short note on oriental education

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Oriental Education System

What is education.

Education is the main thing that enable us to make and understand difference between good or bad. it teaches the way to live, learn, and handle things appropriately. You can also read Oriental Education System here in this article.

Education in Pakistan is free and required for all children between the ages of five and 16, or up through assessment 10, or what’s referred to as “enrolment” in Pakistan. It is an essential right settled through Article 25 of the constitution.

Education is an important and enduring component that changes an individual’s reasoning and ability to achieve a particular objective. It urges individuals to look at their reflexions and contemplations to empower them to communicate in a unique way.

Plainly, we can say, “Education is the wellspring of headway”. It is also the course to our fate as achievements should be refined when individuals have information, capacities, and outlook. Hence, preparing takes after a medium through which we can interface with various individuals and offer our interests.

To deal with issues and do creativity, we first need to gain ability for certain fundamental limits. We require learning and abilities to become logically innovative. Training is to get the capacity to solve and accomplish concerns to attain their real prospects.

Training is portrayed as a learning cycle for the individual to accomplish data and cognizance of the higher unequivocal things and express. The data gained formally coming about an individual has an illustration of thought and lead according to the training they have procured.

Practice gives us information on our general environmental factors and changes them into something better. It likewise gives the capacity to have a perspective and a look at life from an alternate point of view. It makes us develop reviews and have points of view on things for the events of day to day life. Education is a consistent cycle that gives positive changes in human life. It is a pattern of acquiring data through examination or allowing the data by means of various educational methods or some other required useful approaches.

Oriental Education:

It is the education that teaches about one’s eastern culture, language, life style, people, and its history. In Pakistan’s oriental education, books like Pakistan Studies are included in which students learn about the background and important historical events of that time. It also refers to the learning of one’s own land and its information so that students can have the association with it and get the knowledge of their homeland and stay connected to their traditions. Oriental education keep students close to their culture and tradition so that the young generation do not forget their norms and hold it inside them. Transfer of traditions and social ethics are made sure this way of learning. It is also called the colonial time and its policies as before the patrician it was considered to be the colonial or sub-continent time where education was not common.

Imperialists and colonial times are the main subject of oriental studies. It tells the student about the time before partition and entail a detailed history of battles, ruling powers, educational systems, and struggles of people in those times.

Modern Orientalism:

The new period of wide-ranging history, which was joined in by the Great October Socialist Revolution and was set apart by emergency in the colonialist arrangement of government, offered ascend to the development of another stage in the advancement of Oriental investigations. The successful advancement of Marxist Oriental investigations was critical for this period. The Marxist pattern got superiority in the USSR and in the Oriental studies of unfamiliar communist nations. Its advancement was likewise helped by crafted by Marxist researchers in entrepreneur nations. The exploration directed by researchers (especially after World War II) turned out to be progressively significant for the improvement of Oriental investigations. The situation of the reformist pattern was fortified in Oriental examinations abroad. At the same time, during the frustrated philosophical battle between the forces of settler response and the powers of progress, a few Western Orientalists split away from the logical examination technique and started to decipher the set of experiences and the current circumstance of Oriental nations from a colonialist perspective.

Importance of Orientalism:

Since it is the depiction of eastern world through literature, pictures, and cultural studies, these things are usually created by the artists and writers who portray the history of that time in a painting or tells through the writing thoroughly. The importance of such historical depictions is higher because it keeps students aware of their culture, historical events and many other important things.

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Europe 1800 - 1900

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The origins of Orientalism

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Education Traditions and Futures with Asian Roots

The Significance of a Religious Lens in Understanding Asian Education and Sustainable Development

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First Online: 26 March 2023
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Maria Manzon 5 &
Wing On Lee 6

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Currently there is a lot of talk about futures of education: Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and post-2030. But who is leading these talks: by whom, for whom, and for what purpose? Asia has deep-rooted and historical, philosophical, and spiritual traditions that shape its culture, education, and ethos. The major world religions were born and spread from Asia. They are characterized by an openness to transcendence. These are important foundations for understanding educational values on which to build sustainable futures with Asian characteristics. They may also be used to decenter and dialogue with dominant liberal human-centered ideologies about education and sustainable development from non-Asian spheres.

This chapter will analyze the ontological and cosmological implications that shape the epistemological traditions in the Asia Pacific, making its approach toward knowledge and education quite distinctive from the West. It will elucidate implications for education concepts and practice for a sustainable present and future.

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Conclusion—Towards a General Framework of Sustainable Tertiary Education

Introducing Education for Sustainable Development

Can Education Outgrow the Rhetoric of ‘Development’ Embedded in the UN Sustainability Goals?

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Maria Manzon

Institute for Adult Learning, SUSS, Singapore, Singapore

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Institute of Education, University College London, London, UK

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Manzon, M., Lee, W.O. (2023). Education Traditions and Futures with Asian Roots. In: Lee, W.O., Brown, P., Goodwin, A.L., Green, A. (eds) International Handbook on Education Development in Asia-Pacific. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2327-1_1-1

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Pivot or else: How China’s largest edtech company can survive the government’s latest crackdown

China’s sweeping reforms on private education companies has precipitated a stock freefall for the country’s largest after-school tutoring firm. Shares of New Oriental Education, dual-listed in New York and Hong Kong, have plunged approximately 70% since Thursday.

Beijing’s moves also sparked a wider sell-off in private education companies and added to the carnage of Chinese stocks listed in New York. The Nasdaq Golden Dragon China Index, a gauge of the largest U.S.-listed Chinese firms, dove 15% in two days , its steepest drop in 13 years.

On Saturday, China’s State Council announced a broad-based overhaul of the private education sector, citing the need to “protect students’ right to rest, improve the quality of school education and reduce the burden on parents.” The directive stipulated that education firms teaching core curriculum subjects such as math, science and history for kindergarten through 9th grade will be barred from making profit and must be turned into non-profit entities. Such companies are also banned from going public, raising capital, and offering tutoring services during weekends and holidays.

The tough new rules shocked the market. “Such a high level of tightening policy in the industry had not been anticipated,” Jenny Tsai, senior equity analyst for Morningstar, wrote in a Monday note.

And it will likely put China’s $100 billion-plus private education industry at serious risk. “If the proposed law is enforced, the compulsory academic for-profit businesses will no longer be viable,” says Tommy Wong, analyst at China Merchant Securities. The industry is “essentially decimated, unless the Chinese government makes a huge U-turn on policy,” said Dave Wang, portfolio manager at NuVest Capital.

Despite the grim prognosis, a couple of avenues for survival remain open for edtech companies, particularly the sector’s most valuable titan, New Oriental Education.

Go bust or find another way

Beijing-based New Oriental Education & Technology Group, China’s largest education provider by market capitalization, has a network of 118 schools, 1,625 learning centers and both online and offline bookstores. Before the selloff, it was valued at nearly $11 billion. Michael Yu Minhong, a former English teacher at Peking University, founded the first New Oriental school in 1993; it offered English language test prep courses for college students. In the next decade, as demand for English lessons in China boomed so did New Oriental’s popularity. Its stock soared after its 2006 debut on the New York Stock Exchange. In 2005, 800,000 students were enrolled in New Oriental classes; that figure hit 10.6 million in 2020.

The group now offers an extensive menu of learning services, including K-12 tutoring in core subjects like math, geography and Chinese; test preparation for domestic and overseas exams; foreign language courses; and study abroad programs and consulting.

The 28-year-old company has been among the hardest hit by the new crackdown. On Friday alone, when the market anticipated that the new rules were coming, short-selling of the company surged over 8,000%, according to Bloomberg data.

In an official statement on Sunday, New Oriental said that it expects the new regulations “to have material adverse impact on [our] after-school tutoring services related to academic subjects in China’s compulsory education system. [We are] considering appropriate compliance measures to be taken.” The company declined to comment further.

Yet analysts say that New Oriental Education is best-placed to survive China’s edtech reforms because it can transform its business model to focus on the education segments untouched by the new regulations, such as exam preparation and non-academic learning in arts, crafts, sports, and computers.

While 75% of the company’s revenue comes from after-school tutoring in K-12 subjects—the main segment targeted in Beijing’s Saturday announcement—25% of its revenue is from exam prep, testing services, and language courses. That means the company has the option to pivot to the alternative businesses, says Osbert Tang, China analyst and managing director at Carresberry Capital, who publishes on the SmartKarma platform. Plus, the company’s strong financial position—$2.7 billion in cash reserves and $3.4 billion in short-term investments—gives it more leverage to shift its business model. “They have a strong balance sheet with sizeable cash to deploy,” said Wang.

For firms to remain listed, they’ll need to spin-off the regulated services into a non-profit entity while reallocating their resources to focus on non-academic tutoring, says CMS’ Wong. New Oriental may be able to pull that off, but it seems other rivals are less equipped for the challenge.

China’s second-largest edtech firm TAL Education only recently started offering services beyond K-9 tutoring. In January, it invested in a dance training institute called Happy Ballet. This month, the firm launched its ‘Qingzhou’ brand that covers postgraduate exam prep, language training, and overseas studies. It also expanded into arts and speech training for kids, and has plans to develop vocational educational content in skills and career training, Goldman Sachs said in a note on Monday.

Still, a firm like TAL will “probably see greater impact [than New Oriental]. Around 62% of New Oriental’s business may be impacted, while for TAL [this number] is around 80%” says Morningstar’s Tsai. The reforms have sunk New Oriental’s stock by 70% since Thursday, but TAL Education’s shares have endured a worse beating; they’re down 80%.

Education companies have two additional options going forward: delist or go private. But those options are unattractive since both would require investor buy-in, and investors wouldn’t want to “pay up to take the companies private at this junction,” says Wang. “[Any] buy-out would likely be well scrutinized by the authorities. With such an uncertain and negative outlook, I’m doubtful of any buyers.”

Analysts say that edtech companies can remain listed if they can successfully spin-off the regulated entities into a non-profit, while pivoting to new educational ventures. But as companies adjust their business models, they’ll need to pour investments into non-core businesses where they have less expertise, Wong notes. “All their tutoring peers will also be making similar business changes, moving into a narrower segment thereby increasing competition.” The strategy also introduces a new hurdle: convincing parents to fork out large sums of cash for non-academic courses, added Wang.

Reducing the burden

China’s new effort to rein in the edtech sector follows a series of government crackdowns on homegrown Internet companies. Beijing’s antitrust and cybersecurity regulators in recent months have reeled in tech behemoths from Internet platform Alibaba to ride-sharing app Didi .

But Beijing’s regulatory campaign against its private education companies has taken a different tone. As China’s population ages, the state wants to boost the country’s declining fertility rate , which many Chinese attribute to the high cost of child-rearing, particularly education and childcare expenses.

The country’s high-pressure education system that centers on the annual gaokao , or college entrance exam, fueled the private education sector’s boom in recent decades. The explosion of online learning in the pandemic exacerbated academic competition as well as education inequality, leading to charges of malpractice against the industry. In June, China’s market regulator fined private tutoring 15 firms for false advertising and pricing fraud.

In this campaign, instead of citing national security or antitrust concerns, the government is recognizing that the education system and edtech sector got too overheated, says Dev Lewis, research fellow at internet think-tank Digital Asia Hub.

“Reducing [students’] workload, reducing pressure on families and improving the quality of education are legitimate problems to tackle in Beijing’s pursuit of a more sustainable environment for Chinese families to have more children,” Lewis says. “But it remains to be seen whether its new rules are real solutions to these issues.”

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Claims of East Asia’s ‘chalk and talk’ teaching success are wrong, and short-sighted too

Visiting Fellow, Research School of Biology and Distinguished Visiting Fellow, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, CHina, Australian National University

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Since Shanghai, China, emerged at the top of international league tables of educational performance such as the OECD’s Program for International Student Assessment ( PISA ), there have been repeated calls for Australia and other western countries to learn from East Asian countries.

One of the more recent comes from Kevin Donnelly, recently published in The Conversation and picked up by The Washington Post and the South China Morning Post . This article advocated that we should learn from the “chalk and talk” teaching methods reported to be used in Shanghai, where a teacher directs instruction from the front of the class, and revive these in Australian schools.

The problem with such calls is the assumption that the success of East Asian countries is due to specific features of their education systems. Even at first glance, this assumption would seem to be dubious. The school systems in these countries are quite diverse and are certainly not universally characterised by the use of chalk and talk, or any other specific teaching method.

It was always possible that the success of East Asian students was primarily due to their commitment to educational success through hard work. Recent work has demonstrated that this alternative explanation is probably correct. This work compares the performance of children of East Asian ethnicity growing up in their country of origin with similar children growing up in Australia.

It is obvious that in migrating to Australia, these children did not bring their schools, their teachers and their teaching methods with them. So, if they continue to be high performers, what they left behind cannot provide the explanation.

The University of London study found that Australian students with East Asian parents outperform those with Australian-born parents in mathematics by the equivalent of nearly three years of schooling. The results of students of East Asian ancestry in Australia were statistically similar to the average score of Shanghai students (613) and significantly higher than scores in Hong Kong, Japan, South Korea, Singapore and Taiwan. Thus students of East Asian ancestry in Australia perform highly without access to the teachers and schools in their country of origin.

There is a lot of evidence pointing to the real factors involved, in particular long hours of out-of-school study. Homework starts early, often as early as pre-school, and increases as students proceed through school. Data from PISA 2012 show that a higher percentage of students from East Asia participate in out-of-school coaching classes than in Australia. They generally spend much longer on homework and study at home as well. These intense study patterns are continued by students of East Asian ancestry growing up in Australia.

A smaller study published in the Journal of Education Policy found similar results. It concluded that:

cultural background appears to be more consequential for the educational attainment of Chinese immigrant students than exposure to the educational systems of Australia or New Zealand.

This success comes with costs Australia doesn’t want

If the greater success of students of East Asian ancestry, both in East Asia and Australia, is a matter of cultural commitment to education, we need to ask if we should emulate the educational pressures imposed by East Asian parents and schools. There are two reasons for doubting that this is a sensible way to go, even if such a substantial cultural shift was feasible in a reasonable time-frame.

Firstly, while we may look to East Asia for lessons, most countries in East Asia are dissatisfied with their educational outcomes. They believe that they are not producing flexible and creative thinkers , and often look to western education systems for a lead.

Secondly, we also need to look at the impact of the educational pressures imposed in East Asia on the children. There are many reports of mental health and attitudinal issues associated with these pressures. One of the best documented is the emergence of an epidemic of myopia , or short-sightedness, in precisely those countries in East Asia that score highly on both educational outcomes and out-of-school coaching and homework in PISA data.

In East Asia, around 80% of students completing secondary school are short-sighted. Around 20% have such severe myopia that they are at a markedly increased risk of irreversible vision loss later in life. Studies have linked these vision problems with extended periods of time spent indoors studying. The human cost of East Asian educational success is very high.

All in all, there is not a lot for us to learn from East Asia on educational success, despite the commentators and policy-makers who follow this line. Instead, it may make more sense for East Asian countries to look at western countries such as Finland, Canada and even Australia and New Zealand. They manage to combine reasonably high educational outcomes with more rounded and balanced development of students, and without an epidemic of myopia.

Kevin Donnelly
Overseas education
East Asian education

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IAS Preparation
NCERT Notes for UPSC
NCERT Notes Education System In India During British Rule

NCERT Notes: Education System In India During British Rule [Modern Indian History For UPSC]

NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam . These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This article talks about the Education System in India during British Rule.

Modern education began in India under British rule. Before the British, India had its own educational systems like the Gurukulas and the Madrassas. The East India Company, during their first 60 years of rule didn’t care much for the education of those they ruled in India. (Even in England, universal education came about at a much later stage.)

Candidates can also download the notes PDF from the link given below.

Education System In India During British Rule (UPSC Notes):- Download PDF Here

Three agents of modern education in India

The British Government (East India Company)
Christian missionaries
Indian intellectuals and reformers

To help ease the path of your IAS preparation, check out the Free NCERT Fundamentals Course– a comprehensive study program to help you cover the NCERTs effectively. Watch the video below to learn more:

Development of Modern Education

The company wanted some educated Indians who could assist them in the administration of the land.
Also, they wanted to understand the local customs and laws well.
For this purpose, Warren Hastings established the Calcutta Madrassa in 1781 for the teaching of Muslim law.
In 1791, a Sanskrit College was started in Varanasi by Jonathan Duncan for the study of Hindu philosophy and laws.
The missionaries supported the spread of Western education in India primarily for their proselytising activities. They established many schools with education only being a means to an end which was Christianising and ‘civilising’ the natives.
The Baptist missionary William Carey had come to India in 1793 and by 1800 there was a Baptist Mission in Serampore, Bengal, and also a number of primary schools there and in nearby areas.
The Indian reformers believed that to keep up with times, a modern educational system was needed to spread rational thinking and scientific principles.
The Charter Act of 1813 was the first step towards education being made an objective of the government.
The act sanctioned a sum of Rs.1 lakh towards the education of Indians in British ruled India. This act also gave an impetus to the missionaries who were given official permission to come to India.
But there was a split in the government over what kind of education was to be offered to the Indians.
The orientalists preferred Indians to be given traditional Indian education. Some others, however, wanted Indians to be educated in the western style of education and be taught western subjects.
There was also another difficulty regarding the language of instruction. Some wanted the use of Indian languages (called vernaculars) while others preferred English.
Due to these issues, the sum of money allotted was not given until 1823 when the General Committee of Public Instruction decided to impart oriental education.
In 1835, it was decided that western sciences and literature would be imparted to Indians through the medium of English by Lord William Bentinck’s government.
Bentinck had appointed Thomas Babington Macaulay as the Chairman of the General Committee of Public Instruction.
Macaulay was an ardent anglicist who had absolute contempt for Indian learning of any kind. He was supported by Reverend Alexander Duff, JR Colvin, etc.
On the side of the orientalists were James Prinsep, Henry Thomas Colebrooke, etc.
Macaulay minutes refer to his proposal of education for the Indians.
English education should be imparted in place of traditional Indian learning because the oriental culture was ‘defective’ and ‘unholy’.
He believed in education a few upper and middle-class students.
In the course of time, education would trickle down to the masses. This was called the infiltration theory.
He wished to create a class of Indians who were Indian in colour and appearance but English in taste and affiliation.
In 1835, the Elphinstone College (Bombay) and the Calcutta Medical College were established.

Sir Charles Wood was the President of the Board of Control of the company in 1854 when he sent a despatch to the then Governor-General of India, Lord Dalhousie.
This is called the ‘Magna Carta of English education in India.’
Regularise education system from the primary to the university levels.
Indians were to be educated in English and their native language.
The education system was to be set up in every province.
Every district should have at least one government school.
Affiliated private schools could be granted aids.
Education of women should be emphasised.
Universities of Madras, Calcutta and Bombay were set up by 1857.
University of Punjab – 1882; University of Allahabad – 1887
This despatch asked the government to take up the responsibility of education of the people.
Although there were a few Englishmen who wanted to spread education for its own sake, the government was chiefly concerned only with its own concerns.
There was a huge demand for clerks and other administrative roles in the company’s functioning.
It was cheaper to get Indians rather than Englishmen from England for these jobs. This was the prime motive.
No doubt it spread western education among Indians, but the rate of literacy was abysmally low during British rule.
The state of women education was pathetic. This was because the government did not want to displease the orthodox nature of Indians and also because women could not generally be employed as clerks.
In 1911, the illiteracy rate in British India was 94%. In 1921, it was 92%.
Scientific and technical education was ignored by the British government.

UPSC Questions about British Education Policy in India

Who introduced british education system in india, how did the british rule affect the education system in india.

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a) Globalization b) Critique of Orientalism (400 words)

A) globalization:.

Globalization is a multifaceted and complex phenomenon that has transformed the world in numerous ways. It refers to the increasing interconnectedness, interdependence, and integration of societies and economies across the globe. Here are some key aspects of globalization:

Economic Globalization: One of the most visible aspects of globalization is the integration of national economies into the global economy. This involves the free flow of goods, services, capital, and information across borders. Globalization has led to the expansion of multinational corporations, the growth of global supply chains, and increased foreign direct investment.
Cultural Exchange: Globalization has facilitated the exchange of cultural ideas, practices, and products. This includes the spread of music, art, fashion, food, and language. It has also led to the proliferation of global brands and the influence of Western culture on a global scale.
Technological Advancements: Advances in technology, particularly in communication and transportation, have been a driving force behind globalization. The internet, mobile phones, and social media have connected people worldwide, making information and communication more accessible.
Migration: Increased mobility and the ease of travel have led to greater international migration. People move across borders in search of better economic opportunities, education, and escape from conflict or persecution.
Environmental Impact: Globalization has had profound environmental effects. The movement of goods and people has increased energy consumption, contributing to climate change. It has also led to deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and overexploitation of natural resources.
Global Governance: International organizations and agreements have become more important in addressing global issues. Entities like the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, and regional trade agreements play roles in setting international norms and resolving disputes.
Economic Inequality: Critics argue that globalization has exacerbated economic inequalities. While some regions and individuals have benefited from increased trade and investment, others have been left behind. Labor market inequalities, wage disparities, and the exploitation of cheap labor in developing countries have been contentious issues.
Cultural Homogenization and Loss: As global culture spreads, there are concerns about the loss of local cultures and languages. Critics argue that globalization can lead to cultural homogenization, where local traditions are marginalized or erased.
Political Consequences: Globalization has implications for national sovereignty and political structures. International organizations and agreements can constrain the ability of states to make independent decisions on issues such as trade, human rights, and the environment.
Health Concerns: The rapid movement of people and goods has implications for global health. The spread of diseases, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, has highlighted the global health challenges that come with increased interconnectivity.

In summary, globalization is a multifaceted and highly debated process that has had both positive and negative impacts on societies and economies worldwide. It has led to increased opportunities for trade, communication, and cultural exchange, but it has also raised concerns about economic inequality, cultural homogenization, and the erosion of local traditions.

b) Critique of Orientalism:

Orientalism is a concept introduced by the Palestinian-American scholar Edward Said in his influential book “Orientalism” (1978). It refers to a Western scholarly and cultural tradition that exoticizes, misrepresents, and often devalues the cultures, histories, and peoples of the “Orient” or the Middle East and Asia. Here are the key points of critique related to Orientalism:

Colonialist and Imperialist Roots: Orientalism emerged during the age of European colonialism when Western powers, particularly European nations, colonized and dominated many regions of the Middle East, Asia, and North Africa. Orientalist scholars played a role in justifying colonial endeavors by portraying Oriental societies as inferior, exotic, and in need of Western “civilizing” influence.
Oversimplification and Generalization: Orientalist scholarship often relied on oversimplified, homogenizing, and generalized depictions of diverse cultures and societies in the East. These depictions ignored the complexities and variations within these regions and contributed to essentialist views.
Eurocentrism and Ethnocentrism: Orientalism is criticized for its Eurocentric perspective, wherein Western knowledge and values were presented as superior, leading to an ethnocentric bias. This biased lens distorted the understanding of Eastern cultures and contributed to a sense of Western cultural and intellectual superiority.
Power Dynamics: Critics argue that Orientalism perpetuated and reinforced power imbalances between the West and the East. By portraying Eastern cultures as exotic and irrational, it served to legitimize Western domination and control over Eastern societies.
Lack of Authenticity: Orientalist representations often lacked authenticity. Scholars, writers, and artists from the West sometimes portrayed Eastern cultures and traditions in ways that were based on stereotypes, inaccuracies, or their own imaginings rather than genuine understanding.
Impact on Identity and Self-Representation: Orientalism had a profound impact on the identity and self-representation of people from the Middle East and Asia. It influenced how these regions were perceived by the West and how they, in turn, perceived themselves.
Contemporary Relevance: Critics argue that Orientalist biases continue to influence Western attitudes and policies toward the Middle East and Asia. They contend that these biases play a role in shaping international relations and foreign policy decisions.
Call for Decolonization: The critique of Orientalism aligns with broader calls for decolonization in academia and cultural production. It advocates for the deconstruction of Eurocentric and Orientalist frameworks to achieve a more accurate, respectful, and equitable representation of Eastern cultures.

In summary, the critique of Orientalism highlights the historical and ongoing issues with Western representations of the “Orient.” It underscores the need for more balanced and respectful engagement with Eastern cultures and the recognition of the impact of these representations on global dynamics and relations.

Refer Egyankosh ebook for more.

Till 17th century india was the largest gdp contributor worldwide. give an account of reason for disruption of traditional indian economy during british period., karl marx’s theory of surplus value. (500 words), hegel on idealism. comment (500 words), john stuart mill on equal rights for women. comment (500 words), leave a comment cancel reply.

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