skin essay questions

Critical Thinking Questions

What determines the color of skin, and what is the process that darkens skin when it is exposed to UV light?

Cells of the epidermis derive from stem cells of the stratum basale. Describe how the cells change as they become integrated into the different layers of the epidermis.

Explain the differences between eccrine and apocrine sweat glands.

Describe the structure and composition of nails.

Why do people sweat excessively when exercising outside on a hot day?

Explain your skin’s response to a drop in body core temperature.

Why do teenagers often experience acne?

Why do scars look different from surrounding skin?

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Skin histology

Author: Lorenzo Crumbie, MBBS, BSc • Reviewer: Uruj Zehra, MBBS, MPhil, PhD Last reviewed: July 31, 2023 Reading time: 26 minutes

This article will describe the anatomy and histology of the skin.

Undoubtedly, the skin is the largest organ in the human body; literally covering you from head to toe. The organ constitutes almost 8-20% of body mass and has a surface area of approximately 1.6 to 1.8 m2, in an adult. It is comprised of three major layers : epidermis , dermis and hypodermis, which contain certain sublayers.

Owing to variations in height and weight, the surface area of the skin may vary based on these parameters. The surface of the skin is a parameter that is often used in determining the therapeutic dose for various medications.

Gross anatomy

Dermatology nomenclature, desquamation imbalance.

Without the skin, humans would be susceptible to a myriad of pathologies. The organ acts as a protective barrier that limits the migration of microbes and chemicals into the body. Additionally, it plays an integral role in thermoregulation as it participates in evaporation in hyperthermic environments. Furthermore, neurons in the skin detect sensory input that helps with interacting with the environment. In the absence of this organ , the cellular water content would dramatically decrease as there would be no membrane to limit the loss of water from the exposed cells . Also, the subcutaneous tissue would be exposed to harmful ultraviolet light that enters the planet’s atmosphere.

For more articles, videos, quizzes, and illustrated diagrams about the skin, check out our study unit.

There are three general layers of the skin, and from superficial to deep, they are the epidermis, dermis and hypodermis. Each layer can be further subdivided into their own constituent regions.

The epidermis is the uppermost layer of the skin. Going from deep to superficial, it consists of five layers;

• basal layer (stratum basale/germinativum)
• prickle cell layer (stratum spinosum)
• granular layer (stratum granulosum)
• clear layer (stratum lucidum)
• cornified layer (stratum corneum)

To remember these layers, check out this mnemonics video:

The prickle cell and basal layers are collectively referred to as the Malpighian layer . The basal, prickle cell and granular layers are metabolically active regions of the epidermis. The basal layer undergoes continuous mitosis throughout life. The daughter cells ascend the epidermal layers, while undergoing morphological changes throughout its journey. It also develops clefts and ridges that are perceived on the thickened areas of skin as imprints (i.e. fingerprints and footprints).

The epidermis is significantly thicker in the regions of the palms and soles, when compared to other areas of the body. Furthermore, there are no sebaceous glands or hair follicles located in the skin in the palms and soles, while those structures are found in other areas of the body. The thick, hairless skin in the palms and soles are therefore called glabrous skin , while skin elsewhere is referred to as hirsute (hairy) skin . Of note, the stratum lucidum is absent from hirsute skin but present in glabrous skin.

The epidermis is made up a variety of cell types. Cell that contain keratin are known as keratinocytes . These are stratified squamous epithelial cells that are shed from the surface of the skin daily. They are the progeny of cells in the basal layer.

There are also mature non-keratinocytes that exist in the epidermis. These include the melanocytes (which are derived from embryonic neural crest), and lymphocytes and Langerhans cells that arise from bone marrow dendritic cells. As stated earlier, melanocytes synthesize and store melanin , which not only contributes to the color of the skin and hair, but also provides protection against ultraviolet radiation. They appear as clear cells in the basal layer with large, round, euchromatic nuclei. It is possible for a single melanocyte to provide melanin for approximately 30 keratinocytes via its dendritic arborisation.

The Langerhans cells serve as antigen presenting cells. They are distributed throughout the strata spinosum and basale, sparing only the sweat glands . These cells can be readily identified by a hallmark tennis racket-like discoid Birbeck granule , in addition to its euchromatic cytoplasm and Golgi complex.

There are also mechanoreceptors within the epidermis that facilitate sensory perception. The Merkel cells are clear, ovoid and may occur singly or in clusters in the stratum basale. Free nerve endings in the form of expanded discs are present at the base of these cells. Merkel cells may act as a sensory mechanoreceptors and are also thought to function as neuroendocrine sensory receptors.

The histological composition of the five layers of the epidermis is as follows:

Stratum basale

​Stratum basale acts as the stem cell region for the epidermis. It consists of a mixture of simple cuboidal to columnar epithelium resting on a basement membrane . Compared to the cytoplasm, the nuclei of these cells are large, euchromatic, with prominent nucleoli giving a marked basophilia to this layer.

The basement membrane serves as the point of demarcation between the epidermis and the dermis (i.e. the dermo-epidermal junction). The cells of the stratum basale are anchored to adjacent cells via desmosomes and to the basement membrane by hemidesmosomes . As these highly mitotic cells replicate, they ascend the layers of the dermis; carrying i ntermediate keratin filaments . Only the Merkel cells are attached to adjacent keratinocytes via desmosomes in this layer. The Langerhans cells and melanocytes do not have these connections.

Stratum spinosum

Most of the cells ascending from the stratum basale to enter the stratum spinosum are post-mitotic cells and are committed to becoming mature keratinocytes. However, there are a few stem cells in the basal region of the stratum spinosum that contribute to ascending progeny that replenish exfoliated cells of the superficial layers. There are approximately 4-6 layers of cuboidal or slightly flattened cells in this region that are tapered at the point of attachment to adjacent cells via desmosomes .

The prickled appearance of the cells arises during histological preparation, where the cells shrink away from each other except at points of attachment to neighbouring cells. The cytoplasm contains a concentric arrangement of keratin filaments that circumscribe the nucleus and form attachments to the desmosomes. Melanosomes can also be found in the cytoplasm of these cells as well. It is not uncommon to find Langerhans cells and lymphocytes in the prickled layer, but these are the only non-keratinocytes that will be observed histologically in this area (under normal circumstances).

Stratum granulosum

During the upward migration from the stratum spinosum, the cells of the stratum granulosum become flattened polygonal and form two to three layers of pyknotic cells. Recall that pyknosis is a characteristic feature of apoptosis (and necrosis) in which the nuclear material condenses. Karyorrhexis (disintegration of the nucleus) subsequently ensues.

The keratohyalin granules appear as dense basophilic structures in the cytoplasm. The keratinocyte also contains Odland bodies , which are lamellar secretory organelles that are also found in type II pneumocytes. They release their hydrophobic glycophospholipid content into the intracellular compartment by fusing with the keratinocyte’s plasma membrane. This contributes to the selective permeability of the skin; making it relatively waterproof. As the cellular organelles break down, the keratin tonofilaments interact with keratohyalin granules to produce keratin. This keratin is usually the soft keratin of the skin (as opposed to hard keratin of the hair and nails).

Stratum lucidum

The stratum lucidum is an epidermal layer only appreciated in glabrous skin . Here, a translucent layer of cells lie above the stratum granulosum and below the stratum corneum. The cells are filled with keratin filaments and are devoid of nuclei and organelles.

Stratum corneum

Finally, the stratum corneum is the most superficial layer of the skin. It is designed to withstand repetitive insults in order to protect the deeper structures. The cells of this 15-20 layered stratum are dead , non nucleated , filled with soft keratin filaments, and referred to as squames (owing to their flattened appearance). There is considerable overlapping at the lateral extent of the squames where there is interlocking of adjacent cells. The squames are continuously lost from the skin surface and replaced by new cells emerging from the basal layer. The sheets of glycolipid released from the Odland bodies of the granular layer fill the intercellular spaces of the cornified layer.

If remembering all these layers seems like a daunting prospective a mnemonic can help! Just memorise ' B ritish & S panish G rannies L ove C ornflakes', which covers the following structures:

• Stratum B asale
• Stratum S pinosum
• Stratum G ranulosum
• Stratum L ucidum
• Stratum C orneum

Deep to the epidermis is the dermis . This region is irregularly arranged and filled mostly with connective tissue . It lies deep to the basement membrane of the stratum basale. In adults, approximately 85% of the collagen fibers that provides tenacity, is type I collagen , while the remainder is type III collagen . In addition to collagen, the dermis also contains elastic fibers that facilitate recoil of the skin. Type IV collagen is primarily located at the dermo-epidermal junction, where it envelops Schwann cells as well as vascular endothelium. Types V, VI and VII collagen fibres contribute very little to the dermal structure.

Both the collagen and elastic network are held together by a mixture of glycoproteins, bound water and glycosaminoglycans. The integrity of the fibrous network varies with age and even within particular regions of the body . While the connective tissue network is strong enough to hold the skin together, it still allows epidermal appendages, neurovasculature, and lymphatics to pass through its substance.

The dermis also contains two general types of cells postnatally. There are permanent cells , which are part of other fixtures in the dermis (i.e. arrector pili muscles, vessels, and nerves) and migratory cells (i.e. lymphocytes and other leukocytes) that carry out an immune function.

Papillary layer

There are two definitive layers of the dermis. The more superficial of the two is the papillary layer . It is characterized by dermal papillae , which are raised irregular projections that interlace with the epidermal ridges of the epidermis. Apically, the papillae are blunted and can be separated into cusps. They are less abundant and smaller in thin skin that has minimal mechanical stress, when compared to in areas of thicker skin (i.e. palms and soles), where they tend to form curved parallel lines.

Fine type III collagen is typically found in throughout this layer (especially in the perivascular regions) of the dermis. Keratinocytes of the basal layer are attached to the fibrous matrix in the papillary layer through connections to hemidesmosomes . Subsequently, the hemi-desmosomes are attached to the type VII collagen fibrils through the anchoring filaments of the basal membrane. The type VII collagen runs deep in the papillary dermis and therefore provides mechanical stability to the epidermal substratum. Overall, the papillary layer not only gives mechanical support to the epidermis, but it also provides metabolic sustenance as well.

Reticular layer

Deep to the papillary layer is the reticular layer of the dermis . There is no clear demarcation between the two structures. Unlike the papillary layer, the reticular layer contains mostly coarse type I fibers with variable number of elastic fibers . There is significant interaction between the type I and type III fibres in both layers to the point where a sturdy, yet malleable, lattice is formed.

In 1861, Karl Langer (an Austrian anatomist) discovered the now widely accepted Langer’s lines . These topographical landmarks are used in surgical procedures as guidelines for points of incisions. Otherwise known as cleavage lines , these markings correspond with the orientation of dermal collagen fibres. Incision along these lines result in healing with minimal scarring and subsequently, a less apparent postoperative scar.

Finally, the dermis rests on a layer of loose connective tissue known as the hypodermis. It is a superficial fascial sheath with interspersed adipose tissue (panniculus adiposus) . The fascia reduces the friction between the dermis and deeper musculature, while the adipose tissue participates in thermoregulatory mechanisms as well as disperses forces generated from direct impact.

There is geographical variation in the distribution of superficial adipose tissue, as those individuals living in colder climate tend to have a larger quantity of fat than those living in warmer climates. However, the amount of subcutaneous fat present in an individual is an indication of that person’s lipid stores, and by extension, their dietary consumption of lipids. A small bundle of smooth muscles called arrector pili muscle that serves to connect the deep part of hair follicle with superficial dermis originates in this layer. Contraction of these muscles due to extreme fright or cold causes the erection of hair and puckering of skin commonly known as goose bumps.

The integumentary system includes the skin and all its appendages, namely the nails, hair and sweat glands. The organ has a variety of embryological origins, which accounts for the different types of structures that are found within it. The developing embryo contains several layers; significant to this topic are the ectoderm and mesenchyme layers that give rise to the epidermis and dermis, respectively.

Between the fifth to seventh gestational weeks, the ectodermal layer develops from the previous single layer of cells and divides into the periderm (epitrichium) and a basal layer. The epitrichium covers the surface of the embryo and undergoes a continuous cycle of keratinization (replacing the cell cytoplasm with keratin) and desquamation (shedding of the outer layer of tissue) for 21 weeks. The basal layer (stratum germinativum) acts as the germinal layer that continuously replicates to replace superficial cells lost during desquamation. It should be noted that the exfoliated cells, along with sebaceous secretions and shed lanugo hair, goes on to form the vernix caseosa (a white, cheesy coating found on neonates).

Subsequent differentiation of the stratum germinativum results in the formation of an intermediate layer around week 11. The intermediate layer further differentiates into two distinct layers called the stratum spinosum and the stratum granulosum . The former contains polyhedral cells that are joined by tonofibrils (associated with the macula adherens that anchors cellular cytoskeleton ), while the latter has the characteristic keratohyalin granules (initial proteinaceous compound responsible for keratinization of cells).

Also within the third gestational month, neural crest cells migrate into the epidermis and differentiate into melanoblasts that mature to form melanocytes (cells that produce melanin). Melanocytes in individuals of all races produce melanin. The difference is that in darker skinned individuals, the melanin is stored in larger melanosomes (melanin granules) than those vacuoles in lighter skinned individuals. However, in both instances, the granules are transported via dendritic processes to keratinocytes within the hair bulbs and skin. By the end of the fourth month, there are four distinct epidermal layers that are present in the adult skin. These are (from superficial to deep) the:

• stratum corneum
• stratum granulosum
• stratum spinosum
• stratum germinativum/basale

The dermis has tripartite embryology inclusive of the lateral and paraxial mesoderm as well as neural crest cells. The lateral mesodermal mesenchyme provides dermal cells in the body walls and limbs. The paraxial mesodermal mesenchyme gives rise to the dermal cells of the back. Finally, the neural crest cells provide cells of the neck and face . Close to the end of the third trimester, the dermis (corium) differentiates into dermal papillae (papillary layer) , which contain sensory nerve endings and capillary loops and extend into the epidermal layer. The subcorium (reticular layer) is the fatty region of the dermis that also contains large quantities of elastin and collagen.

Clinical significance

Dermatology is the medical discipline dedicated to understanding pathologies and treatment of the integumentary system. Like any discipline, it has an associated nomenclature that makes communication much more simple. In describing “rashes”, the location, texture, color, margins and size are all important factors to be considered. Some of these characteristics can be summed up into single words. For example:

• A macule is a flat lesion that is less than 1 cm in diameter, while a patch is also a flat lesion, but is greater than 1 cm in diameter.
• A papule on the other hand, is a solid, raised lesion that is less than 1 cm in diameter. Its counterpart – the plaque – is also solid and raised, but has a diameter greater than 1 cm.
• Vesicles are elevated, fluid filled lesions that are less than 0.5 cm in diameter. They are similar to bullae , which have the same physical descriptions, but are greater than 0.5 cm in diameter. Both these terms have been used interchangeably with blisters .
• If a lesion is solid, elevated, circumscribed and greater than 1 cm, then it is a nodule .

A relative equilibrium exists between the stratum basale and the stratum corneum such that the rate of production of keratinocytes is roughly equal to the rate of desquamation. The process of desquamation is usually subtle and occurs without knowledge of the host. A large percentage of household dust is comprised of exfoliated squames. Conditions that result in excessive desquamation ( seborrheic dermatitis manifesting as dandruff or post-sunburn peeling of the skin) make the process more perceptible. Either a decrease in the rate of desquamation or an increase in the basal layer activity can result in increased thickness of the cornified layer . This is particularly apparent on the soles of the feet of individuals who walk barefoot frequently or as palmar calluses in individuals who do a lot of manual labour.

Psoriasis vulgaris is a common example of a hyperactive basal layer lesion. It is a non-contagious, multisystemic, inflammatory disorder of the skin that undergoes undulating periods of remission and relapsing. Patients often present with pruritic (itchy), erythematous (red), exfoliative (scaly) plaques with a pathognomonic silver covering. The lesions are commonly seen on the extensor surfaces of the limbs (i.e. elbows and knees ), lumbosacral region, intergluteal cleft and at times on the glans penis .

Psoriasis undoubtedly has an overt genetic component to its aetiology (human leukocyte antigens (HLA) Cw6, B13, B17 and B17 have been implicated). However it is truly multifactorial as environmental and immunological factors can contribute to its occurrence.

While the exact mechanism of how this disease occurs is still being worked out, there is discussion surrounding the role of the host immune system in the development of the disease. It has been proposed that there is a stressor (infection, trauma, drugs or idiopathic in most cases) that precipitates large scale activation of T-lymphocytes present in the epidermis (normally found in the strata basale and spinosum). This T-cell activation occurs in response to cytokine release from native keratinocytes . Cytokines also stimulate differentiation of local Langerhans’ cells , which in turn drive the proliferation of T-cells. The excess cytokine and inflammatory mediators in turn upregulates the cell cycle of the keratinocytes such that the epidermis exfoliates every 4 days, as opposed to the typical 26 day cycle. As a consequence of the epidermal hyperplasia , immature cells ascend the layers of the epidermis that have poor intracellular adhesion, as well as poor water barriers.

There are several disorders that can alter the concentration of melanin within the skin. Either congenital or acquired disease may result in an increase in the pigmentation ( hyperpigmented ) or a decrease in the amount of pigment ( hypopigmentation ). Albinism is a well known autosomal recessive phenomenon that results in global absence of pigment. The genetic mutation is associated with abnormalities of the tyrosinase enzyme , which is necessary for melanin production.

In addition to the absence of pigment in the integumentary system, patients also lack colour in the iris. The latter significantly affects their visual acuity and results in marked photophobia in these patients. The absence of melanin increases the risk of development of cancers in this patient population.

It should also be noted that there is an autosomal dominant variation of albinism known as piebaldism or partial albinism. These patients have characteristic patches of depigmented skin along with a patch of white hair in the front of their heads. In both cases, there is no cure. However, patients with albinism should be monitored regularly for cutaneous malignancies and should use UV protection (no less than sun protection factor [SPF] 30).

Although unlikely, piebaldism should not be confused with vitiligo . The latter is thought to results from an autoimmune reaction against melanocytes, resulting in well demarcated patches of depigmentation. However, the definitive pathophysiology is unknown. The patches usually arise in periorificial areas (i.e. around the eyes , mouth, nipples, umbilicus and anogenital orifices) as well as at the tips of fingers and toes. The depigmentation can arise in other areas of the body. In some cases, patients with vitiligo also have another autoimmune disorder (i.e. Grave’s disease, pernicious anemia or myasthenia gravis, to name a few). While some patients spontaneously regain pigment in the affected areas, others require treatment that is not universally successful. They will require photoprotection in affected areas. Some individuals benefit from very potent topical steroids, while others settle for cosmesis. Some individuals with extensive vitiligo (like the late king of pop - Michael Jackson) resort to bleaching normally pigmented skin to achieve homogeneity.

References:

• Abyaneh, Mohammad-Ali Yazdani et al. "Famous Lines In History". JAMA Dermatology 150.10 (2014): 1087. Accessed 18 Mar. 2017.
• Boissy, Raymond E. "Dermatologic Manifestations Of Albinism: Background, Pathophysiology, Epidemiology". Emedicine.medscape.com. N.p., 2016. Accessed 18 Mar. 2017.
• Eroschenko, Victor P and Mariano S.H Di Fiore.  Difiore's Atlas Of Histology With Functional Correlations. 11th ed. Philadelphia [etc.]: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2008.
• Gray, Henry and Susan Standring.  Gray's Anatomy. 40th ed. [Edinburgh u.a.]: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier, 2009.
• Groysman, Vlada, and Naveed Sami. "Vitiligo: Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology". Emedicine.medscape.com. N.p., 2016.Accessed 18 Mar. 2017.
• Pansky, Ben.  Review Of Medical Embryology. 1st ed. New York: Macmillan, 1982.
• Sadler, T. W and Jan Langman.  Langman's Medical Embryology. 12th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2012.

Skin histology: want to learn more about it?

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The skin is a very important (and our largest) organ: what does it do?

Consultant Dermatologist, St Vincent's Hospital Melbourne

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Cara McDonald does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organisation that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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This article is part of our series about skin : why we have it, what it does, and what can go wrong. Read other articles in the series here .

Our skin is a big deal – literally. It’s the largest organ in the body and one of the most complicated. It has many roles in the maintenance of life and health, but also has many potential problems, with more than 3,000 possible skin disorders .

Not only does the skin hold everything in, it also plays a crucial role in providing an airtight, watertight and flexible barrier between the outside world and the highly regulated systems within the body . It also helps with temperature regulation, immune defence, vitamin production, and sensation.

The skin is unique in many ways, but no other organ demands so much attention and concern in both states of disease and health. There is a huge focus on skin health, with fierce competition to have glowing, clearer, healthier, younger and fresher skin. And this focus can cause secondary problems with self-esteem and mental health.

So, what exactly is our skin meant to do and how does it impact our life?

The structure of the skin

The skin is divided into three layers known as the epidermis, dermis and subcutis. These layers are well defined but together they allow the skin to function effectively.

The epidermis is the outermost, cellular layer of the skin which varies in thickness depending on the body site. On average it’s less than half a millimetre thick . The epidermis resembles a “brick wall” of cells known as keratinocytes, which are bound tightly together and act to prevent free movement of moisture, pathogens and chemicals into or out of the body.

Keratinocytes replicate from the basal layer and work their way up to the outer surface (known as the stratum corneum) over a period of about 28 days. Once they reach the surface the tight bonds between them break apart and they are shed.

Other than keratinocytes, pigment-producing cells known as melanocytes and immune cells known as Langerhans cells also exist within the epidermis. Melanocytes inhabit the basement membrane, at the base of the epidermis and produce a pigment known as melanin both innately (giving the skin its natural colour), and in response to ultraviolet light (UV) exposure (giving the skin a sun tan).

The melanin is a brown pigment that is taken up into the overlying keratinocytes. This pigment will then absorb UV light (from the sun) when it hits the skin, thereby protecting the basal calls underneath from UV damage.

The epidermal cells also develop hair follicles, sweat glands and sebaceous (oil) glands which extend down into the layer below known as the dermis. The small ducts from each of these glands open onto the skin surface. Sweat and sebum (oil) provide an antibacterial and protective barrier on the skin.

The dermis lies beneath the epidermis and is 20-30 times thicker . It’s made up of a dense layer of fibrous (collagen) and elastic (elastin) tissue. The dermis gives the skin its integrity, strength and elasticity; and houses blood vessels, glands and hair follicles, as well as nerves and their receptors.

Beneath the dermis lies the subcutis (also known as the hypodermis), a specialised layer of adipose (fat) and fibrous tissue. The thickness of this layer varies dramatically depending on the site and a person’s body shape and weight. It cushions the body from external trauma, insulates from the cold and stores energy (fat).

The function of the skin

The extraordinary array of functions performed by healthy skin is still coming to light. The basic day-to-day functions include:

Working as a barrier – protecting against water loss as well as physical and chemical injury, and bugs

Helping us fight off bugs, allergens, toxins and carcinogens via the parts of our immune system that exist in our skin

Regulating our temperature by dilating and constricting our blood vessels near the skin surface, controlling the transfer of heat out of the body. Temperature is also regulated by evaporative cooling due to sweat production and by the insulating effect of erect hairs on the skin surface. Heat loss is also affected by the insulating layer of subcutaneous fat

Protecting us from UV radiation by producing melanin

Giving us the sense of touch _ providing interaction with physical surroundings, allowing all fine and gross motor activities and allowing pleasurable and sexual stimulation

The production of Vitamin D , which helps prevent many diseases including osteoporosis, cancer, heart disease, obesity and neurological diseases

Wound healing

Beauty and physical attraction – the quality and condition of the skin greatly contributes to the perception of health, wellness, youth and beauty.

What is normal skin and how can you optimise it?

Normal healthy skin has many important roles and thus should be treated with care and respect. Many people only start focusing on the skin once there is an abnormality or at least a perceived problem.

Common concerns include dryness, sensitivity, oiliness, congestion, wrinkles, sun damage and signs of ageing. Although these states are all within the spectrum of normal functional skin, they may be considered problematic if severe or undesirable.

Normal, healthy skin that is not exposed to excessive physical or environmental insults may not require any specific care or protection, but for those who want to optimise or improve their skin, some basic steps can make a big difference.

The key to skin care is consistency and routine, and it can take time to appreciate the changes. A basic regime of daily protection from excessive UV radiation, protection from excessive irritation and drying (by avoiding drying soaps, excess water or irritating chemicals) and aiding of the skin’s barrier properties (using a moisturising protective layer) will result in noticeable improvement in almost all skin.

Switching and changing products and routines is usually counterproductive and will prevent you from seeing expected improvement in time. It’s worth looking after your skin, as you’ll wear it every day for the rest of your life.

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13 Questions About How the Human Body Works Answered

How do people breathe in and out? What’s the body’s biggest organ? What causes a bruise? This list answers these questions and others about how the human body works.

Earlier versions of these questions and answers first appeared in the second edition of The Handy Answer Book for Kids (and Parents) by Gina Misiroglu (2010).

How much blood is inside my body?

The human body contains approximately 6 quarts (5.6 liters) of blood . Blood acts as your body’s transportation system—in one day, your blood travels nearly 12,000 miles (19,312 kilometers). Pumped along by your heart , blood takes oxygen from the air you breathe and nutrients from the food you eat to all the cells of your body. (Your heart pumps 1 million barrels of blood during your lifetime—enough to fill three supertankers.) Blood also keeps cells clean and healthy by transporting waste products away after the nutrients and oxygen have been used for processes such as growth and repair. In addition, blood transports hormones —chemicals made in glands that control a variety of processes—throughout your body.

What do plasma, red blood cells, and white blood cells have to do with blood?

More than half of your blood is a light yellow watery liquid called plasma . Plasma contains nutrients and waste products, along with chemicals and matter needed for clotting , or sealing a wound before too much blood escapes. The rest of blood is made of tiny cells. Most are red blood cells , which distribute oxygen throughout your body and carry away the waste gas carbon dioxide, which is released from your lungs . The remaining cells are white blood cells , which protect you from infection by attacking and destroying disease-causing germs that enter your body. Red blood cells are the smallest cells in your body. But what they lack in size they make up for in number: in a drop of blood the size of the head of a pin there are 5 million red blood cells. In that same drop are 10,000 white blood cells and 250,000 platelets , small ovals of matter that gather wherever a blood vessel is injured to plug the hole and help form a clot.

Why is blood red?

As the young red blood cell grows and takes on an adult form in the marrow of the bone, it loses its nucleus , and it increases its production of hemoglobin . Hemoglobin is the red pigment, or color of blood, and contains iron, combined with protein. (Oxygen combined with iron is red; the more oxygen iron has bound to it, the redder it is.) When blood passes through the lungs , oxygen attaches itself to the hemoglobin of the red cells. From there, the red blood cells carry the oxygen through the arteries and the capillaries to all other cells of the body. The arteries appear reddish because the iron in the blood gives up its oxygen to the cells that need it as the red blood cells travel throughout the body. By the time the blood is back on its way to the heart and then to the lungs, it has less than half as much oxygen as it did before. The veins , therefore, do not have as much oxygen as the other tissues, and they appear bluish.

What does my brain do, besides think?

The brain is the body’s command center. Everything we do—eating, talking, walking, thinking, remembering, sleeping—is controlled and processed by the brain. As the most complex organ in the human body, the brain tells us what’s going on outside our bodies (whether we feel cold or hot, for instance, or whether the person we see coming toward us is a friend or a stranger) as well as what’s going on inside our bodies (whether we have an infection or a broken bone, or whether we feel happy or sad).

The brain is the key to the body’s nervous system : it contains between 10 billion and 100 billion nerve cells, or neurons . Neurons combine to form the body’s nerves , thin cords that spread from head to toe and all parts in between. Neurons take in and send out electrical signals, called impulses , that control or respond to everything your body does and feels. The brain is constantly receiving messages and sending them out all the time; it handles millions of nerve impulses every second.

How many parts are there to the brain?

The human brain is divided into three main parts: the cerebrum , the cerebellum , and the brainstem . The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain (about 85 percent of its total weight). It controls emotions, thought, memory, and speech. It is divided into a right and left side, called hemispheres, and each side is divided further into parts called lobes. Its thick outer covering, called the cortex, is made up of a type of tissue called gray matter . The cerebellum coordinates the kinds of movements we don’t usually think about: it helps us walk upright and in a straight line, it keeps us balanced so we don’t tip over, and it gives us coordination. The brainstem connects the brain with the spinal cord. It controls our body’s vital processes, such as breathing, digestion, and heart rate.

How can you measure a heartbeat?

Doctors measure heart rate —the number of contractions of the heart (or heartbeats) in one minute—by taking a person’s pulse or listening to the heart with a stethoscope . Your heart rate can be taken at any spot on the body at which an artery is close to the surface and a pulse can be felt, such as the wrist or the neck. When resting, the average adult human heartbeats at about 70 beats per minute (for males) and 75 beats per minute (for females), although this rate is often less for athletes. A toddler’s heart beats about 100 to 130 times per minute, while an older child’s about 90 to 110 times per minute and an adolescent’s about 80 to 100 times per minute. If you add it all up, 75 beats per minute translates to 4,500 beats an hour, 108,000 beats per day, or about 39.4 million beats in a year!

How do people breathe in and out?

You usually don’t have to think much about your breathing because your brain controls it automatically. When you have a lot of carbon dioxide —the waste gas produced by body processes—in your blood, your brain gets the message and tells your lungs to exhale and dispose of it. This action then causes you to inhale, drawing in air that eventually delivers oxygen to every cell in your body. This carefully regulated exhaling and inhaling takes place about 10 to 14 times each minute when you are breathing calmly.

When you need more oxygen than usual, your brain takes care of that too. When you are exercising or working hard, your brain tells you to breathe more quickly, taking in 15 to 20 times more air. If that still doesn’t deliver all the oxygen that your muscles need, you may “run out of breath,” which forces you to rest. You will still breathe hard at that point—every second or so—until your muscles are able to work again.

Are the lungs connected to my voice?

Yes. The human voice, whether singing, speaking, or yelling, is made by a combination of factors. It all begins with air. Air from your lungs rushes through your trachea (also called the windpipe) and vibrates your vocal cords , a tiny, two-part muscle located in the larynx (also called the voice box) in your throat . The pitch of the note depends on the distance between the vocal cords. If you almost close the space between your vocal cords, the result is a high-pitched sound. If you open the space, the result is a low-pitched sound. And the speed of your breath determines just how loud the note is. Your lips and tongue help to shape these sounds into speech and other expressions.

How much air does a person breathe in their lifetime?

During a person’s life, they will breathe about 75 million gallons (284 million liters) of air . Every minute, the human body needs 2 gallons (7.5 liters) of air when lying down, 4 gallons (15 liters) when sitting, 6 gallons (23 liters) when walking, and 12 gallons (45 liters) or more when running.

What is the human body’s biggest organ?

Your skin is your body’s largest organ and acts as a barrier to the outside world. It covers your entire body and has a surface area of around 21.5 square feet (2 square meters). Its thickness ranges from 0.02 inch (0.5 millimeter) on your eyelids to 0.16 inch (4 millimeters) or more in “tougher” areas, such as on the palms of your hands and the soles of your feet. In total, it accounts for around 16 percent of your body weight. Your skin protects your internal organs from infection and helps control body temperature .

Your skin consists of three main layers. The outer layer, called the epidermis , contains skin cells, pigment, and proteins. The middle layer, called the dermis , contains blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, and oil glands, and it provides nutrients to the epidermis. The layer under the dermis, called the subcutaneous layer , contains sweat glands, some hair follicles, blood vessels, and fat. Each layer also contains connective tissue with collagen fibers to give support and elastin fibers to provide flexibility and strength. Cells in the deepest layer of your epidermis are constantly dividing to make new cells, providing your skin with a durable overcoat, which protects deeper cells from damage, infection, and dryness. Cells on the surface of your epidermis flake off and are continuously replaced with new ones, so that about every 30 days your body produces a whole new set of skin. A human body sheds about 600,000 particles of skin every hour—that’s about 1.5 pounds (0.68 kilogram) a year. By age 70, an average human will have lost 105 pounds (47.6 kilograms) of skin.

What causes a bruise?

A bruise is a common skin injury that causes discoloration of the skin, usually yellowish, brownish, or purplish spots. Blood from damaged blood vessels deep beneath the skin collects near the skin’s surface, resulting in a “black and blue” mark. You can get a bruise by bumping into something or someone, or by something or someone bumping into you.

Why do scabs form?

As soon as you scrape or break the skin anywhere on your body, special blood cells called platelets get to work. Platelets stick together like glue at the cut site, forming a clot . This clot is like a protective bandage over your cut that keeps more blood and other fluids from flowing out. The clot is also full of other blood cells and thread-like matter called fibrin that help hold the clot together. As the clot starts to get hard and dries out, a scab forms. Crusty and dark red or brown, the scab protects the cut by keeping germs out and giving the skin cells underneath a chance to heal. All by itself, usually after a week or two, a scab falls off, revealing new skin underneath.

What is pus?

Pus is a thick, whitish-yellow fluid that oozes from a wound because white blood cells , bacteria , and dead skin cells have accumulated there. Eventually the white blood cells eat up all the bacteria and dead skin cells, and the pus clears up on its own. Sometimes antibiotics are needed to kill off bacteria and help the wound heal more quickly. If a pimple gets infected with bacteria, the result is a pustule, or small amount of pus.

59 Skin Cancer Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best skin cancer topic ideas & essay examples, 📌 good essay topics on skin cancer, 🔎 simple & easy skin cancer essay titles.

• Life Quality Concerns After a Melanoma Diagnosis Melanoma is one of the most dangerous forms of skin cancer and has been on the rise over the past 30 years.
• Skin Cancer: Description, Causes, and Treatment Skin cancer is one of the most common types of cancer; the three most common types of skin cancer are basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma.
• Researching of Cause and Effects of Melanoma This essay reviews the causes of melanoma, including the genetic aberrations involved, and discusses some of the effects of this cancer.
• Does the Sun Radiation Cause Skin Cancer? Moreover, from the article written by American Cancer Society, it is evident that Ultraviolet A and Ultraviolet B from the sun lead to skin cancer.
• Malignant Melanoma of the Skin It is better to quit smoking and choose a healthy diet with the help of which he could improve his immune system.
• Malignant Melanoma of the Skin Diagnostics and Screening Are the examinations of your body organized by your wife systematic or occasional? If systematic, what are the reasons for them?
• Indoor Tanning as a Cause of Melanoma Sarah Longwell’s claim that there is no scientific evidence to confirm that indoor tanning is one of the leading causes of melanoma is invalid.
• Malignant Melanoma: Diagnosis and Treatment But when the above process is taking place, the pro-inflammatory signals engaged in skin healing and repair produce the twin effect of not only arousing the cells of the immune system but also enhancing “…the […]
• Melanoma: Risk Factors and Treatment One of the most problematic is melanoma it is a cancer of the skin. Melanoma is a preventable disease but ignorance of the problem is the reason why this medical condition has claimed the lives […]
• Skin Cancer: Comparison of Samples The aim of this experiment is to examine and thereafter represent low and high power illustrations of a normal skin specimen and of skin specimens that have been affected by various forms types of skin […]
• Skin Cancer and Sunlight: Case Control, Cohort, and Clinical Trial Design The main component in sunlight that is said to be responsible for the development of skin cancer is the Ultraviolet emission.
• Skin Cancer Awareness Overview Other causes of skin cancer include; family history of skin cancer, personal history of the disease, over exposure to the sun, history of sunburn early in life, large moles, freckles and light skin complexity. The […]
• Malignant Melanoma: Pathology and Epidemiology Melanoma is the most rapidly growing type of cancer in the world, as well as the fifth leading cancer in men and the seventh in women in America.
• Skin Cancer: Diagnosis and Treatment In order to prevent the incidence of skin cancer, the patients are recommended to undergo regular cancer screenings. Thus, following the suggested recommendations is expected to reduce the incidence of skin cancer among patients.
• Skin Cancer in Australia and Health Campaign According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, the incidence of skin cancer in Australia is the highest in the world.
• Skin Cancer: Types and Cells of Origin Skin cancer is very often considered a disease connected with the cell cycle, although it is not actually the case, as cancer cells can easily grow and divide.
• The Problem of Skin Cancer in Australia Generally the issue of skin cancer in Australia is widely known to people despite the fact that the cases have not been mitigated appropriately.
• Aggressive Malignant Melanoma Skin Cancer
• Dangers, Symptoms and Treatment of Skin Cancer
• Methods of Battle With Skin Cancer
• Description of Breast Cancer and Skin Cancer
• Benefits of Green Tea for Skin: Acne, Skin Cancer, and Others
• Natural Products for Treatment of Skin Cancer
• The Connection Between Cutaneous Papillomaviruses and Non-melanoma Skin Cancer
• Biomarkers of Response for Checkpoint Inhibitor Therapy in Skin Cancer
• Dangers, Symptoms, and Treatment of Skin Cancer, a Malignant Disease
• Deadly Skin Cancer Form Malignant Melanoma
• The Efficacy and Safety of Sunscreen Use for the Prevention of Skin Cancer
• Human Papillomaviruses and Polyomaviruses in Skin Cancer
• Insights Into Biomarkers, Cytokines, and Chemokines in Skin Cancer
• Fluorescence-Guided Pdt for Optimization of the Outcome of Skin Cancer Treatment
• Direct Sunlight vs. Tanning Beds in the Development of Skin Cancer Malignant Melanoma
• The Connection Between Genetic Damage and Skin Cancer
• Genetic Mutations That Cause Skin Cancer
• Genetic Risk Factors and Offsetting Behavior: The Case of Skin Cancer
• Skin Cancer Awareness and Prevention
• Indoor Tanning and the Perils of Skin Cancer
• Melanoma: The Most Dangerous Forms of All Skin Cancer
• Muffin Technique Micrographic Surgery for Non-melanoma Skin Cancer
• Non-melanoma Skin Cancer Measurement
• The Ins and Outs of Chemokine-Mediated Immune Cell Trafficking in Skin Cancer
• The Statistics and Prevalence of Skin Cancer World Wide
• Adapting a Skin Cancer Prevention Intervention for Multiethnic Adolescents
• Tumor-Associated Macrophages: Therapeutic Targets for Skin Cancer
• Skin Cancer Prevalence and Geographic Location
• How Caffeine, Exercise Help Fight Skin Cancer
• Skin Cancer: Types, Symptoms, Risk Factors & Treatment
• The Global Health Problem of Skin Cancer
• An Effective Skin Cancer Prevention Strategy
• Risk of Skin Cancer in Tanning Beds
• Detecting the Symptoms of Skin Cancer
• Stratospheric Ozone Depletion and Its Effect on Skin Cancer Incidence
• Skin Cancer: The Potential Hazards of Too Much Sun
• Most Effective Way to Cure Skin Cancer
• Skin Cancer as a Major Public Health Problem
• Ultraviolet Light Is the Main Cause of Skin Cancer
• Skin Cancer: The Dangers of Wanting a Dark Tan
• Chronic Pain Research Ideas
• Health Insurance Research Topics
• Leukemia Topics
• Medical Marijuana Topics
• Palliative Care Research Topics
• Pathogenesis Research Ideas
• Pharmacy Research Ideas
• Healthcare Reform Essay Ideas
• Chicago (A-D)
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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Skin — Skin Care: Personal Experience and Reflections

Skin Care: Personal Experience and Reflections

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Published: Aug 30, 2022

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After Being Accused Of Bleaching Her Skin, Cardi B Opened Up About How Her Third Pregnancy Is Impacting Her Health

“I’m pregnant I’m slightly anemic ,this baby suckin all the energy off my body.”

BuzzFeed Staff

Earlier this month, Cardi B announced that she’s pregnant with her third child.

Cardi already shares two kids — Kulture, 6, and Wave, 2 — with her estranged husband, Offset, whom she has since filed for divorce from.

In fact, the news of Cardi’s divorce and third pregnancy broke on the same day. Sharing photos of herself cradling her baby bump on Instagram, she wrote, “With every ending comes a new beginning!”

This week, Cardi shared a sweet photo of her friend touching her bump.

Sadly, Cardi’s appearance in the photograph prompted some X (formerly Twitter) users to speculate that she’d bleached her skin.

But Cardi wasted no time shutting the speculation down. Responding to one user, the artist wrote, “Bleaching while pregnant 😒😒😒. Why must yall be so dumb ?”

Cardi went on to explain that while her skin is more pale than usual, it’s because of her pregnancy.

“Actually NO ! I’m pregnant I’m slightly anemic ,this baby suckin all the energy off my body to the point I’m pale,eyes sunken ,veins green ASF,can’t tan under the sun cause I get hot super fast and dizzy ….PLEAE STOP THINKIN WITH YOUR A-SHOLE!” she said.

Bleaching while pregnant 😒😒😒? Why must yall be so dumb ? Actually NO ! I’m pregnant I’m slightly anemic ,this baby suckin all the energy off my body to the point I’m pale,eyes sunken ,veins green ASF,can’t tan under the sun cause I get hot super fast and dizzy ….PLEAE STOP… https://t.co/S4IVLZ4WAv — Cardi B (@iamcardib) August 21, 2024

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The Knight in the Panther's Skin Essay Questions

By shota rustaveli, essay questions.

These notes were contributed by members of the GradeSaver community. We are thankful for their contributions and encourage you to make your own.

Written by Polly Barbour

Why is Tariel likened to a panther?

The panther is a combination of both nurturing and brutal; this describes Tariel as well. He is a passionate man who has a wild streak that cannot be tamed. Whereas his counterparts do not have this same kind of wild and potentially brutal streak, Tariel has an anger that can be absolutely devastating. He is described as a man who has killed wild animals and he is a respected and merciless knight. This is the same kind of mercilessness that a panther also possesses.

One of the themes of the poem is female empowerment. What are some of the ways in which the poem states this?

The main example of female empowerment in the poem is the powerful female queen who has inherited the throne from her father. She is beautiful and intelligent; she manages her country and also expertly navigates political and strategic relationships with other countries. She repels invaders and also annexes neighboring nations. She is seen as the reason that the mystical fictional nations in the poem are thriving and experiencing their Golden Age. This is due entirely to the power of the monarch.

The other female characters in the poem are similarly empowered and one of the most significant factors that shows this is their ability to choose their own husbands. Historically and in neighboring nations women were not able to do this and were subjected to arranged marriages. The fact that they are able to choose their life partner for themselves shows that it was just as incumbent upon a man as on a woman to impress and to show why they are a person that the woman would want to marry.

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The Knight in the Panther’s Skin Questions and Answers

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Study Guide for The Knight in the Panther’s Skin

The Knight in the Panther's Skin study guide contains a biography of Shota Rustaveli, literature essays, quiz questions, major themes, characters, and a full summary and analysis.

• About The Knight in the Panther's Skin
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Essays for The Knight in the Panther’s Skin

The Knight in the Panther's Skin essays are academic essays for citation. These papers were written primarily by students and provide critical analysis of The Knight in the Panther's Skin by Shota Rustaveli.

• Female Dignity in The Knight in the Panther Skin