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• Research Report: Definition, Types + [Writing Guide]

One of the reasons for carrying out research is to add to the existing body of knowledge. Therefore, when conducting research, you need to document your processes and findings in a research report. 

With a research report, it is easy to outline the findings of your systematic investigation and any gaps needing further inquiry. Knowing how to create a detailed research report will prove useful when you need to conduct research.  

What is a Research Report?

A research report is a well-crafted document that outlines the processes, data, and findings of a systematic investigation. It is an important document that serves as a first-hand account of the research process, and it is typically considered an objective and accurate source of information.

In many ways, a research report can be considered as a summary of the research process that clearly highlights findings, recommendations, and other important details. Reading a well-written research report should provide you with all the information you need about the core areas of the research process.

Features of a Research Report 

So how do you recognize a research report when you see one? Here are some of the basic features that define a research report. 

• It is a detailed presentation of research processes and findings, and it usually includes tables and graphs. 
• It is written in a formal language.
• A research report is usually written in the third person.
• It is informative and based on first-hand verifiable information.
• It is formally structured with headings, sections, and bullet points.
• It always includes recommendations for future actions. 

Types of Research Report 

The research report is classified based on two things; nature of research and target audience.

Nature of Research

• Qualitative Research Report

This is the type of report written for qualitative research . It outlines the methods, processes, and findings of a qualitative method of systematic investigation. In educational research, a qualitative research report provides an opportunity for one to apply his or her knowledge and develop skills in planning and executing qualitative research projects.

A qualitative research report is usually descriptive in nature. Hence, in addition to presenting details of the research process, you must also create a descriptive narrative of the information.

• Quantitative Research Report

A quantitative research report is a type of research report that is written for quantitative research. Quantitative research is a type of systematic investigation that pays attention to numerical or statistical values in a bid to find answers to research questions. 

In this type of research report, the researcher presents quantitative data to support the research process and findings. Unlike a qualitative research report that is mainly descriptive, a quantitative research report works with numbers; that is, it is numerical in nature. 

Target Audience

Also, a research report can be said to be technical or popular based on the target audience. If you’re dealing with a general audience, you would need to present a popular research report, and if you’re dealing with a specialized audience, you would submit a technical report. 

• Technical Research Report

A technical research report is a detailed document that you present after carrying out industry-based research. This report is highly specialized because it provides information for a technical audience; that is, individuals with above-average knowledge in the field of study. 

In a technical research report, the researcher is expected to provide specific information about the research process, including statistical analyses and sampling methods. Also, the use of language is highly specialized and filled with jargon. 

Examples of technical research reports include legal and medical research reports. 

• Popular Research Report

A popular research report is one for a general audience; that is, for individuals who do not necessarily have any knowledge in the field of study. A popular research report aims to make information accessible to everyone. 

It is written in very simple language, which makes it easy to understand the findings and recommendations. Examples of popular research reports are the information contained in newspapers and magazines. 

Importance of a Research Report 

• Knowledge Transfer: As already stated above, one of the reasons for carrying out research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge, and this is made possible with a research report. A research report serves as a means to effectively communicate the findings of a systematic investigation to all and sundry.  
• Identification of Knowledge Gaps: With a research report, you’d be able to identify knowledge gaps for further inquiry. A research report shows what has been done while hinting at other areas needing systematic investigation. 
• In market research, a research report would help you understand the market needs and peculiarities at a glance. 
• A research report allows you to present information in a precise and concise manner. 
• It is time-efficient and practical because, in a research report, you do not have to spend time detailing the findings of your research work in person. You can easily send out the report via email and have stakeholders look at it. 

Guide to Writing a Research Report

A lot of detail goes into writing a research report, and getting familiar with the different requirements would help you create the ideal research report. A research report is usually broken down into multiple sections, which allows for a concise presentation of information.

Structure and Example of a Research Report

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point to the aims, objectives, and findings of a research report. 

• Table of Contents

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research including the research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think of an abstract as a summary of your research report that presents pertinent information in a concise manner. 

An abstract is always brief; typically 100-150 words and goes straight to the point. The focus of your research abstract should be the 5Ws and 1H format – What, Where, Why, When, Who and How. 

• Introduction

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation as well as the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of the research were achieved or would require more work.

In the introduction section, the researcher specifies the research problem and also outlines the significance of the systematic investigation. Also, the researcher is expected to outline any jargons and terminologies that are contained in the research.  

• Literature Review

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different research works that are relevant to your systematic investigation. 

It highlights existing research knowledge and areas needing further investigation, which your research has sought to fill. At this stage, you can also hint at your research hypothesis and its possible implications for the existing body of knowledge in your field of study. 

• An Account of Investigation

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample, and research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the research process including the data collection and analysis procedures. 

In a quantitative research report, you’d need to provide information surveys, questionnaires and other quantitative data collection methods used in your research. In a qualitative research report, you are expected to describe the qualitative data collection methods used in your research including interviews and focus groups. 

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation. 

This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar results.

• Conclusions

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance of the entire study. 

• References and Appendices

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources. 

Tips for Writing a Research Report

• Define the Context for the Report

As is obtainable when writing an essay, defining the context for your research report would help you create a detailed yet concise document. This is why you need to create an outline before writing so that you do not miss out on anything. 

• Define your Audience

Writing with your audience in mind is essential as it determines the tone of the report. If you’re writing for a general audience, you would want to present the information in a simple and relatable manner. For a specialized audience, you would need to make use of technical and field-specific terms. 

• Include Significant Findings

The idea of a research report is to present some sort of abridged version of your systematic investigation. In your report, you should exclude irrelevant information while highlighting only important data and findings. 

• Include Illustrations

Your research report should include illustrations and other visual representations of your data. Graphs, pie charts, and relevant images lend additional credibility to your systematic investigation.

• Choose the Right Title

A good research report title is brief, precise, and contains keywords from your research. It should provide a clear idea of your systematic investigation so that readers can grasp the entire focus of your research from the title. 

• Proofread the Report

Before publishing the document, ensure that you give it a second look to authenticate the information. If you can, get someone else to go through the report, too, and you can also run it through proofreading and editing software. 

How to Gather Research Data for Your Report  

• Understand the Problem

Every research aims at solving a specific problem or set of problems, and this should be at the back of your mind when writing your research report. Understanding the problem would help you to filter the information you have and include only important data in your report. 

• Know what your report seeks to achieve

This is somewhat similar to the point above because, in some way, the aim of your research report is intertwined with the objectives of your systematic investigation. Identifying the primary purpose of writing a research report would help you to identify and present the required information accordingly. 

• Identify your audience

Knowing your target audience plays a crucial role in data collection for a research report. If your research report is specifically for an organization, you would want to present industry-specific information or show how the research findings are relevant to the work that the company does. 

• Create Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a research method that is used to gather data from a specific group of people through a set of questions. It can be either quantitative or qualitative. 

A survey is usually made up of structured questions, and it can be administered online or offline. However, an online survey is a more effective method of research data collection because it helps you save time and gather data with ease. 

You can seamlessly create an online questionnaire for your research on Formplus . With the multiple sharing options available in the builder, you would be able to administer your survey to respondents in little or no time. 

Formplus also has a report summary too l that you can use to create custom visual reports for your research.

Step-by-step guide on how to create an online questionnaire using Formplus  

• Sign into Formplus

In the Formplus builder, you can easily create different online questionnaires for your research by dragging and dropping preferred fields into your form. To access the Formplus builder, you will need to create an account on Formplus. 

Once you do this, sign in to your account and click on Create new form to begin. 

• Edit Form Title : Click on the field provided to input your form title, for example, “Research Questionnaire.”
• Edit Form : Click on the edit icon to edit the form.
• Add Fields : Drag and drop preferred form fields into your form in the Formplus builder inputs column. There are several field input options for questionnaires in the Formplus builder. 
• Edit fields
• Click on “Save”
• Form Customization: With the form customization options in the form builder, you can easily change the outlook of your form and make it more unique and personalized. Formplus allows you to change your form theme, add background images, and even change the font according to your needs. 
• Multiple Sharing Options: Formplus offers various form-sharing options, which enables you to share your questionnaire with respondents easily. You can use the direct social media sharing buttons to share your form link to your organization’s social media pages.  You can also send out your survey form as email invitations to your research subjects too. If you wish, you can share your form’s QR code or embed it on your organization’s website for easy access. 

Conclusion  

Always remember that a research report is just as important as the actual systematic investigation because it plays a vital role in communicating research findings to everyone else. This is why you must take care to create a concise document summarizing the process of conducting any research. 

In this article, we’ve outlined essential tips to help you create a research report. When writing your report, you should always have the audience at the back of your mind, as this would set the tone for the document. 

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Research report guide: Definition, types, and tips

Last updated

5 March 2024

Reviewed by

From successful product launches or software releases to planning major business decisions, research reports serve many vital functions. They can summarize evidence and deliver insights and recommendations to save companies time and resources. They can reveal the most value-adding actions a company should take.

However, poorly constructed reports can have the opposite effect! Taking the time to learn established research-reporting rules and approaches will equip you with in-demand skills. You’ll be able to capture and communicate information applicable to numerous situations and industries, adding another string to your resume bow.

• What are research reports?

A research report is a collection of contextual data, gathered through organized research, that provides new insights into a particular challenge (which, for this article, is business-related). Research reports are a time-tested method for distilling large amounts of data into a narrow band of focus.

Their effectiveness often hinges on whether the report provides:

Strong, well-researched evidence

Comprehensive analysis

Well-considered conclusions and recommendations

Though the topic possibilities are endless, an effective research report keeps a laser-like focus on the specific questions or objectives the researcher believes are key to achieving success. Many research reports begin as research proposals, which usually include the need for a report to capture the findings of the study and recommend a course of action.

A description of the research method used, e.g., qualitative, quantitative, or other

Statistical analysis

Causal (or explanatory) research (i.e., research identifying relationships between two variables)

Inductive research, also known as ‘theory-building’

Deductive research, such as that used to test theories

Action research, where the research is actively used to drive change

• Importance of a research report

Research reports can unify and direct a company's focus toward the most appropriate strategic action. Of course, spending resources on a report takes up some of the company's human and financial resources. Choosing when a report is called for is a matter of judgment and experience.

Some development models used heavily in the engineering world, such as Waterfall development, are notorious for over-relying on research reports. With Waterfall development, there is a linear progression through each step of a project, and each stage is precisely documented and reported on before moving to the next.

The pace of the business world is faster than the speed at which your authors can produce and disseminate reports. So how do companies strike the right balance between creating and acting on research reports?

The answer lies, again, in the report's defined objectives. By paring down your most pressing interests and those of your stakeholders, your research and reporting skills will be the lenses that keep your company's priorities in constant focus.

Honing your company's primary objectives can save significant amounts of time and align research and reporting efforts with ever-greater precision.

Some examples of well-designed research objectives are:

Proving whether or not a product or service meets customer expectations

Demonstrating the value of a service, product, or business process to your stakeholders and investors

Improving business decision-making when faced with a lack of time or other constraints

Clarifying the relationship between a critical cause and effect for problematic business processes

Prioritizing the development of a backlog of products or product features

Comparing business or production strategies

Evaluating past decisions and predicting future outcomes

• Features of a research report

Research reports generally require a research design phase, where the report author(s) determine the most important elements the report must contain.

Just as there are various kinds of research, there are many types of reports.

Here are the standard elements of almost any research-reporting format:

Report summary. A broad but comprehensive overview of what readers will learn in the full report. Summaries are usually no more than one or two paragraphs and address all key elements of the report. Think of the key takeaways your primary stakeholders will want to know if they don’t have time to read the full document.

Introduction. Include a brief background of the topic, the type of research, and the research sample. Consider the primary goal of the report, who is most affected, and how far along the company is in meeting its objectives.

Methods. A description of how the researcher carried out data collection, analysis, and final interpretations of the data. Include the reasons for choosing a particular method. The methods section should strike a balance between clearly presenting the approach taken to gather data and discussing how it is designed to achieve the report's objectives.

Data analysis. This section contains interpretations that lead readers through the results relevant to the report's thesis. If there were unexpected results, include here a discussion on why that might be. Charts, calculations, statistics, and other supporting information also belong here (or, if lengthy, as an appendix). This should be the most detailed section of the research report, with references for further study. Present the information in a logical order, whether chronologically or in order of importance to the report's objectives.

Conclusion. This should be written with sound reasoning, often containing useful recommendations. The conclusion must be backed by a continuous thread of logic throughout the report.

• How to write a research paper

With a clear outline and robust pool of research, a research paper can start to write itself, but what's a good way to start a research report?

Research report examples are often the quickest way to gain inspiration for your report. Look for the types of research reports most relevant to your industry and consider which makes the most sense for your data and goals.

The research report outline will help you organize the elements of your report. One of the most time-tested report outlines is the IMRaD structure:

Introduction

...and Discussion

Pay close attention to the most well-established research reporting format in your industry, and consider your tone and language from your audience's perspective. Learn the key terms inside and out; incorrect jargon could easily harm the perceived authority of your research paper.

Along with a foundation in high-quality research and razor-sharp analysis, the most effective research reports will also demonstrate well-developed:

Internal logic

Narrative flow

Conclusions and recommendations

Readability, striking a balance between simple phrasing and technical insight

How to gather research data for your report

The validity of research data is critical. Because the research phase usually occurs well before the writing phase, you normally have plenty of time to vet your data.

However, research reports could involve ongoing research, where report authors (sometimes the researchers themselves) write portions of the report alongside ongoing research.

One such research-report example would be an R&D department that knows its primary stakeholders are eager to learn about a lengthy work in progress and any potentially important outcomes.

However you choose to manage the research and reporting, your data must meet robust quality standards before you can rely on it. Vet any research with the following questions in mind:

Does it use statistically valid analysis methods?

Do the researchers clearly explain their research, analysis, and sampling methods?

Did the researchers provide any caveats or advice on how to interpret their data?

Have you gathered the data yourself or were you in close contact with those who did?

Is the source biased?

Usually, flawed research methods become more apparent the further you get through a research report.

It's perfectly natural for good research to raise new questions, but the reader should have no uncertainty about what the data represents. There should be no doubt about matters such as:

Whether the sampling or analysis methods were based on sound and consistent logic

What the research samples are and where they came from

The accuracy of any statistical functions or equations

Validation of testing and measuring processes

When does a report require design validation?

A robust design validation process is often a gold standard in highly technical research reports. Design validation ensures the objects of a study are measured accurately, which lends more weight to your report and makes it valuable to more specialized industries.

Product development and engineering projects are the most common research-report examples that typically involve a design validation process. Depending on the scope and complexity of your research, you might face additional steps to validate your data and research procedures.

If you’re including design validation in the report (or report proposal), explain and justify your data-collection processes. Good design validation builds greater trust in a research report and lends more weight to its conclusions.

Choosing the right analysis method

Just as the quality of your report depends on properly validated research, a useful conclusion requires the most contextually relevant analysis method. This means comparing different statistical methods and choosing the one that makes the most sense for your research.

Most broadly, research analysis comes down to quantitative or qualitative methods (respectively: measurable by a number vs subjectively qualified values). There are also mixed research methods, which bridge the need for merging hard data with qualified assessments and still reach a cohesive set of conclusions.

Some of the most common analysis methods in research reports include:

Significance testing (aka hypothesis analysis), which compares test and control groups to determine how likely the data was the result of random chance.

Regression analysis , to establish relationships between variables, control for extraneous variables , and support correlation analysis.

Correlation analysis (aka bivariate testing), a method to identify and determine the strength of linear relationships between variables. It’s effective for detecting patterns from complex data, but care must be exercised to not confuse correlation with causation.

With any analysis method, it's important to justify which method you chose in the report. You should also provide estimates of the statistical accuracy (e.g., the p-value or confidence level of quantifiable data) of any data analysis.

This requires a commitment to the report's primary aim. For instance, this may be achieving a certain level of customer satisfaction by analyzing the cause and effect of changes to how service is delivered. Even better, use statistical analysis to calculate which change is most positively correlated with improved levels of customer satisfaction.

• Tips for writing research reports

There's endless good advice for writing effective research reports, and it almost all depends on the subjective aims of the people behind the report. Due to the wide variety of research reports, the best tips will be unique to each author's purpose.

Consider the following research report tips in any order, and take note of the ones most relevant to you:

No matter how in depth or detailed your report might be, provide a well-considered, succinct summary. At the very least, give your readers a quick and effective way to get up to speed.

Pare down your target audience (e.g., other researchers, employees, laypersons, etc.), and adjust your voice for their background knowledge and interest levels

For all but the most open-ended research, clarify your objectives, both for yourself and within the report.

Leverage your team members’ talents to fill in any knowledge gaps you might have. Your team is only as good as the sum of its parts.

Justify why your research proposal’s topic will endure long enough to derive value from the finished report.

Consolidate all research and analysis functions onto a single user-friendly platform. There's no reason to settle for less than developer-grade tools suitable for non-developers.

What's the format of a research report?

The research-reporting format is how the report is structured—a framework the authors use to organize their data, conclusions, arguments, and recommendations. The format heavily determines how the report's outline develops, because the format dictates the overall structure and order of information (based on the report's goals and research objectives).

What's the purpose of a research-report outline?

A good report outline gives form and substance to the report's objectives, presenting the results in a readable, engaging way. For any research-report format, the outline should create momentum along a chain of logic that builds up to a conclusion or interpretation.

What's the difference between a research essay and a research report?

There are several key differences between research reports and essays:

Research report:

Ordered into separate sections

More commercial in nature

Often includes infographics

Heavily descriptive

More self-referential

Usually provides recommendations

Research essay

Does not rely on research report formatting

More academically minded

Normally text-only

Less detailed

Omits discussion of methods

Usually non-prescriptive 

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Lecture Notes on Research Methodology

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Sample Design.

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4.1: Common Types of Research Reports and Documents

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Common Types of Research Reports & Documents

Research is central to most work in STEM fields and you may often be required to conduct various types of research as part of your professional life. Lab reports, recommendation reports, proposals, and white papers are just some of the professional documents that rely on research. These are the kinds of documents that can help organizations make decisions, solicit new clients and contracts, and communicate with the public.

For more information on these common types of professional correspondence, see the Workplace Communications chapter.

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Types of Research – Explained with Examples

• By DiscoverPhDs
• October 2, 2020

Types of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it allows research to be verified and replicated.

Knowing the types of research and what each of them focuses on will allow you to better plan your project, utilises the most appropriate methodologies and techniques and better communicate your findings to other researchers and supervisors.

Classification of Types of Research

There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study, analysed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.

According to its Purpose

Theoretical research.

Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge , regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research question.

Results of this kind are usually oriented towards the formulation of theories and are usually based on documentary analysis, the development of mathematical formulas and the reflection of high-level researchers.

Applied Research

Here, the goal is to find strategies that can be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate practical scientific knowledge, and its use is very common in STEM fields such as engineering, computer science and medicine.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

• Technological applied research : looks towards improving efficiency in a particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or machinery related to said productive processes.
• Scientific applied research : has predictive purposes. Through this type of research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behaviours useful to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of commercial projects.

According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory research.

Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be generated.

Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.

Descriptive Research

The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that produce it.

In this type of research, the researcher must take particular care not to intervene in the observed object or phenomenon, as its behaviour may change if an external factor is involved.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.

Correlational Research

The purpose of this type of scientific research is to identify the relationship between two or more variables. A correlational study aims to determine whether a variable changes, how much the other elements of the observed system change.

According to the Type of Data Used

Qualitative research.

Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis, interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.

In order to use statistical methods to validate their results, the observations collected must be evaluated numerically. Qualitative research, however, tends to be subjective, since not all data can be fully controlled. Therefore, this type of research design is better suited to extracting meaning from an event or phenomenon (the ‘why’) than its cause (the ‘how’).

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them . This allows generalised conclusions to be projected over time.

According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables

Experimental research.

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific method.

Non-Experimental Research

Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in descriptive research.

Quasi-Experimental Research

It controls only some variables of the phenomenon under investigation and is therefore not entirely experimental. In this case, the study and the focus group cannot be randomly selected, but are chosen from existing groups or populations . This is to ensure the collected data is relevant and that the knowledge, perspectives and opinions of the population can be incorporated into the study.

According to the Type of Inference

Deductive investigation.

In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions; conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.

Inductive Research

In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalisation. It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.

Hypothetical-Deductive Investigation

It is based on observing reality to make a hypothesis, then use deduction to obtain a conclusion and finally verify or reject it through experience.

According to the Time in Which it is Carried Out

Longitudinal study (also referred to as diachronic research).

It is the monitoring of the same event, individual or group over a defined period of time. It aims to track changes in a number of variables and see how they evolve over time. It is often used in medical, psychological and social areas .

Cross-Sectional Study (also referred to as Synchronous Research)

Cross-sectional research design is used to observe phenomena, an individual or a group of research subjects at a given time.

According to The Sources of Information

Primary research.

This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.

Secondary research

Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by another researcher.

According to How the Data is Obtained

Documentary (cabinet).

Documentary research, or secondary sources, is based on a systematic review of existing sources of information on a particular subject. This type of scientific research is commonly used when undertaking literature reviews or producing a case study.

Field research study involves the direct collection of information at the location where the observed phenomenon occurs.

From Laboratory

Laboratory research is carried out in a controlled environment in order to isolate a dependent variable and establish its relationship with other variables through scientific methods.

Mixed-Method: Documentary, Field and/or Laboratory

Mixed research methodologies combine results from both secondary (documentary) sources and primary sources through field or laboratory research.

The scope of the study is defined at the start of the study. It is used by researchers to set the boundaries and limitations within which the research study will be performed.

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Types of Research Report

Meaning research report.

Research report is simply a structure compilation of data founded by analysist and researcher after concluding their research study. It consists of data that is collected after analyzing a large set of relevant data acquired through surveys and qualitative methods. It is systematic written document that defines key aspects of research project and serves a medium of communicating it with relevant individuals. It is designed in such a way that facilitate the easy understanding of all findings and recommendations to users. Preparation of research report requires a good knowledge, experience, expertise and imagination by individual. A considerable amount of money and time need to be invested for designing a proper report. 

Every research reports comprises of 7 key components. These components are: Research summary, introduction, methodology, results, discussions, references and conclusion.

Research report is mainly of 2 types: Technical report and Popular report.

Technical Report

Technical report is one that is needed where complete written report of research study is needed for the purpose of public dissemination or record-keeping. In these report, data is presented in a simple manner and key results are defined properly. Technical report emphasis on tools used in study, assumptions made and presentation of findings along with their limitation.

Outline of Technical report is: –

• Results Summary- Description of key findings of the study conducted. 
• Nature of Study- Denotes objectives of study, formulating problem on operational basis, hypothesis used for working, type of data needed and kinds of analysis.
• Methods Used- Tools and techniques used for carrying out the study along with their limitations is explained.
• Data- Description of how the data was collected, what are their sources, their characteristics and limitations. 
• Data Analysis and Presenting Findings- It is the main body of report where data is analyzed and finding are presented along with supporting data. Distinct types of tables and charts are used for better explanation.
• Conclusions- Findings are narrated in a detailed manner and implications of policies drawn from results is explained.
• Bibliography- It provide details of distinct sources which were consulted while performing a research.
• Technical Appendices- Technical appendices related to mathematical deviations, questionnaire and analysis technique elaboration.
• Index- It is attached invariably at the report end.

Outline of a Technical report may not be same in all case and may vary in all technical reports.

Popular Report

Popular report is the one that focuses on attractiveness and simplification of data. It is used when its findings will have policy implications. Focus is laid on writing in a clear manner, minimization of technical aspects, using charts and diagrams in liberal and detailed manner. Other key characteristics of popular report are use of many subheadings, large prints and occasional cartoon. Practical emphasis is given more importance in these type of report.

General outline of Popular report is as given below: –

• Findings and Their Implications- Focus is given on practical aspects of findings of study conducted and how these findings are implied.
• Recommendations for Action- This section of report on basis of findings provides recommendations for action.
• Objectives of Study- A description of nature of problem and key objectives of conducting a study are explained here.
• Techniques Used- Review of all tools and techniques employed along with data employed for concluding the study is given in this portion of study. All description is given in non-technical manner.
• Results- It is the main portion of report where all finding are denoted in simplified and non-technical terms. All sorts of illustration like diagrams and charts are used liberally.
• Technical Appendices- Technical appendices provides a detailed informed on different methods used, forms etc. In case, if report is meant for general public then technical appendices is kept precise. 

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Types of Research Report

The reason for the types of research report writing is to communicate to the interested persons the complete result of the study in adequate detail and to settle on him the legality of the conclusions.

As the termination of the research investigation, the types of research report contains a portrayal of different stages of the inspection and the conclusions arrived at. Thus it is the last part of a research bustle that gives an explanation of a long expedition on the pathway of finding a new acquaintance or modified facts.

• Various Types of Research Report

Various Types of Research Report Writing

Types of report in research, types of report writing, characteristics of an effective research report , terminology, notation, and writing style , faqs about research report.

Writing a types of research report is a mechanical task as it requires not only dexterity on the part of the researcher but also extensive effort, endurance, and infiltration, a by and large loom to the problem, data, and analysis along with clutch over language and greater neutrality, all springing from significant contemplation.

Goal-Oriented Research Report

Writing a types of research report writing also occupy adequate planning and a gigantic quantity of research. That apart, the exactness of the types of research report writing is also recognized to the lucidity of thought, imagination, and aptitude of the researcher.

Although a specific standard norm for the organization is not doable, a good report writer should always be cognizant about the valuable and purposeful communication with the social order by conveying the interested persons the complete outcome of the lessons so as to make sure each reader to figure out the data and to allow himself to cognize the strength of the conclusions.

Deliberation of certain questions like who says ‘what is it about’, ‘to whom’, ‘in what manner’, and ‘of what use’ will facilitate the researcher in preparing a regular types of research report writing .

No consistent types of research report writing can be prepared to supply to the needs of different categories of audiences. The report should always integrate the substance which will be of alarm to the objective audience, may that be a researcher of basic research or functional research, practitioners, strategy formulators, funding agents or sponsors, or even the common public. To a report writer, the prima facie task may come into view as an easy matter, but in real terms, this is a phenomenal task as uncertainty about goal-oriented group results in ineffective communication. 

However, different types of Research Reports writing are as follows:-

1. Journal Articles

It is helpful to make acquainted yourself with the diverse types of articles published by journals. Although it may emerge that there are a great number of types of articles published due to the broad assortment of names they are published under, most articles published are one of the following types-  creative Research, evaluation Articles, Short Reports, or Letters, Case Studies, Methodologies.

This is the most widespread type of journal manuscript used to put out full reports of data from research. It may be called an Original Article or Research Article, depending on the journal. The Original Research arrangement is suitable for many unusual fields and different types of studies. It embraces full Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion segments.

These papers converse brief reports of data from original research that editors consider will be motivating to many researchers and that will be liable to encourage further research in the field. As they are comparatively short in size, the set-up is functional for scientists with results that are time responsive. This layout often has firm length limits, so some untried details may not be published in anticipation of the authors write a full Original Research document. These papers are in addition sometimes called Concise Communications .

Review Articles offer a broad abstract of research on a definite topic, and a standpoint on the state of the field and where it is being directed. They are frequently written by leaders in a meticulous discipline after enticement from the editors of a journal. Reviews are often widely read and are exceedingly cited. Reviews generally mention approximately 100 primary examination articles.

These articles account for precise instances of interesting phenomena. A purpose of Case Studies is to make other researchers conscious of the opportunity that an explicit phenomenon might transpire. This type of study is frequently used in medicine to account for the happening of formerly unknown or emerging pathologies.

These articles current a new investigational method, test, or course of action. The method described may either be entirely new or may proffer a better edition of an existing method. The article should portray a verifiable advance on what is presently accessible.

2. Technical Research Reports

One of the major forms of communication in engineering is the scientific report. In the place of work, the report is a real working document written by engineers for clients, executives, and other engineers. This means every testimony has a rationale beyond the simple presentation of information. Some common purposes are to:

• persuade a government agency of the consequence of a particular course of action
• sway a client that your clarification will fulfill their needs
• induce the public that a proposed venture will bring remuneration
• persuade a government or council to approve a particular course of action
• influence a client to prefer one design over another
• plead your case before an organization to partner with your company on a plan

3. Monographs or Books

Research monographs can be reformatted editions of dissertations, theses, or other noteworthy research reports. Monographs are published by academia presses and profitable scholarly publishers.

A summit of distinction is that authors may get a royalty reimbursement for monographs, whereas, for a good number of other research broadcasting, such as journal articles and conference papers, authors do not accept direct payment. 

As a profitable work, a monograph will characteristically be edited to be decipherable to a more universal or specific audience, depending on to whom the publisher will be marketing the book.

The distribution of a research monograph will likely testosterone steroids for sale be individuals with anecdotal levels of proficiency in the field, ranging from students to academics, practitioners to arrange people. When writing, you can presuppose the reader will have some curiosity about the topic, but he or she may not have many milieus in the field.

The required complexity or quality of research of a Monograph can fluctuate by country, university, or program, and the required lowest study period. The word “Monograph” can at times be used to describe a discourse without relation to obtaining an academic extent. The term “Monograph” is also used to pass on to the general state of an essay or analogous work.

4. Professional Meetings

A meeting needs a clear purpose declaration. The exact goal for the specific meeting will evidently relate to the whole goal of the group or committee. Formative your purpose is central to a successful meeting and getting.

A meeting should not be scheduled just because it was held at the same time last month or because it is a standing committee. Members will show antipathy towards the intrusion into their schedules and hastily perceive the short of purpose.

Similarly, if the need for a meeting crops up, one should not dash into it without planning. An inadequately planned meeting announced at the last minute is in no doubt to be less than useful.

People may be powerless to change their schedules, may fall short to concentrate, or may hinder the advancement and debate of the group because of their nonappearance. Those who concentrate may feel stalled because they needed more time to organize and present all-inclusive results to the assemblage or committee.

5. Seminars

A seminar may be defined as an assembly of people for the intention of discussing a stated topic. Such gatherings are typically interactive sessions where the participants fit into place in discussions about the demarcated topic. The sessions are frequently headed or led by one or two presenters who dole out to maneuver the discussion along the preferred conduit.

A seminar may have numerous purposes or just one purpose. For a case in point, a seminar may be for the rationale of education, such as a lecture, where the contributor engages in the discussion of an academic subject for the intention of gaining a superior approach to the subject. Other forms of instructive seminars might be held to notify some skills or acquaintance to the participants. 

6. Symposia

A symposium is a public meeting concerning a theme in which people give presentations. If your knitting club holds a symposium, assorted knitters will give presentations about no matter what has to do with knitting. A symposium can be a one-time consultation or a regular meeting, but it will most likely include some quantity of discussion or public speeches on a picky subject.

Many people who will be present at symposiums will be an ingredient of the audience for numerous of the presentations, but throughout the route of the event, give their own arrangement or be part of a board conversation.

The main dissimilarity between a symposium and a discussion is that a symposium has a propensity to be alike to a conference, but lesser. The definition of a symposium isn’t totally noticeable.

However, similarly to a workshop, a symposium tends to core on a meticulous matter rather than a more general premise. Usually, a number of experts will come together in order to present their ideas and papers to one another.

A symposium is typically completed in a solo day. Symposiums may be more impressive than a conference, with prominence on authority presenting their work and occasionally discussing it afterward (though not to the degree of a seminar). To conclude, symposiums will normally be smaller than a convention or a seminar.

7. Workshops

This is an inventory of our most popular workshop filament. It is suggested that institutions commence with an opening workshop in grave thinking. Any of these strands can be united to focus on the ambition and needs of your institution.

The presenters can converse workshop possibilities with you, and formulate recommendations pedestal to your needs. This is strappingly recommended for those who have not beforehand taken a foundational workshop in significant thinking.

We need to focus, therefore, on teaching students to learn not haphazard bits and pieces of information, but systems, an organized association of concepts, active modes of accepted wisdom.

Each session is designed to construct on the preceding sessions and cultivates mounting knowledge of and skill in critical researches. Explicit topics include the intellectual standards necessary for in-depth, higher-order learning, the essential expressions of critical thinking, the micro-skills and macro-abilities of significant thinking, and the consequence of exactitude in language usage.

Reports in research are recorded data prepared by researchers following the analysis of information gathered by carrying out organized research, on average in the appearance of surveys or qualitative methods. Reports more often than not are spread athwart a cosmic horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information about a scrupulous topic and a very alcove target market. The principal motive of research reports is to put across integral details about a study for marketers to think about while designing new stratagems.

Definite events, facts, and other information based on episodes need to be relayed on to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most successful communication device. Ideal research reports are tremendously accurate in the offered information with a comprehensible intention and conclusion.

There should be a spotless and structured layout for these reports to be valuable in relaying information. Variations of organizational characters and their goals have given birth to various types of research report writing in different categories of research. The types of reports keeping a proper congruency with the type of research fall under the subsequent variations as mentioned below:- 

Research is very important for launching a fresh product/service or a new attribute. The markets today are tremendously impulsive and competitive due to new competitors every day that may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to construct the right decisions at the right time to be germane in such a market with updated products that be adequate customer demands.

The details of a research report may transform with the rationale of research but the main components of a statement will remain invariable. The research comes close to the market researcher also sways the style of writing reports. Here are seven key components of an industrious types of research report writing :

Research Report Summary

The whole purpose along with the general idea of research is to be included in a précis which is a combination of paragraphs in length. All the numerous components of the research are explained in succinct under the report outline. It should be interesting as much as necessary to incarcerate all the key elements of the report.

Research Introduction

There always is a principal goal that the researcher is trying to accomplish through a report. In the overture section, he/she can swathe answers related to this target and establish a hypothesis that will be included to endeavor and answer it in a facet. This section should respond to an integral question: “What is the current situation of the goal?”  Ensuing to the research was conducted, did the organization tops the goal fruitfully or they are unmoving a work in growth; provide such details in the preamble part of the research report.

Research Methodology

This is the most important segment of the report where all the important information lies. The readers can put on data for the topic along with analyzing the eminence of provided satisfied and the research can also be approved by other market researchers. Thus, this piece needs to be vastly informative with each facet of research discussed in detail. Information needs to be expressed in sequential order according to its main concern and import. Researchers should comprise references in case they gained information from nearby techniques.

Research Results

A small narrative of the results the length with calculations conducted to accomplish the goal will form this segment of results. Usually, the description after data investigation is carried out in the debate part of the report.

Research Discussion

The results are discussed in tremendous detail in this sector along with a proportional analysis of reports that could perhaps exist in the same sphere. Any aberration uncovered during the research will be deliberated in the dialogue section. While writing research reports, the researcher will have to unite the dots on how the results will be relevant in the factual world.

Research References and Conclusion

Terminate all the research findings along with mentioning each and every author, piece, or any comfortable piece from where references were taken.

Things to Consider While Writing Report

The final step in the research course is writing the research report. Every step of the process is vital for a legitimate study, as inattention at any stage will concern the quality of not immediately that part but the entire study. In a way, this last step is the nearly all decisive portion as it is throughout the types of report that the findings of the cram and their implication have corresponded to the supervisor and readers.

Most of the researchers will not be responsive to the quantity and quality of work that has gone into the study. While to a great extent hard work and heed may have been put into every phase of the research, all readers distinguish the report specifically out of the whole work. Therefore, the whole venture can be spoiled if the report is not sound. 

In addition to the considerate of research methodology, the eminence of the report depends on winning such things as the written communication skills and lucidity of contemplation, the ability to articulate thoughts in a reasonable and chronological way, and the researcher’s knowledge support of the subject vicinity.

Experience of Investigator

Another chief determinant is the experience of the investigator in research writing: the more experience the researcher gets hold of, the more efficient investigator the person becomes in writing a research report. The use of algebraic procedures further strengthens the potency of the conclusions and points of view as they enable the researcher to set and designate the strength of an association. 

Use of Graphs

The use of graphs to demonstrate the findings, though not indispensable, will make the information more effortlessly understood by the readers. As stated in the preceding chapter, whether or not graphs are used depends ahead on the rationale for which the result is to be used. The main disparity between research and other writings is in the quantity of control, thoroughness and concern required. Research writing is controlled in the wisdom that the researcher needs to be tremendously vigilant about what she writes, the words she opts for, the way she puts across the ideas, and the legality and verifiability of the basis for the conclusions she draws. 

Another significant parameter that discerns research writing from other writing is the towering degree of scholarly severity required. Research writing must be completely accurate, lucid, free of haziness, logical, and brief. Report writing should not be based upon suppositions about knowledge of the readers about the study. One should bear in mind that she must be able to preserve whatever she writes. A Research Report should not contain any ornamental and shallow language. Even the best researchers make a number of summaries before writing up their ultimate one.

Communication of Findings

The way findings are communicated differs in quantitative and qualitative research. As mentioned earlier, in qualitative research the findings are mostly communicated in evocative or narrative set-up written around the major themes, events, or discourses that come out from the research findings. The main intention is to describe the discrepancy in a phenomenon, circumstances, event, or chapter without making an endeavor to quantify the difference.

One of the ways of the inscription of a qualitative report can be described parallel to the data analysis process, in one hand. On the other hand, the writing in the research leaned toward quantitative data, in the count to being descriptive, also includes its quantification. Depending upon the idea of the study, statistical procedures and tests can also turn into a part of the research writing to bear the findings.

Chapterization

To develop an outline before beginning the research report is crucial. This involves a process of decision making how a researcher is going to divide her report into different chapters and also planning the elementary content of each chapter. In developing Chapterization, the sub-objectives of the study or the major noteworthy themes that emerged from the substantial analysis can make available massive supervision. 

It is vital to develop the chapters around more or less the significant sub-objectives or themes of the aspired study. Depending upon the weight of a premise, either the researcher needs to devote a complete chapter to it or merge it with related themes to structure one chapter. 

As the methodology is concerned, the first chapter of the research report should be a general introduction to the study, covering the majority of the research project tender and pointing out the deviations, if any, from the novel plan. 

Realistic Report

All the facts and information presented in the research report not only have to be bias-free, but they also have to be 100% truthful. Proof-reading and fact-checking is constantly what you do as a thumb rule prior to submitting a report. Reports are written with much scrutiny. The purpose of report writing is indispensable to notify the reader about an issue, minus one’s estimation on the topic. It’s basically a rendering of facts, as it is.

Even if one gives conjecture, firm analysis, charts, tables, and  data  are provided. In many cases, what is required is your proposition for an unambiguous case after a realistic report. That depends on why you are writing the report and who you are writing it for in the primary place. Knowing your audience’s purpose for asking for that report is very imperative as it sets the track of the facts alerted on your report.

Based on some special characteristics, a writing style of a report can be of a definite kind. For example, familiar reports in the office recognized contexts may not be apposite. In that case, even if your report is on the summit and the best, just the structure or format or language could effort against the report.

All Types of Writing Style of Research Reports and their Explanation

Long Report and Short Reports

These kinds of reports are fairly clear, as the name suggests. A two-page report or from time to time referred to as a memorandum is petite, and a thirty-page report is utterly long. But what makes a clear splitting up of short reports or long reports can be observed by that longer reports are by and large written in a formal style.

Internal and External Reports

As the forename suggests, an in-house report stays within a definite organization or faction of people. In the case of office scenery, internal reports are for within the institute. We get ready with the external reports, such as a news report in the newspaper about a happening or the yearly reports of companies for distribution exterior to the organization. We also call these public reports.

Vertical and Lateral Reports

This is about the pecking order of the reports’ definitive target. If the report is for your administration or for your mentees, it’s a perpendicular report. Wherever a track of upwards or downwards comes into the suggestion, we call it a vertical report. Lateral reports, on the other hand, lend a hand in harmonization within the organization.  A report traveling flanked by units of the identical organization level is a lateral report.

Periodic Reports

Periodic reports are sent out on frequently pre-scheduled dates. In most cases, their route is aloft and serves as running control by the management. Some, like annual reports, is not upright but is a Government authorization to be periodic in character.

Formal and Informal Reports

Formal reports are scrupulously structured. They have a focal point on detachment and organization, enclose a deeper aspect, and the writer must write them in a style that abolishes factors like personal pronouns. Informal reports are frequently short messages with free-flowing, relaxed use of language. We commonly describe the domestic report/memorandum as an informal report.

Informational and Analytical Reports

Informational reports such as attendance reports, annual budget reports, monthly financial reports, etc. lug intentional information from one area of an organization to maybe a superior system. Analytical reports like scientific research, feasibility reports, and employee assessment show attempts to resolve genuine problems. These analytical reports usually necessitate suggestions at the closing stages.

Proposal Reports

These kinds of reports are like a lean-to to the analytical or problem-solving reports. A pitch is a document one prepares to portray how one organization can offer a way out to a problem they are facing. There is habitually always a call to arrange a report in a trade set-up. The end target is usually very solution-tilting. Therefore, we call such kinds of reports as proposal reports.

Functional Reports

These kinds of reports comprise marketing reports, fiscal reports, accounting reports, and a range of other reports that supply a function solely. By and large, we can contain almost all reports in most of these categories. Moreover, we can embrace a particular report on numerous kinds of reports

Types of Research Report writing with Example

This section is intended to facilitate researchers to write more efficient and more readable research reports. It will be helpful to people who are in general good writers but have slight or no familiarity with writing different types of the research reports; may also be cooperative to people who are experienced at writing this category of research report but whose reports are not as decipherable and effective as they might be.

It also focuses on the problems that take place in the writing of a fastidious type of research report. Many people who inscribe reports of experimental research studies also write theoretical papers, methodological papers, spot papers, book reviews, or other types of piece of writing. Therefore, this concluding section is aimed to be a compendium of supportive instruction. 

An effective Types of research report writing has the following 4 distinctiveness:

• Focus : It emphasizes the imperative information. 
• Accuracy : It does not deceive the reader. 
• Clarity : It does not baffle the reader. 
• Conciseness : It does not fritter away the reader’s time. 

The research report helps your table and carry out the study because it compels you to imagine systematically about what you want the study to achieve. You can commence writing the introductory segment of the report as soon as you have determined on the universal approach your study will go after. You can start writing the results piece of the report before you draw to a close analyzing the data. The decisions you build in creating these tables and figures will facilitate you to choose how to analyze your data.

Terminology must be chosen to maintain the degree of your target readers’ understandings. Types of research report writing comprise technical terms. Before you start writing the report, make a decision on who your intended readers are. If you don’t know whether those readers will be recognizable with the technical terms you propose to use, make an attempt to discover that out.  Moreover, you need to avoid labels that have overloaded meaning which implies to the labels that incorporate more information than the dimension of the patchy data actually provides. 

You also need to avoid using terms like Type I blunder and Type II inaccuracy. When readers see a recognizable term, they anticipate that term to have its common meaning. If the meaning you propose is not exactly identical to the usual meaning of the term, the readers will be baffled. Therefore, it is better to use a dissimilar term. If you bring in a new term, make certain the readers appreciate the appropriate meaning of that term. 

In this article, we’ll answer some frequently asked questions about research reports to help you better understand how to write and format them effectively.

A report is a given written version of “somewhat that one has pragmatically witnessed, heard, done, or explored”.

An interesting topic and solid thesis; Good structure and organization; Referenced supporting ideas; Strong claims and arguments; Correct grammar and spelling.

A good way to improve your writing skills is by reading and using other reports as a model of how yours should look like. Seeing different writing styles will help you to develop your own.

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Types of Research

Apr 01, 2019

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Types of Research. The types of research are determined by the aims of the researcher. A. Based on the Researcher’s Objective. Pure Research when the research is conducted solely to come up with new knowledge or to have a fuller understanding of a particular subject. Applied Research

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Types of Research The types of research are determined by the aims of the researcher.

A. Based on the Researcher’s Objective Pure Research when the research is conducted solely to come up with new knowledge or to have a fuller understanding of a particular subject. Applied Research If the research is done to find an application of the knowledge whether new or old.

B. Based on the conditions under which the study is conducted Descriptive Research type of research that observes and records the changes as they happen in nature. The changes are can’t be manipulated. Experimental Research In its simplest form, experimental research involves comparing two groups on one outcome measure to test some hypothesis regarding causation.

Finding a Topic • People, places and objects around you are possible sources of your research. • The communities where you live are also rich sources of research topics. • It would also be helpful to talk to scientists, researchers or teachers by visiting them in their places of work.

List of Topics • Alternative or nonconventional sources of energy. • Botanical pesticides • Control of environmental pollution • Product development • Food processing • Herbal medicine (antimicrobial property) • Computer science • Biodegradable plastic

Getting Essential Informationfrom Print Sources • Make a list of 5 possible places where you might find as much information about your topic as you can. Public Library Local College or University Public Hospitals Pharmaceutical Companies Research Institution (RITM)

Understanding Printed Sources • Printed material generally includes books, newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, or excerpts of essays—in other words, any written material on your topic. These printed materials are usually grouped into two categories: primary & secondary sources

Primary Sources • All primary source materials are firsthand accounts of circumstances by individuals who are directly involved or have experienced what they are writing about firsthand.

Secondary Sources • Books • magazine articles • pamphlets by authors

Getting Essential Informationfrom Online Sources • Rather than having to go to a library or other institution to seek out and investigate your sources, the Internet brings them to you. You should know that some Internet sites and search engines are better than others.

Citing ReferenceSources? “Borrowed thoughts, like borrowed money, only show the poverty of the borrower.” MARGUERITE CJARDINER

What is Plagiarism? Plagiarism is the technical term for using someone else's words without giving adequate credit.

When and How to Cite the Reference Sources • When you write your research paper you might want to copy words, pictures, diagrams, or ideas from one of your sources. It is OK to copy such information as long as you reference it with a citation.

When and How to Cite the Reference Sources • For a science fair project, a reference citation (a.k.a. author-date citation) is an accepted way to reference information you copy.

How to Cite the Reference Sources • Make sure that the source for every citation item copied appears in your bibliography. • Simply put the author's last name, the year of publication, and page number (if needed) in parentheses after the information you copy. • Place the reference citation at the end of the sentence but before the final period.

Examples of Reference Citations using APA Format (American Psychological Association) • "If you copy a sentence from a book or magazine article by a single author, the reference will look like this. A comma separates the page number (or numbers) from the year" (Bloggs, 2002, p. 37).

Examples of Reference Citations using APA Format • "If you copy a sentence from a book or magazine article by more than one author, the reference will look like this" (Bloggs & Smith, 2002, p. 37).

Examples of Reference Citations using APA Format • "Sometimes the author will have two publications in your bibliography for just one year. In that case, the first publication would have an 'a' after the publication year, the second a 'b', and so on. The reference will look like this" (Nguyen, 2000b).

Examples of Reference Citations using APA Format • "When the author is unknown, the text reference for such an entry may substitute the title, or a shortened version of the title for the author" (The Chicago Manual, 1993). • "For reference citations, only direct quotes need page numbers" (Han, 1995).

Remember… • Plagiarismis when someone copies the words, pictures, diagrams, or ideas of someone else and presents them as his or her own. • When you find information in a book, on the Internet, or from some other source, you MUST give the author of that information credit in a citation. • If you copy a sentence or paragraph exactly, you should also use quotation marks around the text.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format • Your list of works cited should begin at the end of the paper on a new page with the centered title, References. • Alphabetize the entries in your list by the author's last name, using the letter-by-letter system (ignore spaces and other punctuation.) • Only the initials of the first and middle names are given. • If the author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any A, An, or The.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Underlining or Italics? • When reports were written on typewriters, the names of publications were underlined because most typewriters had no way to print italics. • If you write a bibliography by hand, you should still underline the names of publications. But, if you use a computer, then publication names should be in italics as they are below.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format • If there is more than one author, use an ampersand (&) before the name of the last author. • If there are more than six authors, list only the first one and use et al. for the rest. • Place the date of publication in parentheses immediately after the name of the author. • Place a period after the closing parenthesis.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Books Format:Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Book title. Additional information. City of publication: Publishing company. Examples: • Allen, T. (1974). Vanishing wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. • Boorstin, D. (1992). The creators: A history of the heroes of the imagination. New York: Random House. • Searles, B., & Last, M. (1979). A reader's guide to science fiction. New York: Facts on File, Inc.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Encyclopedia & Dictionary Format:Author's last name, first initial. (Date). Title of Article. Title of Encyclopedia (Volume, pages). City of publication: Publishing company. Examples: • Bergmann, P. G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopedia britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. • Merriam-Webster's collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster. • Pettingill, O. S., Jr. (1980). Falcon and Falconry. World book encyclopedia. (pp. 150-155). Chicago: World Book.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Magazine & Newspaper Articles Format:Author's last name, first initial. (Publication date). Article title. Periodical title, volume number(issue number if available), inclusive pages. Note: Do not enclose the title in quotation marks. Put a period after the title. If a periodical includes a volume number, italicize it and then give the page range (in regular type) without "pp." If the periodical does not use volume numbers, as in newspapers, use p. or pp. for page numbers. Note: Unlike other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page numbers for a newspaper reference in APA style.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Magazine & Newspaper Examples: • Harlow, H. F. (1983). Fundamentals for preparing psychology journal articles. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 55, 893-896. • Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31. • Kalette, D. (1986, July 21). California town counts town to big quake. USA Today, 9, p. A1. • Kanfer, S. (1986, July 21). Heard any good books lately? Time, 113, 71-72.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Website or Webpage Format:Online periodical:Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of Periodical, volume number, Retrieved month day, year, from full URL Online document:Author's name. (Date of publication). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from full URL Note: When citing Internet sources, refer to the specific website document. If a document is undated, use "n.d." (for no date) immediately after the document title. Break a lengthy URL that goes to another line after a slash or before a period. Continually check your references to online documents. There is no period following a URL. Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available.

Writing a Bibliography: APA Format Examples of Website or web page references: • Devitt, T. (2001, August 2). Lightning injures four at music festival. The Why? Files. Retrieved January 23, 2002, from http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html • Dove, R. (1998). Lady freedom among us. The Electronic Text Center. Retrieved June 19, 1998, from Alderman Library, University of Virginia website: http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html

Reference citation using M.l.a. format (Modern language association)

MLA Documentation

Writing a Bibliography: MLA Format • Your list of works cited should begin at the end of the paper on a new page with the centered title, Works Cited. • Alphabetize the entries in your list by the author's last name, using the letter-by-letter system (ignore spaces and other punctuation.) • If the author's name is unknown, alphabetize by the title, ignoring any A, An, or The.

Capitalization, Abbreviation, and Punctuation • The MLA guidelines specify using title case capitalization - capitalize the first words, the last words, and all principal words, including those that follow hyphens in compound terms. Use lowercase abbreviations to identify the parts of a work (e.g., vol. for volume, ed. for editor) except when these designations follow a period.

Capitalization, Abbreviation, and Punctuation • Separate author, title, and publication information with a period followed by one space. Use a colon and a space to separate a title from a subtitle. Include other kinds of punctuation only if it is part of the title. Use quotation marks to indicate the titles of short works appearing within larger works (e.g., "Memories of Childhood." American Short Stories). Also use quotation marks for titles of unpublished works and songs.

Writing a Bibliography: MLA Format Underlining or Italics? • When reports were written on typewriters, the names of publications were underlined because most typewriters had no way to print italics. If you write a bibliography by hand, you should still underline the names of publications. But, if you use a computer, then publication names should be in italics as they are below.

MLA Format Samples Books Format:Author's last name, first name. Book title. Additional information. City of publication: Publishing company, publication date. Examples: • De Vera, Jaime S. Vanishing Wildlife of North America. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 1974. • Boorstin, Daniel J. The Creators: A History of the Heroes of the Imagination. New York: Random, 1992.

MLA Format Samples Encyclopedia & Dictionary Format:Author's last name, first name. "Title of Article." Title of Encyclopedia. Date. Note: If the dictionary or encyclopedia arranges articles alphabetically, you may omit volume and page numbers. Examples: • Pettingill, Olin Sewall, Jr. "Falcon and Falconry." World Book Encyclopedia. 1980. • Tobias, Richard. "Thurber, James." Encyclopedia Americana. 1991 ed.

MLA Format Samples Magazine & Newspaper Articles Format:Author's last name, first name. "Article title." Periodical title Volume # Date: inclusive pages. Examples: • Kanfer, Stefan. "Heard Any Good Books Lately?" Time 113 21 July 1986: 71-72. • Trillin, Calvin. "Culture Shopping." New Yorker 15 Feb. 1993: 48-51.

MLA Format Samples Website or Webpage Format:Author's last name, first name (if available). "Title of work within a project or database." Title of site, project, or database. Editor (if available). Electronic publication information (Date of publication or of the latest update, and name of any sponsoring institution or organization). Date of access and <full URL>. Note: If you cannot find some of this information, cite what is available. Examples: • Devitt, Terry. "Lightning injures four at music festival." The Why? Files. 2 Aug. 2001. 23 Jan. 2002 <http://whyfiles.org/137lightning/index.html>. • Dove, Rita. "Lady Freedom among Us." The Electronic Text Center. Ed. David Seaman. 1998. Alderman Lib., U of Virginia. 19 June 1998 <http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/subjects/afam.html>.

THINGS TO CONSIDER IN DOING S.I.P.

Plan Your Project Success Calendar Planned Date Date Completed 1. Choosing a topic (2-5 days) ____________ ______________ 2. Collecting background information ____________ ______________ (1-3 weeks) 3. Problem and hypothesis (1-4 days) ____________ ______________ 4. Design for experiment (1 week) ____________ ______________ 5. Getting materials ready for ____________ ______________ experiment (1 week) 6. Making the data table (1-2 weeks) ____________ ______________ 7. Recording in the data table ____________ ______________ (1-2 weeks) 8. Stating results (1 week) ____________ _____________ 9. Drawing conclusions (1 week) ____________ ______________ 10. Compiling a bibliography (2-3days) ____________ ______________ 11. Making the display (1-2 weeks) ____________ ______________

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7 facts about americans and taxes.

Spring reliably brings a whirlwind of number-crunching and form-filing as Americans finish their tax returns. Altogether, the IRS expects to process more than 160 million individual and business tax returns this season.

Ahead of Tax Day on April 15, here are seven facts about Americans and federal taxes, drawn from Pew Research Center surveys and analyses of federal data.

Ahead of Tax Day 2024, Pew Research Center sought to understand Americans’ views of the federal tax system and outline some of its features.

The public opinion data in this analysis comes from Pew Research Center surveys. Links to these surveys, including details about their methodologies, are available in the text.

The external data comes from the U.S. Office of Management and Budget and the IRS Data Book . Data is reported by fiscal year, which for the federal government begins Oct. 1 and ends Sept. 30. For example, fiscal 2024 began Oct. 1, 2023, and ends Sept. 30, 2024.

A majority of Americans feel that corporations and wealthy people don’t pay their fair share in taxes, according to a Center survey from spring 2023 . About six-in-ten U.S. adults say they’re bothered a lot by the feeling that some corporations (61%) and some wealthy people (60%) don’t pay their fair share.

Democrats are far more likely than Republicans to feel this way. Among Democrats and Democratic-leaning independents, about three-quarters say they’re bothered a lot by the feeling that some corporations (77%) and some wealthy people (77%) don’t pay their fair share. Much smaller shares of Republicans and GOP leaners share these views (46% say this about corporations and 43% about the wealthy).

Meanwhile, about two-thirds of Americans (65%) support raising tax rates on large businesses and corporations, and a similar share (61%) support raising tax rates on households with annual incomes over $400,000. Democrats are much more likely than Republicans to say these tax rates should increase.

Just over half of U.S. adults feel they personally pay more than what is fair, considering what they get in return from the federal government, according to the same survey.

This sentiment has grown more widespread in recent years: 56% of Americans now say they pay more than their fair share in taxes, up from 49% in 2021. Roughly a third (34%) say they pay about the right amount, and 8% say they pay less than their fair share.

Republicans are more likely than Democrats to say they pay more than their fair share (63% vs. 50%), though the share of Democrats who feel this way has risen since 2021. (The share among Republicans is statistically unchanged from 2021.)

Many Americans are frustrated by the complexity of the federal tax system, according to the same survey. About half (53%) say its complexity bothers them a lot. Of the aspects of the federal tax system that we asked about, this was the top frustration among Republicans – 59% say it bothers them a lot, compared with 49% of Democrats.

Undeniably, the federal tax code is a massive document, and it has only gotten longer over time. The printed 2022 edition of the Internal Revenue Code clocks in at 4,192 pages, excluding front matter. Income tax law alone accounts for over half of those pages (2,544).

The public is divided in its views of the IRS. In a separate spring 2023 Center survey , 51% of Americans said they have an unfavorable opinion of the government tax agency, while 42% had a favorable view of the IRS. Still, of the 16 federal agencies and departments we asked about, the IRS was among the least popular on the list.

Views of the IRS differ greatly by party:

• Among Republicans, 29% have a favorable view and 64% have an unfavorable view.
• Among Democrats, it’s 53% favorable and 40% unfavorable.

On balance, Democrats offer much more positive opinions than Republicans when it comes to most of the federal agencies we asked about. Even so, the IRS ranks near the bottom of their list.

Individual income taxes are by far the government’s largest single source of revenue, according to estimates from the Office of Management and Budget (OMB).

The federal government expects to collect about $2.5 trillion in individual income taxes in fiscal year 2024. That accounts for nearly half (49%) of its total estimated receipts for the year. The next largest chunk comes from Social Security taxes (including those for disability and retirement programs), which are projected to pull in $1.2 trillion this fiscal year (24%).

By comparison, corporate income taxes are estimated to bring in $612.8 billion, or 12% of this fiscal year’s federal receipts. And excise taxes – which include things like transportation trust fund revenue and taxes on alcohol, tobacco and crude oil – are expected to come to $99.7 billion, or 2% of receipts.

American tax dollars mostly go to social services. Human services – including education, health, Social Security, Medicare, income security and veterans benefits – together will account for 66% ($4.6 trillion) of federal government spending in fiscal 2024, according to OMB estimates.

An estimated 13% ($907.7 billion) will go toward defense spending. Another 13% ($888.6 billion) will repay net interest on government debt, and 10% ($726.9 billion) will fund all other functions, including energy, transportation, agriculture and more.

Related: 6 facts about Americans’ views of government spending and the deficit

The vast majority of Americans e-file their taxes, according to IRS data . In fiscal 2022, 150.6 million individual federal income tax returns were filed electronically, accounting for 94% of all individual filings that year.

Unsurprisingly, e-filing has become more popular since the turn of the century. Fiscal 2000, the earliest year for which comparable data is available, saw 35.4 million individual income tax returns filed electronically (including those filed over the phone). These accounted for just 28% of individual filings that year.

By fiscal 2005, more than half of individual income tax returns (52%) were filed electronically.

Note: This is an update combining information from two posts originally published in 2014 and 2015.

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Top tax frustrations for Americans: The feeling that some corporations, wealthy people don’t pay fair share

Growing partisan divide over fairness of the nation’s tax system, public has mixed expectations for new tax law, most popular.

About Pew Research Center Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of The Pew Charitable Trusts .

Voice of the US farmer 2023–24: Farmers seek path to scale sustainably

Since 2018, McKinsey has gone into the field to better understand farmers’ mindsets. Following our publication of “Global Farmer Insights 2022,” 1 “ Global Farmer Insights 2022 ,” McKinsey, accessed March 29, 2024. we surveyed nearly 500 US farmers in 2023 to learn about their profitability, outlook on purchasing decisions, and adoption of sustainability practices and agtech solutions. 2 Survey conducted in fourth quarter 2023. There were 485 responses through computer-assisted web interviewing. Farmers surveyed included row- and specialty-crop operations with a farm-size distribution of 60 percent with less than 1,000 acres, 33 percent with 1,000 to 5,000 acres, and 7 percent with more than 5,000 acres. The 2023 survey found that despite recent supply chain disruptions, price volatility, and inflation, many farmers are investing in adopting sustainable-farming practices and technology solutions.

The sustainable-farming environment is rapidly evolving

Sustainable-farming practices are necessary to meet decarbonization goals and broader environmental targets. 3 The US Department of Agriculture (USDA) defines sustainable agriculture as “farming in such a way to protect the environment, aid and expand natural resources, and to make the best use of nonrenewable resources.” “Sustainability agriculture,” National Agricultural Library, accessed March 29, 2024. Agriculture accounts for nearly a quarter of global emissions, 4 Climate change 2022: Mitigation of climate change: Summary for policymakers , Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2022. and it was identified as the industry that contributes the most to exceeding planetary boundaries in McKinsey’s 2022 report Nature in the balance . 5 Nature in the balance: What companies can do to restore natural capital , McKinsey, December 5, 2022.

About the authors

Governments, investors, and companies are taking action to promote change. For example, the US Department of Agriculture’s mandatory budget in 2023 included an estimated $7 billion dedicated to conservation, with an additional $17 billion in conservation funding mandated by the Inflation Reduction Act through 2031. 6 “CBO’s February 2023 baseline for farm programs,” Congressional Budget Office, February 2023; FY 2024 budget summary , US Department of Agriculture, 2024. Furthermore, many agriculture players and consumer goods companies have committed to regenerative farming and deforestation-free supply chains.

However, average 2021–22 global finance flows for agriculture were only $43 billion, compared with $515 billion for energy systems and $336 billion for transport. 7 Barbara Buchner et al., “Global landscape of climate finance 2023,” Climate Policy Initiative, November 2, 2023. And adoption of sustainable-farming practices is not increasing fast enough to meet the sustainability goals of food processors and consumer goods companies.

In 2022, we released The agricultural transition: Building a sustainable future , 8 The agricultural transition: Building a sustainable future , McKinsey, June 27, 2023. a report that examined on-farm decarbonization measures and laid out a path to meet decarbonization targets. As a part of our fourth quarter 2023 survey, we explored a selection of these and other practices to better understand farmer adoption and opportunities to scale it in the United States.

Adoption of sustainable-farming practices is growing, but penetration remains low

Although 90 percent of farmers expressed awareness of the selected sustainable-farming practices, holistic adoption remains low. While more than 68 percent of farmers surveyed have adopted reduced- or no-till practices, only about half are using variable-rate fertilizer application and 35 percent are using controlled-irrigation practices.

Sustainable-farming practices that require behavioral changes in agriculture lead the way in adoption (for example, reducing or eliminating tillage), followed by practices that require product changes, such as nitrogen stabilizers or inhibitors. Practices that require changes in equipment tend to have the lowest adoption levels (Exhibit 1).

Many farmers are adopting sustainable-farming practices, but they are implementing them on only a small share of their acreage—generally less than 30 percent. There is an opportunity to increase acreage penetration among current users, especially for practices such as cover cropping and use of biologicals.

There are further opportunities to increase overall adoption by educating farmers on newer practices and convincing farmers who have heard of but not used the practices to give them a try. For example, 74 percent of farmers said they had heard of on-farm renewable energy, but only 13 percent have adopted it and only 7 percent are planning to adopt it in the next two years. Furthermore, 16 percent of farmers said they had not heard of biologicals, and 46 percent had not heard of biochar as a fertilizer.

Specialty-crop farmers are leading the way on adoption of most sustainability practices (Exhibit 2). Adoption is at least 20 percent greater among specialty-crop farmers for half of the practices surveyed. For example, biologicals adoption is 11 percentage points higher for specialty crops than for row crops; 20 percent of specialty farmers said they have adopted on-farm renewable-energy generation compared with 11 percent of row-crop farmers. Moreover, a greater percentage of specialty-crop farmers said they plan to implement sustainability practices in the next two years compared with row-crop farmers.

Practice adoption is correlated with perceived ROI

Farmers adopting sustainable-farming practices say they expect a positive ROI. Adoption of practices is highly correlated with farmers’ perceived ROI. Practices with the highest perceived ROI, such as applying fertilizer based on soil sampling, reducing or eliminating tillage, and implementing variable-rate fertilization, also have the highest rates of adoption (Exhibit 3).

Farmers expect many of the practices to have positive long-term benefits, such as a 3 to 5 percent yield rise and higher land value. However, farmers said they expect costs to remain 1 to 3 percent higher for most practices after more than five years of adoption. The ROI on adoption of sustainable-farming practices is complex and depends on a combination of factors including crop yield, crop prices, land value, and input, labor, and equipment costs. Although farmers said they generally expect the use of sustainable-farming practices to raise their costs, they also expect this increase to pay dividends in higher crop yield, land value appreciation, and better crop pricing.

For example, surveyed farmers who grow cover crops said they are experiencing or expect to experience a 3 percent increase in crop yield, a 2 percent increase in crop prices, and a 3 percent increase in land value on average. They are also experiencing or expect to experience a 2 percent increase in input, labor, and equipment costs on average, but they expect the benefits to outweigh these costs. Notably, for some practices, such as reducing or eliminating tillage, farmers expect both revenue increases (through increased yields) and cost reductions.

There are a variety of barriers to adoption

Small and large farms face different barriers in adopting sustainable-farming practices. However, compensation is a major obstacle to implementation for farms of all sizes (Exhibit 4). For example, 51 percent of medium-size and large farms with more than 1,000 acres and 39 percent of small farms identified obtaining a market premium (higher price) for sustainably grown crops or commodities as a top barrier to adoption. Moreover, 45 percent of medium-size and large farms see generating additional revenue from sustainability assets (for example, carbon credits) as their biggest barrier to adoption. Farmers with less than 1,000 acres are far more likely than those with bigger holdings to face challenges in implementing sustainable-farming practices (for example, operational barriers).

The most attractive incentives to unlock the transition to sustainable-farming practices vary by farm size (Exhibit 5). Representatives of medium-size and large farms with more than 1,000 acres said that certainty on operational benefits and reliable information on expected ROI are key. On the other hand, small farms with less than 1,000 acres highlighted the availability of financial incentives and assurance of a green premium (higher price) as the top two factors necessary to promote adoption. Overall, farmers are focused on gaining confidence in the economic benefits of sustainable-farming practices before making the full transition.

Across the board, both small and large farmers highlighted crop and commodity premiums from buyers of sustainable crops as the most attractive financial lever to increase adoption of sustainable-farming practices. Generating long-term and reliable sources of economic benefit may be key to driving additional adoption.

Government programs have seen greater participation than industry programs

Government-led programs designed to boost adoption of sustainable practices have substantially greater participation among farmers than industry programs do. These initiatives, such as the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), are helping to spur adoption among farmers.

Of surveyed farmers, 57 percent said they were participating in a government program, while only 4 percent were participating in an industry-sponsored program, including the more than 15 carbon programs launched since 2016. 9 Lisa Moore et al., Agricultural carbon programs: From program chaos to systems change , American Farmland Trust, August 19, 2023. Adoption of sustainable-farming practices was at least 20 percent greater among government program participants than among those not enrolled in any program for ten of the 13 surveyed practices (Exhibit 6). This could indicate that government programs are driving adoption and that continued programmatic support from governments and industry players may encourage more farmers to transition to sustainable-farming practices.

Industry players can take steps to support farmers

As the importance of sustainable-farming grows, winning players will partner with farmers to support them in growth and innovation. To do so, industry participants could consider the following:

• reassessing the share of value captured by the farmer and bringing transparency to consumers about the “true cost of food”
• building sustainability programs and making them accessible; practice adoption is higher among participants in programs, but most of these are small scale today
• investing in education to help farmers overcome operational challenges and generate further data points on yield and cost benefits, especially for less-adopted practices
• collaborating with smaller and specialty-crop farmers in the near term, as these farmers are more willing to adopt most practices in the next two years
• continuing to evolve and grow nutrient-related programs, such as applying variable-rate fertilizer; most farmers view these practices as ROI positive, but only about half have adopted them and only in a part of their acreage

Many agriculture players are making commitments to sustainable farming in response to the sector’s large emissions footprint. But the transition to sustainably produced food depends on changing farmers’ behaviors and operational decisions. Our survey suggests that agriculture ecosystem players should consider how they can meet farmers’ expressed need for compensation for investments in sustainable-farming practices and provide reliable information about practice implementation and operational benefits.

David Fiocco is a senior partner in McKinsey’s Minneapolis office, Vasanth Ganesan is a partner in the New York office, Maria Garcia de la Serrana Lozano is an associate partner in the San Francisco office, and Julia Kalanik and Wilson Roen are consultants in the Chicago office.

The authors wish to thank Rui Chen, Raissa Dantas, Emma Galeucia, David Greenawalt, Emmanuel Mwaka, and Asha Sharma for their contributions to this article.

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