.

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Contact no. *

Women empowerment is a required demand for a better future of the country and the best picture.

Leaving already?

8 Universities with higher ROI than IITs and IIMs

Grab this one-time opportunity to download this ebook

Connect With Us

45,000+ students realised their study abroad dream with us. take the first step today..

Resend OTP in

Need help with?

Study abroad.

UK, Canada, US & More

IELTS, GRE, GMAT & More

Scholarship, Loans & Forex

Country Preference

New Zealand

Which English test are you planning to take?

Which academic test are you planning to take.

Not Sure yet

When are you planning to take the exam?

Already booked my exam slot

Within 2 Months

Want to learn about the test

Which Degree do you wish to pursue?

When do you want to start studying abroad.

September 2024

January 2025

What is your budget to study abroad?

How would you describe this article ?

Please rate this article

We would like to hear more.

Essay on Working Women

Students are often asked to write an essay on Working Women in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Working Women

Working women: empowering the society.

Women in the workforce have made significant strides in recent decades, breaking through barriers and contributing to the economy and society. Working women bring a diverse set of skills, talents, and perspectives to the workplace, enriching the workforce and promoting innovation. They play a vital role in supporting their families, boosting economic growth, and inspiring future generations.

Challenges and Obstacles

Despite the progress, working women continue to face challenges and obstacles. Gender pay gaps, limited access to leadership positions, and the burden of balancing work and family responsibilities are among the issues they encounter. These challenges can hinder women’s career advancement and limit their full potential.

Overcoming Barriers and Achieving Equality

To address these challenges, efforts are being made to promote gender equality in the workplace. Governments, organizations, and individuals are working together to create policies and initiatives that support working women. These include equal pay laws, flexible work arrangements, affordable childcare options, and mentorship programs. By breaking down barriers and creating a more inclusive workplace, we can empower women to reach their full potential and contribute to a more equitable and thriving society.

250 Words Essay on Working Women

Women in the workforce: a changing landscape.

For centuries, women’s roles in society were largely confined to the domestic sphere. They were expected to be wives, mothers, and homemakers, while men went out to work and earned a living. However, the 20th century witnessed a significant shift in this traditional division of labor, as more and more women joined the workforce.

Reasons for the Rise of Working Women

Challenges faced by working women.

Despite the progress that has been made, working women still face a number of challenges. One is the persistent gender pay gap. On average, women earn less than men for the same work, and this disparity is even greater for women of color. Additionally, working women often face discrimination and harassment in the workplace. They may also struggle to balance their work and family responsibilities.

Benefits of Working Women

Despite the challenges, there are also many benefits to having women in the workforce. Women bring a unique perspective and set of skills to the workplace, and they can help to create a more diverse and inclusive environment. Additionally, working women contribute to the economy and help to increase productivity.

The rise of working women is a positive trend that has had a profound impact on society. Working women have made significant contributions to the economy, the workplace, and their families. However, there is still work to be done to address the challenges that working women face. By creating a more level playing field, we can ensure that all women have the opportunity to reach their full potential.

500 Words Essay on Working Women

Working women: empowering society, reshaping roles.

Working women are those who engage in labor outside of their household duties. They contribute to the economy, support their families, and play vital roles in society. Their contributions are diverse and far-reaching, impacting various aspects of life.

Economic Empowerment: Breaking Barriers

Working women are economic drivers. They earn wages, contribute to GDP, and participate in decision-making. Their economic independence allows them to support themselves and their families, breaking free from financial dependence. By entering the workforce, they challenge traditional gender roles and pave the way for future generations.

Work-Life Balance: Striking a Harmony

Role models for future generations: inspiring change.

Working women serve as role models for younger generations, both girls and boys. They demonstrate that women can successfully pursue careers and make meaningful contributions to society. Their presence in various fields challenges stereotypes and encourages young people to break free from traditional gender expectations.

Breaking Glass Ceilings: Overcoming Barriers

Despite progress, working women still face barriers in the workplace. Glass ceilings limit their career advancement, and gender pay gaps persist. However, their determination and resilience are slowly chipping away at these obstacles. Women in leadership positions serve as beacons of hope, inspiring others to push boundaries.

Empowering Communities: Driving Social Progress

Conclusion: a catalyst for positive change.

Working women are a driving force for positive change. They contribute to economic growth, challenge gender stereotypes, and inspire future generations. Their resilience and determination are breaking down barriers and reshaping roles. As working women continue to thrive, societies evolve, and a more equitable and inclusive world becomes a reality.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

Happy studying!

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

More From Forbes

4 reasons why career success may not translate to financial success for women.

• Share to Facebook
• Share to Twitter
• Share to Linkedin

Odiri Oginni is Managing Director and CEO for United Capital Asset Management Limited.

In over a decade of growing in my career, attaining executive-level positions and also engaging and interacting with other female leaders, I have come to realize that career success may not necessarily translate to financial success for women. While women have made significant progress over the years in areas that contribute to their long-term financial well-being, including attaining higher education and climbing the corporate ladder, women generally still lag in an area essential for financial success: accumulating wealth.

What's The Difference?

Career success refers to reaching desirable professional outcomes at any point in a person’s work experience, which could be in the form of higher compensation, social status or a personal evaluation of objective achievements. Career success has received significant attention for women, and this has led to substantial progress in the form of increased representation in senior executive positions, according to the latest Women in the Workplace report by McKinsey. More and more women are breaking through the proverbial glass ceiling, achieving leadership positions and contributing significantly to the workforce and the growth of organizations.

Financial success, on the other hand, entails being in control of one’s money in a way that allows for building and growing financial assets and resources over time. Despite the advancements in career success, women continue to face challenges in wealth accumulation. According to a 2021 report by the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, women earned 82% of what men earned, but households headed by women had only 55% in median wealth of ones headed by men. As wealth is a more meaningful measure of economic well-being relative to income, this gap in wealth accumulation for women could continue even if the gender income gap does not exist.

Reasons Why Career Success May Not Translate To Financial Success For Women

1. conservative investment strategies.

Research has found that women are more conservative investors making them more likely to invest in low-risk assets than risky assets that provide opportunities for higher returns and wealth maximization. Wealth accumulation is a function of earnings, savings and investments over a long period. Investing accumulated earnings in a high-return asset can lead to even greater wealth accumulation; however, this is associated with a greater risk of loss of capital. Because women are prone to being risk-averse, they tend to invest more in secure, low-risk assets, leading to lower wealth accumulation on average over a long period.

2. Lack Of Confidence In Financial Matters

When asked financial questions, women are more likely to indicate that they “do not know” the answer, as highlighted in a 2021 financial literacy survey . However, when the option of “do not know” is removed, women tend to answer correctly, revealing the lack of confidence that holds women back from investing in a way that enables them to accumulate wealth.

In my experience, many women assume that when it comes to financial matters such as investing, as long as it is not their core competency, they do not believe they can be experts in it, even if it is to manage their finances. This lack of confidence may lead women to hesitate to engage in more complex financial decisions.

3. Financial Advice Bias

Women are more inclined to seek professional guidance when investing. However, a study on gender differences in financial advice confirmed that women are more likely to be recommended more expensive products by financial advisors and are also more likely to receive recommendations for less risky but lower-return products . This indicates a potential bias that may be influenced by stereotypes about risk preferences. Investing in less risky products at higher costs can hurt overall wealth accumulation.

4. Limited Participation In Wealth-Accelerating Opportunities

I would argue that while earnings are important, the ability to tap into wealth accelerators helps one build wealth much more quickly than earnings alone. Wealth accelerators are high-risk investment opportunities with potential for substantial returns. These opportunities may include investing in stocks of companies, investing in startups, investing in high-risk real estate projects, commodities trading, etc. Women are less likely to tap into these wealth-accelerating opportunities because of their conservative investment strategy.

Although these wealth-accelerating opportunities require significant risk and may not be suitable for everyone, they can provide an advantage when it comes to translating income into wealth at a faster rate.

Closing The Gap

Career success is important for income generation, which is key to women’s economic empowerment; however, it is the ability to transition from income generation to wealth creation that ensures economic equality.

By addressing biases in financial advice and ensuring the provision of fair and unbiased recommendations, providing investment education programs that are tailor-made for women to boost their ability to make financial decisions on their own and empowering more women to actively invest in risk-adjusted investment opportunities, we can empower women to achieve not just career success but also financial success, thereby fostering greater economic equality.

The information provided here is not investment, tax or financial advice. You should consult with a licensed professional for advice concerning your specific situation.

Forbes Finance Council is an invitation-only organization for executives in successful accounting, financial planning and wealth management firms. Do I qualify?

• Editorial Standards
• Reprints & Permissions

• Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Guest Essay

Katie Couric: Network Newscasts Need to Better Reflect America

By Katie Couric

Ms. Couric is a journalist and author and the founder of Katie Couric Media .

Norah O’Donnell recently announced that she will be stepping down as anchor of “CBS Evening News” after the election, after five years at the helm. I know her tenure must have been both exhilarating and challenging — seeing a network anchor wearing lipstick and earrings might still be slightly jarring to those viewers who assume that authority figures have to look like Walter Cronkite.

I cheered Ms. O’Donnell as she carried out her duties with intelligence and grace. I was proud of the fact that she tackled topics that were especially important to women, such as sexual assault in the military, and that her work helped prompt the Pentagon to institute wide-ranging reforms. I appreciated her focus on the long-term effects of Covid on women. I watched her interview powerful women chief executives and the four highest-ranking women in the military, all of whom were four-star generals and admirals. I knew viewers were seeing these stories because Norah was the driving force behind telling them.

The same week Ms. O’Donnell revealed she would be leaving the anchor desk to focus on conducting high-profile interviews for CBS, the U.S. Women’s Gymnastics team was crushing it at the Paris Olympic Games. Like so many watching, I marveled at the incredible athleticism of these young women, as well as at their diversity. The team looked like America, and I found that exhilarating. Equally exciting was the fact that this was the first Olympics in history where there were as many women as men competing. We’ve come a long way. And I couldn’t stop watching an Instagram post of a 5-year-old Black gymnast on the balance beam in her living room, performing walkovers and dreaming of becoming an Olympian one day. Wow, I thought — this is why representation matters.

We’re also in the midst of a campaign that could result in the election of the first woman president, and first woman of color as president. It’s a potentially historic story — one that needs a diverse group of journalists covering it.

So it was more than a little disappointing to read that Ms. O’Donnell would be replaced by two men, John Dickerson and Maurice DuBois. Don’t get me wrong: I know, like and respect these two journalists. But soon, on the big three networks, there will be four male anchors. Yes, the talented Margaret Brennan will be contributing stories from the Washington bureau for CBS, but the two people who will be greeting Americans watching the CBS evening newscast will be men.

More important, the three people behind the scenes, making most of the editorial decisions, will be three white men: Bill Owens, Guy Campanile and Jerry Cipriano. Mr. Cipriano was my right-hand writer during my tenure on “Evening News.” I loved working with him and he always had my back.

We are having trouble retrieving the article content.

Please enable JavaScript in your browser settings.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access. If you are in Reader mode please exit and  log into  your Times account, or  subscribe  for all of The Times.

Thank you for your patience while we verify access.

Already a subscriber?  Log in .

Want all of The Times?  Subscribe .

We've detected unusual activity from your computer network

To continue, please click the box below to let us know you're not a robot.

Why did this happen?

Please make sure your browser supports JavaScript and cookies and that you are not blocking them from loading. For more information you can review our Terms of Service and Cookie Policy .

For inquiries related to this message please contact our support team and provide the reference ID below.

To revisit this article, visit My Profile, then View saved stories .

• The Big Story
• Newsletters
• Steven Levy's Plaintext Column
• WIRED Classics from the Archive
• WIRED Insider
• WIRED Consulting

The Shameful Controversy Over Olympic Boxer Imane Khelif

This story was originally published in WIRED Italia and has been translated from Italian.

Algerian boxer Imane Khelif won her first match of the 2024 Paris Olympics when her opponent, Angela Carini of Italy, quit after taking several blows to the face in the opening seconds of the bout. The victory only fueled the misguided controversy around Khelif, who has been targeted by critics who have misgendered her throughout the Games.

Born in 1999 in Tiaret, Algeria, Khelif has been boxing since she was a child and has always competed in women's categories. In her career, she competed in the Women's World Boxing Championships in New Delhi in 2018 (finishing in 17th place), then competed in Russia the following year. She competed in the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games, reaching all the way to the quarterfinals, and she finished second in the 2022 Women's World Championships in Istanbul.

Everything seemed to be running smoothly until the 2023 World Cup, organized by the International Boxing Association. The Russia-led IBA, which is not recognized by the International Olympic Committee, disqualified Khelif after a gender eligibility test allegedly found she has XY chromosomes. IBA president Umar Kremlev has said that both Khelif and Taiwanese boxer Lin Yu-ting, who allegedly had a similar test result, “were trying to deceive their colleagues and pretend to be women.” Khelif has contested the allegations.

The Olympics Controversy

Both Khelif and Lin were admitted to Olympic boxing competitions. Admission rules in this case are handled by the so-called Boxing Unit, which has ensured that all athletes participating in the Games' boxing tournament comply with the rules of eligibility and registration for the competition as well as all medical regulations, which also includes the appropriate demonstration of medical certificates stamped and verified to at least three months before the start of the competitions.

“These boxers are completely eligible. They are women on their passports, they are women who have competed in the Tokyo Olympics and have been competing for many years, I think we all have a responsibility to tone it down and not turn it into a witch hunt,” said IOC spokesperson Mark Adams, at a news conference on Tuesday.

Still, prominent figures on social media decried Khelif's participation in the Games. X owner Elon Musk amplified a tweet from swimmer Riley Gaines that “men don't belong in women's sports,” while author J.K. Rowling falsely referred to Khelif as “a male who’s knows he’s protected by a misogynist sporting establishment enjoying the distress of a woman he’s just punched in the head.”

The fact is that Khelif is participating in the Games because she is allowed to by the rules, and has passed the IOC's standards. “The current aggression against these two athletes is based entirely on this arbitrary decision,” said the Boxing Unit and IOC in a statement Thursday, referring to the IBA ban. “[It] was taken without any proper procedure—especially considering that these athletes had been competing in top-level competition for many years. Such an approach is contrary to good governance.”

The controversies of the past few days took serious issues such as hyperandrogynism—the excessive production of testosterone by female bodies—and intersexuality, in which someone is born with sex characteristics that don't fit neatly into traditional definitions of male and female, and debased them. They then further poisoned an already very sensitive debate around transgender women's participation in the Olympics and sports competitions in general.

Beyond everything, however, the fact remains that Imane Khelif has always defined herself as a woman and the IOC is allowing her participate in the Olympics as such. Even in the face of assaultive public opinion, there is nothing to add.

You Might Also Like …

In your inbox: Our biggest stories , handpicked for you each day

How one bad CrowdStrike update crashed the world’s computers

The Big Story: How soon might the Atlantic Ocean break ?

Welcome to the internet's hyper-consumption era

Tim Walz's military career: What we know and what we don't know

• Sen. JD Vance and other Republicans say Gov. Tim Walz is misrepresenting his military background.
• Some also say that Walz retired and ran for office to avoid active combat.
• Here's what we know about Walz's military service, which spanned over two decades.

When Vice President Kamala Harris chose Gov. Tim Walz of Minnesota as her running mate, his military history seemed like an asset .

But now, Republicans are using his military tenure as a point of attack. They have resurfaced claims that Walz misrepresented his military history, retired from the Army to avoid fighting in the Iraq War, and broke promises to his unit.

Walz served in the military for more than 24 years, in both the Nebraska and Minnesota National Guards, according to documents shared with Business Insider by Army Lt. Col. Kristen Augé, a public affairs officer at the Minnesota National Guard.

He retired in 2005 to run for Congress. About two months later, after his retirement, his unit, the Minnesota National Guard's 1st Battalion, 125th Field Artillery, was ordered to mobilize.

Walz's opponent in the presidential race, Sen. JD Vance, says Walz left the military to avoid active combat. During a campaign event on Wednesday, Vance accused his opponent of "stolen valor."

Other Republicans are piling on. In a video posted to X , Rep. Mike Waltz, a Republican from Florida and a veteran, compared the situation to a star quarterback leaving his team before the Super Bowl.

Republicans have also accused Walz of misrepresenting his rank and experience in the Army. Walz presents himself in videos, which the Harris campaign is circulating, as a "retired command sergeant major" who advocated for stricter gun control policies by arguing that civilians should not have access to weapons "that I carried in war."

"He has not spent a day in a combat zone," Vance said on Wednesday. "I'd be ashamed if I was him and I lied about my military service like he did."

These criticisms aren't new. When Walz first ran for governor in 2018, two retired Army veterans posted a letter on Facebook saying he had "embellished" his military career and had ditched his unit just before it was deployed to Iraq.

That's not the whole story, however, and some veterans have defended Walz.

Related stories

"Hey @JDVance, did you forget what the USMC taught you about respect?" Sen. Mark Kelly, a Navy combat veteran, said on X. "Tim Walz spent DECADES in uniform. You both deserve to be thanked for your service. Don't become Donald Trump. He calls veterans suckers and losers and that is beneath those of us who have actually served."

Here's everything we know about Walz's time in the US Army.

Walz served in the Army National Guard for more than two decades

At the age of 17, Walz enlisted in the Nebraska Army National Guard, where he served as an infantry senior sergeant and administrative specialist. In 1996, he transferred to the Minnesota National Guard and held various field artillery positions, including firing battery chief, operations sergeant, first sergeant, and command sergeant major.

In 2003, Walz was sent abroad as part of Operation Enduring Freedom , stage one of America's war on terror, which primarily took place in Afghanistan. He was on active duty in Italy until 2004 but he never went to Afghanistan or Iraq.

Records show that Walz submitted paperwork with the Federal Elections Commission on February 10, 2005. A month later, in March 2005, the National Guard announced the potential partial mobilization of troops from the Minnesota National Guard. In a statement from that time, Walz said he didn't know if his artillery unit would be mobilized but said he did not intend to drop his election bid.

"As command sergeant major I have a responsibility not only to ready my battalion for Iraq, but also to serve if called on," he said in a press release from March 2005. "I am dedicated to serving my country to the best of my ability, whether that is in Washington, DC or Iraq."

A couple of months later, on May 16, 2005, Walz retired from the Army. It's not clear when he first filed for retirement. In August, the Army ordered his former unit to mobilize. A few months later, it was deployed to Iraq.

During his decades in the Army, Walz never faced active combat

Though Walz said in his defense of stricter gun control policies that "we can make sure those weapons of war, that I carried in war, are only carried in war" in a widely circulated video, he never saw active combat during his time in the Army. He has never been in a conflict zone or been to war.

During his service, Walz helped respond to disasters like floods and tornadoes. His only time abroad was his stint in Italy. While running for Minnesota governor in 2018, Walz acknowledged to Minnesota Public Radio that he never faced combat firsthand.

"I know that there are certainly folks that did far more than I did," Walz told the outlet. "I willingly say that I got far more out of the military than they got out of me, from the GI Bill to leadership opportunities to everything else."

Walz achieved the rank of command sergeant major

According to his biography on the Minnesota government website  and public comments, Walz has identified   himself as a "retired command sergeant major." ABC News reported that Walz earned the rank, which is the highest enlisted one for his unit, in September 2004 .

The Harris campaign website identified him that way until Wednesday afternoon. It now says that Walz served in the Army, "rising to the rank of Command Sergeant Major."

That's because although Walz did hold the title at one point, he retired as a master sergeant, a lower rank. The Army reduced his rank in May 2005, when Walz retired, because he never finished the required coursework for the US Army Sergeants Major Academy, according to Minnesota National Guard records.

To retire as a command sergeant major, Walz would also have had to hold the title for three years.

• Main content