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Research Questions & Hypotheses

Generally, in quantitative studies, reviewers expect hypotheses rather than research questions. However, both research questions and hypotheses serve different purposes and can be beneficial when used together.

Research Questions

Clarify the research’s aim (farrugia et al., 2010).

• Research often begins with an interest in a topic, but a deep understanding of the subject is crucial to formulate an appropriate research question.
• Descriptive: “What factors most influence the academic achievement of senior high school students?”
• Comparative: “What is the performance difference between teaching methods A and B?”
• Relationship-based: “What is the relationship between self-efficacy and academic achievement?”
• Increasing knowledge about a subject can be achieved through systematic literature reviews, in-depth interviews with patients (and proxies), focus groups, and consultations with field experts.
• Some funding bodies, like the Canadian Institute for Health Research, recommend conducting a systematic review or a pilot study before seeking grants for full trials.
• The presence of multiple research questions in a study can complicate the design, statistical analysis, and feasibility.
• It’s advisable to focus on a single primary research question for the study.
• The primary question, clearly stated at the end of a grant proposal’s introduction, usually specifies the study population, intervention, and other relevant factors.
• The FINER criteria underscore aspects that can enhance the chances of a successful research project, including specifying the population of interest, aligning with scientific and public interest, clinical relevance, and contribution to the field, while complying with ethical and national research standards.

• The P ICOT approach is crucial in developing the study’s framework and protocol, influencing inclusion and exclusion criteria and identifying patient groups for inclusion.

• Defining the specific population, intervention, comparator, and outcome helps in selecting the right outcome measurement tool.
• The more precise the population definition and stricter the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the more significant the impact on the interpretation, applicability, and generalizability of the research findings.
• A restricted study population enhances internal validity but may limit the study’s external validity and generalizability to clinical practice.
• A broadly defined study population may better reflect clinical practice but could increase bias and reduce internal validity.
• An inadequately formulated research question can negatively impact study design, potentially leading to ineffective outcomes and affecting publication prospects.

Checklist: Good research questions for social science projects (Panke, 2018)

Research Hypotheses

Present the researcher’s predictions based on specific statements.

• These statements define the research problem or issue and indicate the direction of the researcher’s predictions.
• Formulating the research question and hypothesis from existing data (e.g., a database) can lead to multiple statistical comparisons and potentially spurious findings due to chance.
• The research or clinical hypothesis, derived from the research question, shapes the study’s key elements: sampling strategy, intervention, comparison, and outcome variables.
• Hypotheses can express a single outcome or multiple outcomes.
• After statistical testing, the null hypothesis is either rejected or not rejected based on whether the study’s findings are statistically significant.
• Hypothesis testing helps determine if observed findings are due to true differences and not chance.
• Hypotheses can be 1-sided (specific direction of difference) or 2-sided (presence of a difference without specifying direction).
• 2-sided hypotheses are generally preferred unless there’s a strong justification for a 1-sided hypothesis.
• A solid research hypothesis, informed by a good research question, influences the research design and paves the way for defining clear research objectives.

Types of Research Hypothesis

• In a Y-centered research design, the focus is on the dependent variable (DV) which is specified in the research question. Theories are then used to identify independent variables (IV) and explain their causal relationship with the DV.
• Example: “An increase in teacher-led instructional time (IV) is likely to improve student reading comprehension scores (DV), because extensive guided practice under expert supervision enhances learning retention and skill mastery.”
• Hypothesis Explanation: The dependent variable (student reading comprehension scores) is the focus, and the hypothesis explores how changes in the independent variable (teacher-led instructional time) affect it.
• In X-centered research designs, the independent variable is specified in the research question. Theories are used to determine potential dependent variables and the causal mechanisms at play.
• Example: “Implementing technology-based learning tools (IV) is likely to enhance student engagement in the classroom (DV), because interactive and multimedia content increases student interest and participation.”
• Hypothesis Explanation: The independent variable (technology-based learning tools) is the focus, with the hypothesis exploring its impact on a potential dependent variable (student engagement).
• Probabilistic hypotheses suggest that changes in the independent variable are likely to lead to changes in the dependent variable in a predictable manner, but not with absolute certainty.
• Example: “The more teachers engage in professional development programs (IV), the more their teaching effectiveness (DV) is likely to improve, because continuous training updates pedagogical skills and knowledge.”
• Hypothesis Explanation: This hypothesis implies a probable relationship between the extent of professional development (IV) and teaching effectiveness (DV).
• Deterministic hypotheses state that a specific change in the independent variable will lead to a specific change in the dependent variable, implying a more direct and certain relationship.
• Example: “If the school curriculum changes from traditional lecture-based methods to project-based learning (IV), then student collaboration skills (DV) are expected to improve because project-based learning inherently requires teamwork and peer interaction.”
• Hypothesis Explanation: This hypothesis presumes a direct and definite outcome (improvement in collaboration skills) resulting from a specific change in the teaching method.
• Example : “Students who identify as visual learners will score higher on tests that are presented in a visually rich format compared to tests presented in a text-only format.”
• Explanation : This hypothesis aims to describe the potential difference in test scores between visual learners taking visually rich tests and text-only tests, without implying a direct cause-and-effect relationship.
• Example : “Teaching method A will improve student performance more than method B.”
• Explanation : This hypothesis compares the effectiveness of two different teaching methods, suggesting that one will lead to better student performance than the other. It implies a direct comparison but does not necessarily establish a causal mechanism.
• Example : “Students with higher self-efficacy will show higher levels of academic achievement.”
• Explanation : This hypothesis predicts a relationship between the variable of self-efficacy and academic achievement. Unlike a causal hypothesis, it does not necessarily suggest that one variable causes changes in the other, but rather that they are related in some way.

Tips for developing research questions and hypotheses for research studies

• Perform a systematic literature review (if one has not been done) to increase knowledge and familiarity with the topic and to assist with research development.
• Learn about current trends and technological advances on the topic.
• Seek careful input from experts, mentors, colleagues, and collaborators to refine your research question as this will aid in developing the research question and guide the research study.
• Use the FINER criteria in the development of the research question.
• Ensure that the research question follows PICOT format.
• Develop a research hypothesis from the research question.
• Ensure that the research question and objectives are answerable, feasible, and clinically relevant.

If your research hypotheses are derived from your research questions, particularly when multiple hypotheses address a single question, it’s recommended to use both research questions and hypotheses. However, if this isn’t the case, using hypotheses over research questions is advised. It’s important to note these are general guidelines, not strict rules. If you opt not to use hypotheses, consult with your supervisor for the best approach.

Farrugia, P., Petrisor, B. A., Farrokhyar, F., & Bhandari, M. (2010). Practical tips for surgical research: Research questions, hypotheses and objectives.  Canadian journal of surgery. Journal canadien de chirurgie ,  53 (4), 278–281.

Hulley, S. B., Cummings, S. R., Browner, W. S., Grady, D., & Newman, T. B. (2007). Designing clinical research. Philadelphia.

Panke, D. (2018). Research design & method selection: Making good choices in the social sciences.  Research Design & Method Selection , 1-368.

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

Quantitative Research: Examples of Research Questions and Solutions

Are you ready to embark on a journey into the world of quantitative research? Whether you’re a seasoned researcher or just beginning your academic journey, understanding how to formulate effective research questions is essential for conducting meaningful studies. In this blog post, we’ll explore examples of quantitative research questions across various disciplines and discuss how StatsCamp.org courses can provide the tools and support you need to overcome any challenges you may encounter along the way.

Understanding Quantitative Research Questions

Quantitative research involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to answer research questions and test hypotheses. These questions typically seek to understand the relationships between variables, predict outcomes, or compare groups. Let’s explore some examples of quantitative research questions across different fields:

• What is the relationship between class size and student academic performance?
• Does the use of technology in the classroom improve learning outcomes?
• How does parental involvement affect student achievement?
• What is the effect of a new drug treatment on reducing blood pressure?
• Is there a correlation between physical activity levels and the risk of cardiovascular disease?
• How does socioeconomic status influence access to healthcare services?
• What factors influence consumer purchasing behavior?
• Is there a relationship between advertising expenditure and sales revenue?
• How do demographic variables affect brand loyalty?

Stats Camp: Your Solution to Mastering Quantitative Research Methodologies

At StatsCamp.org, we understand that navigating the complexities of quantitative research can be daunting. That’s why we offer a range of courses designed to equip you with the knowledge and skills you need to excel in your research endeavors. Whether you’re interested in learning about regression analysis, experimental design, or structural equation modeling, our experienced instructors are here to guide you every step of the way.

Bringing Your Own Data

One of the unique features of StatsCamp.org is the opportunity to bring your own data to the learning process. Our instructors provide personalized guidance and support to help you analyze your data effectively and overcome any roadblocks you may encounter. Whether you’re struggling with data cleaning, model specification, or interpretation of results, our team is here to help you succeed.

Courses Offered at StatsCamp.org

• Latent Profile Analysis Course : Learn how to identify subgroups, or profiles, within a heterogeneous population based on patterns of responses to multiple observed variables.
• Bayesian Statistics Course : A comprehensive introduction to Bayesian data analysis, a powerful statistical approach for inference and decision-making. Through a series of engaging lectures and hands-on exercises, participants will learn how to apply Bayesian methods to a wide range of research questions and data types.
• Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) Course : Dive into advanced statistical techniques for modeling complex relationships among variables.
• Multilevel Modeling Course : A in-depth exploration of this advanced statistical technique, designed to analyze data with nested structures or hierarchies. Whether you’re studying individuals within groups, schools within districts, or any other nested data structure, multilevel modeling provides the tools to account for the dependencies inherent in such data.

As you embark on your journey into quantitative research, remember that StatsCamp.org is here to support you every step of the way. Whether you’re formulating research questions, analyzing data, or interpreting results, our courses provide the knowledge and expertise you need to succeed. Join us today and unlock the power of quantitative research!

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How to Write Quantitative Research Questions: Types With Examples

Has it ever happened that you conducted a quantitative research study and found out the results you were expecting are quite different from the actual results?

This could happen due to many factors like the unpredictable nature of respondents, errors in calculation, research bias, etc. However, your quantitative research usually does not provide reliable results when questions are not written correctly.

We get it! Structuring the quantitative research questions can be a difficult task.

Hence, in this blog, we will share a few bits of advice on how to write good quantitative research questions. We will also look at different types of quantitative research questions along with their examples.

Let’s start:

How to Write Quantitative Research Questions?

When you want to obtain actionable insight into the trends and patterns of the research topic to make sense of it, quantitative research questions are your best bet.

Being objective in nature, these questions provide you with detailed information about the research topic and help in collecting quantifiable data that can be easily analyzed. This data can be generalized to the entire population and help make data-driven and sound decisions.

Respondents find it easier to answer quantitative survey questions than qualitative questions. At the same time, researchers can also analyze them quickly using various statistical models.

However, when it comes to writing the quantitative research questions, one can get a little overwhelmed as the entire study depends on the types of questions used.

There is no “one good way” to prepare these questions. However, to design well-structured quantitative research questions, you can follow the 4-steps approach given below:

1. Select the Type of Quantitative Question

The first step is to determine which type of quantitative question you want to add to your study. There are three types of quantitative questions:

• Descriptive
• Comparative 
• Relationship-based

This will help you choose the correct words and phrases while constructing the question. At the same time, it will also assist readers in understanding the question correctly.

2. Identify the Type of Variable

The second step involves identifying the type of variable you are trying to measure, manipulate, or control. Basically, there are two types of variables:

• Independent variable (a variable that is being manipulated)
• Dependent variable (outcome variable)

If you plan to use descriptive research questions, you have to deal with a number of dependent variables. However, where you plan to create comparative or relationship research questions, you will deal with both dependent and independent variables.

3. Select the Suitable Structure

The next step is determining the structure of the research question. It involves:

• Identifying the components of the question. It involves the type of dependent or independent variable and a group of interest (the group from which the researcher tries to conclude the population).
• The number of different components used. Like, as to how many variables and groups are being examined.
• Order in which these are presented. For example, the independent variable before the dependent variable or vice versa.

4. Draft the Complete Research Question

The last step involves identifying the problem or issue that you are trying to address in the form of complete quantitative survey questions . Also, make sure to build an exhaustive list of response options to make sure your respondents select the correct response. If you miss adding important answer options, then the ones chosen by respondents may not be entirely true.

Want to create a quantitative research survey hassle-free? Explore our library of 1,000,000+ readymade questions.

Types of Quantitative Research Questions With Examples

Quantitative research questions are generally used to answer the “who” and “what” of the research topic. For quantitative research to be effective, it is crucial that the respondents are able to answer your questions concisely and precisely. With that in mind, let’s look in greater detail at the three types of formats you can use when preparing quantitative market research questions.

1. Descriptive 

Descriptive research questions are used to collect participants’ opinions about the variable that you want to quantify. It is the most effortless way to measure the particular variable (single or multiple variables) you are interested in on a large scale. Usually, descriptive research questions begin with “ how much,” “how often,” “what percentage,” “what proportion,” etc.

Examples of descriptive research questions include:

2. Comparative

Comparative research questions help you identify the difference between two or more groups based on one or more variables. In general, a comparative research question is used to quantify one variable; however, you can use two or more variables depending on your market research objectives.

Comparative research questions examples include:

3. Relationship-based

Relationship research questions are used to identify trends, causal relationships, or associations between two or more variables. It is not vital to distinguish between causal relationships, trends, or associations while using these types of questions. These questions begin with “What is the relationship” between independent and dependent variables, amongst or between two or more groups.

Relationship-based quantitative questions examples include:

Ready to Write Your Quantitative Research Questions?

So, there you have it. It was all about quantitative research question types and their examples. By now, you must have figured out a way to write quantitative research questions for your survey to collect actionable customer feedback.

Now, the only thing you need is a good survey maker tool , like ProProfs Survey Maker , that will glide your process of designing and conducting your surveys . You also get access to various survey question types, both qualitative and quantitative, that you can add to any kind of survey along with professionally-designed survey templates .

About the author

Emma David is a seasoned market research professional with 8+ years of experience. Having kick-started her journey in research, she has developed rich expertise in employee engagement, survey creation and administration, and data management. Emma believes in the power of data to shape business performance positively. She continues to help brands and businesses make strategic decisions and improve their market standing through her understanding of research methodologies.

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Research Writing and Analysis

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Research Questions Tutorial

What is a Quantitative Research Question?

A research question is the driving question(s) behind your research. It should be about an issue that you are genuinely curious and/or passionate about. A good research question is:

Clear :  The purpose of the study should be clear to the reader, without additional explanation.

Focused :  The question is specific. Narrow enough in scope that it can be thoroughly explored within the page limits of the research paper. It brings the common thread that weaves throughout the paper.

Concise :  Clarity should be obtained in the fewest possible words. This is not the place to add unnecessary descriptors and fluff (i.e. “very”).

Complex :  A true research question is not a yes/no question. It brings together a collection of ideas obtained from extensive research, without losing focus or clarity.

Arguable :  It doesn’t provide a definitive answer. Rather, it presents a potential position that future studies could debate.

The format of a research question will depend on a number of factors, including the area of discipline, the proposed research design, and the anticipated analysis.

Unclear:   Does loneliness cause the jitters? Clear:   What is the relationship between feelings of loneliness, as measured by the Lonely Inventory, and uncontrollable shaking?

Unfocused:   What’s the best way to learn? Focused:   In what ways do different teaching styles affect recall and retention in middle schoolers?

Verbose :  Can reading different books of varying genres influence a person’s performance on a test that measures familiarity and knowledge of different words?

Concise:   How does exposure to words through reading novels influence a person’s language development?

Definitive:   What is my favorite color? Arguable:   What is the most popular color amongst teens in America?

Developing a Quantitative Research Question

Developing a research question.

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• Last Updated: Jul 9, 2024 3:24 PM
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educational research techniques

Research techniques and education.

Developing Research Questions for Quantitative Studies

Research questions in the empirical process set the stage for an entire study. For this reason, it is critically important that the research questions of any study are worded in a way that allows a researcher to answer the questions clearly and succinctly. In this post, we will look at general guidelines for forming research questions as well as look at three common formats that are used when making research questions.

General  Guidelines

• With sounding redundant, research questions pose a question. This is in contrast to hypotheses which make a statement.
• Common first words in research questions are “how,” “why,” or “what.”
• Indicate what are the independent, dependent, and if necessary the mediating and intervening variables.
• It is important to also include the participants and location of a study in the question(s)
• Lastly, common verbs used in research question(s) include describe, compare, and relate

The last bullet in the list above is of particular importance because it leads into the next section.

Types of Questions

There are at least three types of research questions in quantitative studies and the are

• descriptive questions
• comparison questions
• relationship questions

Descriptive Questions

Descriptive questions identify a participants response to a question/variable. One possible template of a descriptive question is below. The underlined portion needs to be completed for each study. The template is followed by an example.

TEMPLATE How often do ( participants)  ( variable) at ( research location)?

EXAMPLE How often do students exercise at the university level?

EXPLANATION In this question the participants are students, the variable is the amount of exercise, and the research location is university level. Descriptive questions strictly describe a variable. Higher level inferences is not a part of this approach. If you look carefully you will notice there is no independent or dependent variable because we are not looking for any relationship. There is only a variable that we describe.

Comparison Questions

Comparison questions seek to understand if two groups are different on one or more dependent variables. We will modify the previous example on exercise and students for this question. The underlined portion needs to be completed for each study. The template is followed by an example.

TEMPLATE How are/is  (group 1)  different from (group 2) in terms of ( dependent variable)  for (participants)  at ( research location)?

EXAMPLE How are men different from women in terms of exercise amount for students at university?

EXPLANATION The groups are men and women, the dependent variable is the amount of exercise, participants are students, and the research location is university. This type of question only points out the difference but does not explain. For an explanation, we need to use relationship questions as described next.

Relationship Questions

Relationship questions try to answer the question of the strength of a relationship between two or more variables. One possible template of a relationship question is below. The underlined portion needs to be completed for each study. The template is followed by an example.

TEMPLATE How does  (independent variable)  relate to/influence ( dependent variable)  for (participants) at ( research location)?

EXAMPLE How does exercise influence GPA for students at the university level?

EXPLANATION In this question the independent variable is exercise, the dependent variable is GPA, the participants are students, and the research location is a university. The goal is to see the strength of the relationship. This information can be used to explain exercises influence on GPA or to predict potential GPAs of students based on the amount of exercise they get or vice versa.

Good questions lead to good answers. This is one reason why research questions matter so much. They must be clearly set forth at the beginning of any study. The examples above are not the only way to approach this. However, they do provide a starting point for those who are new to research.

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• What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods

What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods

Published on June 12, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio).

Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.

• What is the demographic makeup of Singapore in 2020?
• How has the average temperature changed globally over the last century?
• Does environmental pollution affect the prevalence of honey bees?
• Does working from home increase productivity for people with long commutes?

Table of contents

Quantitative research methods, quantitative data analysis, advantages of quantitative research, disadvantages of quantitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about quantitative research.

You can use quantitative research methods for descriptive, correlational or experimental research.

• In descriptive research , you simply seek an overall summary of your study variables.
• In correlational research , you investigate relationships between your study variables.
• In experimental research , you systematically examine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

Correlational and experimental research can both be used to formally test hypotheses , or predictions, using statistics. The results may be generalized to broader populations based on the sampling method used.

To collect quantitative data, you will often need to use operational definitions that translate abstract concepts (e.g., mood) into observable and quantifiable measures (e.g., self-ratings of feelings and energy levels).

Note that quantitative research is at risk for certain research biases , including information bias , omitted variable bias , sampling bias , or selection bias . Be sure that you’re aware of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data to prevent them from impacting your work too much.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Once data is collected, you may need to process it before it can be analyzed. For example, survey and test data may need to be transformed from words to numbers. Then, you can use statistical analysis to answer your research questions .

Descriptive statistics will give you a summary of your data and include measures of averages and variability. You can also use graphs, scatter plots and frequency tables to visualize your data and check for any trends or outliers.

Using inferential statistics , you can make predictions or generalizations based on your data. You can test your hypothesis or use your sample data to estimate the population parameter .

First, you use descriptive statistics to get a summary of the data. You find the mean (average) and the mode (most frequent rating) of procrastination of the two groups, and plot the data to see if there are any outliers.

You can also assess the reliability and validity of your data collection methods to indicate how consistently and accurately your methods actually measured what you wanted them to.

Quantitative research is often used to standardize data collection and generalize findings . Strengths of this approach include:

• Replication

Repeating the study is possible because of standardized data collection protocols and tangible definitions of abstract concepts.

• Direct comparisons of results

The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different groups of participants. Results can be compared statistically.

• Large samples

Data from large samples can be processed and analyzed using reliable and consistent procedures through quantitative data analysis.

• Hypothesis testing

Using formalized and established hypothesis testing procedures means that you have to carefully consider and report your research variables, predictions, data collection and testing methods before coming to a conclusion.

Despite the benefits of quantitative research, it is sometimes inadequate in explaining complex research topics. Its limitations include:

• Superficiality

Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent complex concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a number in quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.

• Narrow focus

Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other relevant observations.

• Structural bias

Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative research. Missing data , imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling methods are biases that can lead to the wrong conclusions.

• Lack of context

Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails to consider historical and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

• Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

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Quantitative research in education : Background information

• Background information
• SAGE researchmethods SAGE Research Methods is a tool created to help researchers, faculty and students with their research projects. Users can explore methods concepts to help them design research projects, understand particular methods or identify a new method, conduct their research, and write up their findings. Since SAGE Research Methods focuses on methodology rather than disciplines, it can be used across the social sciences, health sciences, and other areas of research.

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100+ Quantitative Research Topics For Students

Quantitative research is a research strategy focusing on quantified data collection and analysis processes. This research strategy emphasizes testing theories on various subjects. It also includes collecting and analyzing non-numerical data.

Quantitative research is a common approach in the natural and social sciences , like marketing, business, sociology, chemistry, biology, economics, and psychology. So, if you are fond of statistics and figures, a quantitative research title would be an excellent option for your research proposal or project.

How to Get a Title of Quantitative Research

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Finding a great title is the key to writing a great quantitative research proposal or paper. A title for quantitative research prepares you for success, failure, or mediocre grades. This post features examples of quantitative research titles for all students.

Putting together a research title and quantitative research design is not as easy as some students assume. So, an example topic of quantitative research can help you craft your own. However, even with the examples, you may need some guidelines for personalizing your research project or proposal topics.

So, here are some tips for getting a title for quantitative research:

• Consider your area of studies
• Look out for relevant subjects in the area
• Expert advice may come in handy
• Check out some sample quantitative research titles

Making a quantitative research title is easy if you know the qualities of a good title in quantitative research. Reading about how to make a quantitative research title may not help as much as looking at some samples. Looking at a quantitative research example title will give you an idea of where to start.

However, let’s look at some tips for how to make a quantitative research title:

• The title should seem interesting to readers
• Ensure that the title represents the content of the research paper
• Reflect on the tone of the writing in the title
• The title should contain important keywords in your chosen subject to help readers find your paper
• The title should not be too lengthy
• It should be grammatically correct and creative
• It must generate curiosity

An excellent quantitative title should be clear, which implies that it should effectively explain the paper and what readers can expect. A research title for quantitative research is the gateway to your article or proposal. So, it should be well thought out. Additionally, it should give you room for extensive topic research.

A sample of quantitative research titles will give you an idea of what a good title for quantitative research looks like. Here are some examples:

• What is the correlation between inflation rates and unemployment rates?
• Has climate adaptation influenced the mitigation of funds allocation?
• Job satisfaction and employee turnover: What is the link?
• A look at the relationship between poor households and the development of entrepreneurship skills
• Urbanization and economic growth: What is the link between these elements?
• Does education achievement influence people’s economic status?
• What is the impact of solar electricity on the wholesale energy market?
• Debt accumulation and retirement: What is the relationship between these concepts?
• Can people with psychiatric disorders develop independent living skills?
• Children’s nutrition and its impact on cognitive development

Quantitative research applies to various subjects in the natural and social sciences. Therefore, depending on your intended subject, you have numerous options. Below are some good quantitative research topics for students:

• The difference between the colorific intake of men and women in your country
• Top strategies used to measure customer satisfaction and how they work
• Black Friday sales: are they profitable?
• The correlation between estimated target market and practical competitive risk assignment
• Are smartphones making us brighter or dumber?
• Nuclear families Vs. Joint families: Is there a difference?
• What will society look like in the absence of organized religion?
• A comparison between carbohydrate weight loss benefits and high carbohydrate diets?
• How does emotional stability influence your overall well-being?
• The extent of the impact of technology in the communications sector

Creativity is the key to creating a good research topic in quantitative research. Find a good quantitative research topic below:

• How much exercise is good for lasting physical well-being?
• A comparison of the nutritional therapy uses and contemporary medical approaches
• Does sugar intake have a direct impact on diabetes diagnosis?
• Education attainment: Does it influence crime rates in society?
• Is there an actual link between obesity and cancer rates?
• Do kids with siblings have better social skills than those without?
• Computer games and their impact on the young generation
• Has social media marketing taken over conventional marketing strategies?
• The impact of technology development on human relationships and communication
• What is the link between drug addiction and age?

Need more quantitative research title examples to inspire you? Here are some quantitative research title examples to look at:

• Habitation fragmentation and biodiversity loss: What is the link?
• Radiation has affected biodiversity: Assessing its effects
• An assessment of the impact of the CORONA virus on global population growth
• Is the pandemic truly over, or have human bodies built resistance against the virus?
• The ozone hole and its impact on the environment
• The greenhouse gas effect: What is it and how has it impacted the atmosphere
• GMO crops: are they good or bad for your health?
• Is there a direct link between education quality and job attainment?
• How have education systems changed from traditional to modern times?
• The good and bad impacts of technology on education qualities

Your examiner will give you excellent grades if you come up with a unique title and outstanding content. Here are some quantitative research examples titles.

• Online classes: are they helpful or not?
• What changes has the global CORONA pandemic had on the population growth curve?
• Daily habits influenced by the global pandemic
• An analysis of the impact of culture on people’s personalities
• How has feminism influenced the education system’s approach to the girl child’s education?
• Academic competition: what are its benefits and downsides for students?
• Is there a link between education and student integrity?
• An analysis of how the education sector can influence a country’s economy
• An overview of the link between crime rates and concern for crime
• Is there a link between education and obesity?

Research title example quantitative topics when well-thought guarantees a paper that is a good read. Look at the examples below to get started.

• What are the impacts of online games on students?
• Sex education in schools: how important is it?
• Should schools be teaching about safe sex in their sex education classes?
• The correlation between extreme parent interference on student academic performance
• Is there a real link between academic marks and intelligence?
• Teacher feedback: How necessary is it, and how does it help students?
• An analysis of modern education systems and their impact on student performance
• An overview of the link between academic performance/marks and intelligence
• Are grading systems helpful or harmful to students?
• What was the impact of the pandemic on students?

Irrespective of the course you take, here are some titles that can fit diverse subjects pretty well. Here are some creative quantitative research title ideas:

• A look at the pre-corona and post-corona economy
• How are conventional retail businesses fairing against eCommerce sites like Amazon and Shopify?
• An evaluation of mortality rates of heart attacks
• Effective treatments for cardiovascular issues and their prevention
• A comparison of the effectiveness of home care and nursing home care
• Strategies for managing effective dissemination of information to modern students
• How does educational discrimination influence students’ futures?
• The impacts of unfavorable classroom environment and bullying on students and teachers
• An overview of the implementation of STEM education to K-12 students
• How effective is digital learning?

If your paper addresses a problem, you must present facts that solve the question or tell more about the question. Here are examples of quantitative research titles that will inspire you.

• An elaborate study of the influence of telemedicine in healthcare practices
• How has scientific innovation influenced the defense or military system?
• The link between technology and people’s mental health
• Has social media helped create awareness or worsened people’s mental health?
• How do engineers promote green technology?
• How can engineers raise sustainability in building and structural infrastructures?
• An analysis of how decision-making is dependent on someone’s sub-conscious
• A comprehensive study of ADHD and its impact on students’ capabilities
• The impact of racism on people’s mental health and overall wellbeing
• How has the current surge in social activism helped shape people’s relationships?

Are you looking for an example of a quantitative research title? These ten examples below will get you started.

• The prevalence of nonverbal communication in social control and people’s interactions
• The impacts of stress on people’s behavior in society
• A study of the connection between capital structures and corporate strategies
• How do changes in credit ratings impact equality returns?
• A quantitative analysis of the effect of bond rating changes on stock prices
• The impact of semantics on web technology
• An analysis of persuasion, propaganda, and marketing impact on individuals
• The dominant-firm model: what is it, and how does it apply to your country’s retail sector?
• The role of income inequality in economy growth
• An examination of juvenile delinquents’ treatment in your country

Excellent Topics For Quantitative Research

Here are some titles for quantitative research you should consider:

• Does studying mathematics help implement data safety for businesses
• How are art-related subjects interdependent with mathematics?
• How do eco-friendly practices in the hospitality industry influence tourism rates?
• A deep insight into how people view eco-tourisms
• Religion vs. hospitality: Details on their correlation
• Has your country’s tourist sector revived after the pandemic?
• How effective is non-verbal communication in conveying emotions?
• Are there similarities between the English and French vocabulary?
• How do politicians use persuasive language in political speeches?
• The correlation between popular culture and translation

Here are some quantitative research titles examples for your consideration:

• How do world leaders use language to change the emotional climate in their nations?
• Extensive research on how linguistics cultivate political buzzwords
• The impact of globalization on the global tourism sector
• An analysis of the effects of the pandemic on the worldwide hospitality sector
• The influence of social media platforms on people’s choice of tourism destinations
• Educational tourism: What is it and what you should know about it
• Why do college students experience math anxiety?
• Is math anxiety a phenomenon?
• A guide on effective ways to fight cultural bias in modern society
• Creative ways to solve the overpopulation issue

An example of quantitative research topics for 12 th -grade students will come in handy if you want to score a good grade. Here are some of the best ones:

• The link between global warming and climate change
• What is the greenhouse gas impact on biodiversity and the atmosphere
• Has the internet successfully influenced literacy rates in society
• The value and downsides of competition for students
• A comparison of the education system in first-world and third-world countries
• The impact of alcohol addiction on the younger generation
• How has social media influenced human relationships?
• Has education helped boost feminism among men and women?
• Are computers in classrooms beneficial or detrimental to students?
• How has social media improved bullying rates among teenagers?

High school students can apply research titles on social issues  or other elements, depending on the subject. Let’s look at some quantitative topics for students:

• What is the right age to introduce sex education for students
• Can extreme punishment help reduce alcohol consumption among teenagers?
• Should the government increase the age of sexual consent?
• The link between globalization and the local economy collapses
• How are global companies influencing local economies?

There are numerous possible quantitative research topics you can write about. Here are some great quantitative research topics examples:

• The correlation between video games and crime rates
• Do college studies impact future job satisfaction?
• What can the education sector do to encourage more college enrollment?
• The impact of education on self-esteem
• The relationship between income and occupation

You can find inspiration for your research topic from trending affairs on social media or in the news. Such topics will make your research enticing. Find a trending topic for quantitative research example from the list below:

• How the country’s economy is fairing after the pandemic
• An analysis of the riots by women in Iran and what the women gain to achieve
• Is the current US government living up to the voter’s expectations?
• How is the war in Ukraine affecting the global economy?
• Can social media riots affect political decisions?

A proposal is a paper you write proposing the subject you would like to cover for your research and the research techniques you will apply. If the proposal is approved, it turns to your research topic. Here are some quantitative titles you should consider for your research proposal:

• Military support and economic development: What is the impact in developing nations?
• How does gun ownership influence crime rates in developed countries?
• How can the US government reduce gun violence without influencing people’s rights?
• What is the link between school prestige and academic standards?
• Is there a scientific link between abortion and the definition of viability?

You can never have too many sample titles. The samples allow you to find a unique title you’re your research or proposal. Find a sample quantitative research title here:

• Does weight loss indicate good or poor health?
• Should schools do away with grading systems?
• The impact of culture on student interactions and personalities
• How can parents successfully protect their kids from the dangers of the internet?
• Is the US education system better or worse than Europe’s?

If you’re a business major, then you must choose a research title quantitative about business. Let’s look at some research title examples quantitative in business:

• Creating shareholder value in business: How important is it?
• The changes in credit ratings and their impact on equity returns
• The importance of data privacy laws in business operations
• How do businesses benefit from e-waste and carbon footprint reduction?
• Organizational culture in business: what is its importance?

We Are A Call Away

Interesting, creative, unique, and easy quantitative research topics allow you to explain your paper and make research easy. Therefore, you should not take choosing a research paper or proposal topic lightly. With your topic ready, reach out to us today for excellent research paper writing services .

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Research Topics & Ideas: Education

170+ Research Ideas To Fast-Track Your Project

If you’re just starting out exploring education-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research topic ideation process by providing a hearty list of research topics and ideas , including examples from actual dissertations and theses..

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . To develop a suitable education-related research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan of action to fill that gap.

If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, if you’d like hands-on help, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Overview: Education Research Topics

• How to find a research topic (video)
• List of 50+ education-related research topics/ideas
• List of 120+ level-specific research topics 
• Examples of actual dissertation topics in education
• Tips to fast-track your topic ideation (video)
• Free Webinar : Topic Ideation 101
• Where to get extra help

Education-Related Research Topics & Ideas

Below you’ll find a list of education-related research topics and idea kickstarters. These are fairly broad and flexible to various contexts, so keep in mind that you will need to refine them a little. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

• The impact of school funding on student achievement
• The effects of social and emotional learning on student well-being
• The effects of parental involvement on student behaviour
• The impact of teacher training on student learning
• The impact of classroom design on student learning
• The impact of poverty on education
• The use of student data to inform instruction
• The role of parental involvement in education
• The effects of mindfulness practices in the classroom
• The use of technology in the classroom
• The role of critical thinking in education
• The use of formative and summative assessments in the classroom
• The use of differentiated instruction in the classroom
• The use of gamification in education
• The effects of teacher burnout on student learning
• The impact of school leadership on student achievement
• The effects of teacher diversity on student outcomes
• The role of teacher collaboration in improving student outcomes
• The implementation of blended and online learning
• The effects of teacher accountability on student achievement
• The effects of standardized testing on student learning
• The effects of classroom management on student behaviour
• The effects of school culture on student achievement
• The use of student-centred learning in the classroom
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on student outcomes
• The achievement gap in minority and low-income students
• The use of culturally responsive teaching in the classroom
• The impact of teacher professional development on student learning
• The use of project-based learning in the classroom
• The effects of teacher expectations on student achievement
• The use of adaptive learning technology in the classroom
• The impact of teacher turnover on student learning
• The effects of teacher recruitment and retention on student learning
• The impact of early childhood education on later academic success
• The impact of parental involvement on student engagement
• The use of positive reinforcement in education
• The impact of school climate on student engagement
• The role of STEM education in preparing students for the workforce
• The effects of school choice on student achievement
• The use of technology in the form of online tutoring

Level-Specific Research Topics

Looking for research topics for a specific level of education? We’ve got you covered. Below you can find research topic ideas for primary, secondary and tertiary-level education contexts. Click the relevant level to view the respective list.

Research Topics: Pick An Education Level

Primary education.

• Investigating the effects of peer tutoring on academic achievement in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of mindfulness practices in primary school classrooms
• Examining the effects of different teaching strategies on primary school students’ problem-solving skills
• The use of storytelling as a teaching strategy in primary school literacy instruction
• The role of cultural diversity in promoting tolerance and understanding in primary schools
• The impact of character education programs on moral development in primary school students
• Investigating the use of technology in enhancing primary school mathematics education
• The impact of inclusive curriculum on promoting equity and diversity in primary schools
• The impact of outdoor education programs on environmental awareness in primary school students
• The influence of school climate on student motivation and engagement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of early literacy interventions on reading comprehension in primary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student achievement in primary schools
• Exploring the benefits of inclusive education for students with special needs in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of teacher-student feedback on academic motivation in primary schools
• The role of technology in developing digital literacy skills in primary school students
• Effective strategies for fostering a growth mindset in primary school students
• Investigating the role of parental support in reducing academic stress in primary school children
• The role of arts education in fostering creativity and self-expression in primary school students
• Examining the effects of early childhood education programs on primary school readiness
• Examining the effects of homework on primary school students’ academic performance
• The role of formative assessment in improving learning outcomes in primary school classrooms
• The impact of teacher-student relationships on academic outcomes in primary school
• Investigating the effects of classroom environment on student behavior and learning outcomes in primary schools
• Investigating the role of creativity and imagination in primary school curriculum
• The impact of nutrition and healthy eating programs on academic performance in primary schools
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on primary school students’ well-being and academic performance
• The role of parental involvement in academic achievement of primary school children
• Examining the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior in primary school
• The role of school leadership in creating a positive school climate Exploring the benefits of bilingual education in primary schools
• The effectiveness of project-based learning in developing critical thinking skills in primary school students
• The role of inquiry-based learning in fostering curiosity and critical thinking in primary school students
• The effects of class size on student engagement and achievement in primary schools
• Investigating the effects of recess and physical activity breaks on attention and learning in primary school
• Exploring the benefits of outdoor play in developing gross motor skills in primary school children
• The effects of educational field trips on knowledge retention in primary school students
• Examining the effects of inclusive classroom practices on students’ attitudes towards diversity in primary schools
• The impact of parental involvement in homework on primary school students’ academic achievement
• Investigating the effectiveness of different assessment methods in primary school classrooms
• The influence of physical activity and exercise on cognitive development in primary school children
• Exploring the benefits of cooperative learning in promoting social skills in primary school students

Secondary Education

• Investigating the effects of school discipline policies on student behavior and academic success in secondary education
• The role of social media in enhancing communication and collaboration among secondary school students
• The impact of school leadership on teacher effectiveness and student outcomes in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of technology integration on teaching and learning in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of interdisciplinary instruction in promoting critical thinking skills in secondary schools
• The impact of arts education on creativity and self-expression in secondary school students
• The effectiveness of flipped classrooms in promoting student learning in secondary education
• The role of career guidance programs in preparing secondary school students for future employment
• Investigating the effects of student-centered learning approaches on student autonomy and academic success in secondary schools
• The impact of socio-economic factors on educational attainment in secondary education
• Investigating the impact of project-based learning on student engagement and academic achievement in secondary schools
• Investigating the effects of multicultural education on cultural understanding and tolerance in secondary schools
• The influence of standardized testing on teaching practices and student learning in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of classroom management strategies on student behavior and academic engagement in secondary education
• The influence of teacher professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of extracurricular activities in promoting holistic development and well-roundedness in secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models on student engagement and achievement in secondary education
• The role of physical education in promoting physical health and well-being among secondary school students
• Investigating the effects of gender on academic achievement and career aspirations in secondary education
• Exploring the benefits of multicultural literature in promoting cultural awareness and empathy among secondary school students
• The impact of school counseling services on student mental health and well-being in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of vocational education and training in preparing secondary school students for the workforce
• The role of digital literacy in preparing secondary school students for the digital age
• The influence of parental involvement on academic success and well-being of secondary school students
• The impact of social-emotional learning programs on secondary school students’ well-being and academic success
• The role of character education in fostering ethical and responsible behavior in secondary school students
• Examining the effects of digital citizenship education on responsible and ethical technology use among secondary school students
• The impact of parental involvement in school decision-making processes on student outcomes in secondary schools
• The role of educational technology in promoting personalized learning experiences in secondary schools
• The impact of inclusive education on the social and academic outcomes of students with disabilities in secondary schools
• The influence of parental support on academic motivation and achievement in secondary education
• The role of school climate in promoting positive behavior and well-being among secondary school students
• Examining the effects of peer mentoring programs on academic achievement and social-emotional development in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of teacher-student relationships on student motivation and achievement in secondary schools
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning programs in promoting civic engagement among secondary school students
• The impact of educational policies on educational equity and access in secondary education
• Examining the effects of homework on academic achievement and student well-being in secondary education
• Investigating the effects of different assessment methods on student performance in secondary schools
• Examining the effects of single-sex education on academic performance and gender stereotypes in secondary schools
• The role of mentoring programs in supporting the transition from secondary to post-secondary education

Tertiary Education

• The role of student support services in promoting academic success and well-being in higher education
• The impact of internationalization initiatives on students’ intercultural competence and global perspectives in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of active learning classrooms and learning spaces on student engagement and learning outcomes in tertiary education
• Exploring the benefits of service-learning experiences in fostering civic engagement and social responsibility in higher education
• The influence of learning communities and collaborative learning environments on student academic and social integration in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of undergraduate research experiences in fostering critical thinking and scientific inquiry skills
• Investigating the effects of academic advising and mentoring on student retention and degree completion in higher education
• The role of student engagement and involvement in co-curricular activities on holistic student development in higher education
• The impact of multicultural education on fostering cultural competence and diversity appreciation in higher education
• The role of internships and work-integrated learning experiences in enhancing students’ employability and career outcomes
• Examining the effects of assessment and feedback practices on student learning and academic achievement in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty professional development on instructional practices and student outcomes in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty-student relationships on student success and well-being in tertiary education
• The impact of college transition programs on students’ academic and social adjustment to higher education
• The impact of online learning platforms on student learning outcomes in higher education
• The impact of financial aid and scholarships on access and persistence in higher education
• The influence of student leadership and involvement in extracurricular activities on personal development and campus engagement
• Exploring the benefits of competency-based education in developing job-specific skills in tertiary students
• Examining the effects of flipped classroom models on student learning and retention in higher education
• Exploring the benefits of online collaboration and virtual team projects in developing teamwork skills in tertiary students
• Investigating the effects of diversity and inclusion initiatives on campus climate and student experiences in tertiary education
• The influence of study abroad programs on intercultural competence and global perspectives of college students
• Investigating the effects of peer mentoring and tutoring programs on student retention and academic performance in tertiary education
• Investigating the effectiveness of active learning strategies in promoting student engagement and achievement in tertiary education
• Investigating the effects of blended learning models and hybrid courses on student learning and satisfaction in higher education
• The role of digital literacy and information literacy skills in supporting student success in the digital age
• Investigating the effects of experiential learning opportunities on career readiness and employability of college students
• The impact of e-portfolios on student reflection, self-assessment, and showcasing of learning in higher education
• The role of technology in enhancing collaborative learning experiences in tertiary classrooms
• The impact of research opportunities on undergraduate student engagement and pursuit of advanced degrees
• Examining the effects of competency-based assessment on measuring student learning and achievement in tertiary education
• Examining the effects of interdisciplinary programs and courses on critical thinking and problem-solving skills in college students
• The role of inclusive education and accessibility in promoting equitable learning experiences for diverse student populations
• The role of career counseling and guidance in supporting students’ career decision-making in tertiary education
• The influence of faculty diversity and representation on student success and inclusive learning environments in higher education

Education-Related Dissertations & Theses

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic in education, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses in the education space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of education-related research projects to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

• From Rural to Urban: Education Conditions of Migrant Children in China (Wang, 2019)
• Energy Renovation While Learning English: A Guidebook for Elementary ESL Teachers (Yang, 2019)
• A Reanalyses of Intercorrelational Matrices of Visual and Verbal Learners’ Abilities, Cognitive Styles, and Learning Preferences (Fox, 2020)
• A study of the elementary math program utilized by a mid-Missouri school district (Barabas, 2020)
• Instructor formative assessment practices in virtual learning environments : a posthumanist sociomaterial perspective (Burcks, 2019)
• Higher education students services: a qualitative study of two mid-size universities’ direct exchange programs (Kinde, 2020)
• Exploring editorial leadership : a qualitative study of scholastic journalism advisers teaching leadership in Missouri secondary schools (Lewis, 2020)
• Selling the virtual university: a multimodal discourse analysis of marketing for online learning (Ludwig, 2020)
• Advocacy and accountability in school counselling: assessing the use of data as related to professional self-efficacy (Matthews, 2020)
• The use of an application screening assessment as a predictor of teaching retention at a midwestern, K-12, public school district (Scarbrough, 2020)
• Core values driving sustained elite performance cultures (Beiner, 2020)
• Educative features of upper elementary Eureka math curriculum (Dwiggins, 2020)
• How female principals nurture adult learning opportunities in successful high schools with challenging student demographics (Woodward, 2020)
• The disproportionality of Black Males in Special Education: A Case Study Analysis of Educator Perceptions in a Southeastern Urban High School (McCrae, 2021)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, in order for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest.  In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic within education, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

66 Comments

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383 Exciting Education Research Topics

Education is vital to every person’s career and life success. People enrolled in higher education programs are 48% less likely to be incarcerated. Moreover, individuals with at least a Bachelor’s degree have the highest employment rates ( 86% ). Thus, investing time and effort in proper education is the best decision you can make in your young years.

Whether you’re interested in studying education or researching this subject for your classes, you will surely benefit from our detailed list of education research topics. Our experts have prepared research suggestions for students of all levels to aid you at every step of your education studies. Read on to find the best pick for your assignment.

• 🔝 Top-15 Research Titles about Education
• #️⃣ Quantitative Research Topics
• ️📋 Qualitative Research Topics
• 🎒 Titles about School Issues in 2024
• 🦼 Research Topics on Special Education
• 👶 Early Childhood Education
• 🧠 Educational Psychology
• 🧸 Child Development Topics
• 👩🏻‍💼 Educational Management Research Topics
• 📑 Dissertation Topics

🏫 Ideas of a Quantitative Research Title about School Problems

🔗 references, 🔝 top-15 research titles about education for 2024.

If you want to write a compelling paper, select an appropriate topic . You can find a unique research title about education in our list below and simplify your writing process.

• The role of education in eradicating poverty.
• The impact of technology on modern learning.
• The influence of social media on effective learning.
• A comparative analysis of student loans and debt accumulation.
• Effective approaches to student privacy and safety in schools.
• How does the school leadership experience shape a student’s personality?
• Evaluate the significance of assistive technology in special education.
• The role of parents in education.
• The importance of multicultural education.
• Homeschooling vs. regular schooling.
• The role of teachers as moral mediators.
• Approaches to prevent mental health issues among college students.
• The effectiveness of standardized tests in graduate schools.
• Should the government ban boarding schools?
• The importance of preschool education.

️#️⃣ 30 Quantitative Research Topics in Education

Quantitative research topics in education require extensive quantitative analysis and assessment of stats and figures. They involve doing calculations to support the research findings and hypotheses . The following are exciting topics on quantitative research you can use:

• The link between the e-learning environment and students’ social anxiety levels.
• Work hours and academic success relationship.
• The correlation between homeschooling and GPA.
• The effectiveness of parental involvement in child education: Statistical evidence.
• Motivation and learning relationship analysis.
• An analysis of the divide between tuition rates in private and public universities.
• The relationship between high tuition fees and poor education.
• Intervention strategies addressing six negative emotions.
• The connection between the national debt and student loans.
• Comparing students’ cognitive development scores in boarding and day schools.
• Formative assessments and raising attainment levels.
• The link between student well-being and teacher fulfillment.
• The correlation between students’ academic workload and mental wellness.
• Traditional or online education: which is better?
• The impact of socioeconomic status on academic performance.
• The link between urbanization and education development.
• The impact of school uniforms on school safety .
• The effects of teaching methods on student performance.
• A correlation between higher education attainment rates and unemployment rates.
• The race and class impact on academic performance.
• The impact of government policies on educational quality.
• The correlation between coding courses and a child’s cognitive development score.
• COVID-19 impact on student academic performance.
• Comparing the outcomes of data science programs for students of various specialties.
• The impact of student leadership on academic performance.
• Video games and their impact on students’ motivation.
• The link between social media use and psychological disorders’ incidence among students.
• The effects of students’ educational attainment on their post-graduation economic position.
• Time management: impact on the academic performance.
• The impact of educational field experiences on students’ career preparedness.

📋 30 Qualitative Research Topics in Education

Numerous issues in education need extensive research. Qualitative research is a way to gain an in-depth understanding of problems facing students and teachers. Below are qualitative research topics in education you can use for your academic project:

• Internet use among elementary school children.
• Educational challenges of students with autism.
• Teachers’ perspectives on the best learning strategies for autistic children.
• A case study of the significance of mental health education in schools.
• Inclusive classroom case study.
• The effects of learning conditions in developing countries.
• Early childhood educators’ perspectives on critical preschool classroom experiences.
• A case study examining why new teachers leave the profession.
• Students’ perceptions of their computer literacy skills.
• Coping strategies of schoolchildren’s parents from food-insecure households.
• Case study of a gifted student.
• High school students’ experiences of virtual learning.
• Students’ perceptions of lockdown browsers.
• Case study of learning disabilities: autism.
• The impact of alcoholism on student performance: A case study.
• A qualitative study of adult learners’ self-regulation in a digital learning environment.
• Human resources challenges in the higher education sphere.
• Academic leadership challenges in nursing schools.
• Students’ motivation to learn a rare foreign language.
• Challenges and barriers to equal opportunities in education.
• The role of teachers in improving learning for disabled children.
• Student loans: The effects on student career life.
• Korean Americans’ challenges in education.
• Teachers’ beliefs about their role in shaping the personalities of students.
• How to curb bullying in schools: Educators’ perspectives.
• Challenges and benefits of today’s student life.
• Remote learning: Advantages and disadvantages from students’ perspective.
• Interviews with teachers on the persistence of racism in schools.
• Learning challenges among people of color in public schools.
• Are students from lower social classes stigmatized in schools?

🎒 Research Titles about School Issues in 2024

Education research is vital in explaining and addressing fundamental issues affecting schools. It explores learning approaches, teaching practices , or educational changes after the pandemic. Choose your ideal research title about school issues from this list:

• The importance of standardized tests. Analyze the pros and cons of standardized tests and the consequences for students who fail the test.
• Government policy on education funding. Examine the flaws in the formula for financing schools and assess whether it is constitutional.
• Computer literacy in schools. Conduct a comparative assessment of effective methods to ensure all schools have enough resources to teach computer studies.
• Digital transformation in education. Analyze issues associated with online learning. Talk about the instructional tools that improve remote education.
• The effects of homeschooling. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of homeschooling and its cognitive impact on young children. Examine its sustainability in modern education.
• School safety in the 21st century. Explore the government policies on gun violence and approaches to prevent school shootings.
• Disciplinary policies in schools. Analyze the leading causes of suspensions and expulsions in schools. Examine the impact of reform policies on preventing undisciplined students’ transition into the juvenile system.
• The teaching of evolution. The is an ongoing debate about how to teach students about the origins of life. You can conduct a qualitative study examining parents’ or teachers’ attitudes toward this question.
• Student loans in higher education. Conduct a case study of students who are beneficiaries of student loans. Assess the effects of debt accumulation on their present careers.
• Bullying in schools. Study the causes and effects of bullying on students. Explore viable solutions to prevent bullying and discipline bullies.

🦼 53 Research Topics on Special Education

Special education is vital in modern society since many students have different disabilities and special needs. Teachers adopt accommodative practices to ensure total inclusivity for effective learning. Special education entails attending to students’ special needs using appropriate resources and accessible learning tools.

The following are research topics on special education to inspire your academic paper :

• Government policies on special education. Explore the policy frameworks and implementation guidelines that advocate special needs education. Talk about learning resources, accessibility, and transition rates to higher education and career life.
• Disabled children in early childhood education. Analyze the impact of special education on young children and determine strategies for effective teaching. Identify the challenges and possible solutions for enhancing seamless learning.
• The role of a school principal in improving special education. Discuss the approaches a principal can introduce to support disabled students. Talk about the instructions that teachers should adopt to guarantee inclusivity.
• Global impact of learning disabilities . Evaluate strategic approaches to special education in different countries. Analyze students’ responses to these methods and possible career paths in various countries.
• Coping mechanisms of special needs children. Investigate stress reactions and emotional security among children with disabilities. Explore methods that teachers can adopt to help students cope with new environments.
• The role of workshops on special educators’ mental wellness. Explore the causes and effects of stress and burnout on teachers in special education. Talk about acceptance and commitment therapy in alleviating depressive episodes.
• Social-emotional development in special education. Explain effective ways to promote social and emotional engagement of special needs children. Discuss parent and teacher training interventions and evaluate the results and implications for future research.
• Impact of technology on special education. Analyze the benefits of assistive technology in improving learning and give examples of tools used in special education. Talk about the barriers faced by special needs children, which result in learning exclusion.
• Discrimination and stigmatization. Conduct a case study of physically disabled children attending regular schools. Explore the psychological impact and trauma faced by special needs children. Present possible recommendations for better learning conditions.
• Effects of parenting style on special needs children. Analyze how different parenting styles can affect the behavior of special needs children. Explore a group of high school students with various disabilities.
• Behavioral issues in early childhood special education. Explore the influence of negative parent-child interactions on the behavior of children with disabilities. Discuss problem-solving models for correcting behavior and creating a positive learning environment.
• Patterns of language acquisition in children with disabilities. Compare language development in healthy and special needs children. Discuss the significance of communication skills in the early years and their effects on future learning.
• Social participation barriers. Compare the barriers to social participation in school faced by students with hearing and visual impairment. Talk about the assistive technologies that offer solutions and prevent social obstacles.
• Teaching strategies for special needs children. Analyze the effectiveness of various teaching approaches regarding their impact on the academic performance of special needs children.
• Disciplining students with disabilities. Explore appropriate methods of enforcing discipline among special needs students without raising controversies. Address the rights of students and ways of encouraging good behavior.

Here are other themes you can consider when writing on a special education topic:

• Discuss collaborative teaching strategies for special educators.
• Special education and teacher burnout.
• Speech-language therapists: The benefits of working in an inclusive environment.
• Discuss the challenges faced by special needs children.
• Special education disability categories.
• Why should special needs children learn in a special school, not a mainstream one?
• Effects of positive social interactions on children with disabilities.
• Teaching strategies for pupils with special educational needs.
• How to prevent bullying of special children?
• Analyze the history of early childhood education for special needs children.
• The inclusion of learners with special educational needs.
• Should the government make special education free for all students?
• The role of parents in instilling self-confidence in their children with disabilities.
• Exceptional children: introduction to special education.
• Why do students with autism face bullying more often than regular students?
• Should teachers be trained in handling special needs children?
• Field experience report and reflection: special education.
• Discuss effective teaching practices in special schools.
• Inclusive learning environment: Does it hinder or promote academic performance?
• Learning disability: special education strategies.
• Government policies on special education.
• A comparative analysis of special education in different countries.
• American special education and early intervention.
• Why are parents of children with disabilities prone to stress?
• Standardized tests for evaluating special needs children in early childhood education.
• Technology integration in special education.
• How to identify gifted children with different disabilities?
• An analysis of education equality for children with disabilities.
• The effect of training employees to work with special education children.
• The effects of teachers’ attitudes on students with dyslexia.
• Special needs children should have equal access to education.
• Special education: parent–professional collaboration.
• Is distance learning effective in special education?
• Evaluate digital literacy in special schools.
• Teacher leadership in special education.
• The importance of peer support in special education.
• Discuss strategies to motivate and retain special educators.
• Autism spectrum disorder and special education issues.

👶 53 Research Topics for Early Childhood Education

Early childhood education is a vital phase that sets the proper academic foundation for students. The early years of a child are essential since education provides a base for future learning abilities and social development .

Below are research topics for early childhood education to inspire your thesis:

• Child development stages. Compare different theories of child development. Analyze the role of the environment and genetics or explain the changes that occur from conception until a child is fully developed.
• The role of parents in early childhood education. Explore parents’ contribution to a child’s cognitive development and behavioral patterns . Discuss the importance of consistent communication with children for their proper development.
• The significance of field activities in preschool. Evaluate the effects of singing, dancing, drawing, painting, and physical exercise on cognitive development. Discuss the teachers’ attitudes toward child performance.
• The history of early childhood theorists. Assess the contribution of Maria Montessori to early childhood education. Describe her approach and explain why multi-sensory learning is essential.
• Computer literacy in young learners. Explore the reasons for introducing computer lessons in preschools. Discuss why young learners need to embrace technology but with strict limitations. Talk about the pros and cons of screen time for young children.
• Development of cognitive abilities in the early years. Analyze how children acquire knowledge, develop skills, and learn to solve problems. You can also focus on the brain development in the early years.
• The importance of play in child development. Explain how playing stimulates the brain and encourages social and emotional development. Give examples of child play and toys and discuss their impact.
• Early detection of special needs children. Explain how preschool educators can detect signs of learning disabilities. Talk about the symptoms of autism, ADHD, and other conditions affecting young learners.
• Teaching strategies in early childhood education. Explore the different teaching approaches used by educators for effective learning. Discuss play-based , inquiry, direct instruction, and project methods and assess their impact on young learners.
• Diversity in preschool. Compare opportunities to learn about cultural differences in homeschooling and regular schooling. Highlight the benefits of diversity for a child’s cognitive development.
• Child trauma. Explain how educators are trained to detect trauma in preschool kids. Talk about the signs of traumatic stress and its impact on a child’s development.
• Legal regulations in early childhood education. Explore the objective of public regulation of education. Discuss children’s rights to education and the regulatory bodies that ensure their protection.
• Contribution of Friedrich Froebel. Explore Froebel’s advocacy of an activity-based approach to early childhood education. Talk about the importance of creative and structured learning for developing minds.
• Effects of social interaction. Discuss the significance of socializing on a child’s cognitive development. Explain why educators should incorporate social activities in preschool to boost a child’s confidence.
• Importance of childcare centers. Evaluate their significance in developing emotional, social, and communication skills. Talk about the safety and health of children in preschool.

Here are some more exciting topics about early childhood education:

• The significance of physical books for preschool children.
• Best practices in early childhood education.
• The effects of divorce on the cognitive development of a preschool child.
• The influence of parents on young children’s moral development .
• Interview with an early childhood professional.
• Teachers’ attitudes toward children with ADHD in preschool.
• Effects of technology in an early childhood class.
• Impact of early childhood experience on the development of the personality .
• The significance of kindergarten in children’s development.
• How does unlimited screen time affect a child’s brain?
• Arts and play in early childhood development.
• Discuss the environmental factors that influence a child’s development.
• What is the observational strategy in early childhood training?
• Early childhood education: leadership and management.
• Significance of outdoor play in kindergarten learners.
• The role of vision therapy in young autistic children.
• Teaching philosophy in early childhood development.
• The influence of video games on young children’s learning outcomes.
• Discuss Vygotsky’s theory of socio-cultural learning.
• Early childhood profession in Australia.
• An analysis of the practical implications of early childhood learning.
• Discuss the objectives of international agreements on early childhood education.
• Environment in early childhood education.
• The barriers and challenges hindering young children’s effective learning.
• Genetic influences on a child’s behavior.
• Curricular issues in early childhood education.
• The significance of play in enhancing social skills.
• How does storytelling improve cognitive development?
• Early childhood safety considerations.
• Does early childhood development affect an individual’s personality?
• The effect of green classroom environment on young children.
• Early childhood education standards and practices.
• The role of diet on child development.
• The influence of culture on a child’s behavior.
• Overcoming stereotypes in early childhood education.
• The impact of bullying on young children.
• Emotional development in early childhood education.
• Stress in early childhood education.

🧠 53 Educational Psychology Research Topics

Educational psychology studies human learning processes, such as memory, conceptual understanding, and social-emotional skills. It covers both cognitive and behavioral aspects. Below are interesting educational psychology research topics to inspire your academic project:

• History of educational psychology. Explore the origin of educational psychology and the contributions made by its founders. Discuss the formal learning steps according to Johann Herbart.
• Young learners vs. adult learners. Explain the difference between learning as a child and an adult. Describe the challenges encountered and problem-solving skills demonstrated by children and adults in different situations.
• Significance of inspirational teaching. Explore the gender differences in teaching strategies. Discuss the pros and cons of incorporating emotions when teaching. Present the findings and implications for student performance.
• Emotion-based learning. Conduct a comparative study among autistic children and regular children in preschool. Explain how emotion-based teaching influences cognitive development and corrects learning impairments in autistic children.
• Importance of discipline models. Construct a case study of high-school students engaging in extra-curricular activities. Establish a connection between discipline models and high achievements. Talk about the psychological impact of a strict routine on shaping an individual’s personality.
• Effects of language challenges. Explore how language impacts the learning abilities of young children and how it may affect a student’s personality and performance later.
• Philosophers of education. Present a comparative evaluation of the history of education philosophers. Talk about the approaches of Juan Vives, Johann Herbart, and Johann Pestalozzi and their contribution to educational psychology.
• Impact of culture on education. Explore how culture can strongly influence an individual’s perception of education. Discuss the positive and negative aspects of culture from modern and historical angles.
• Educational psychology in rural schools. Evaluate the ethical, professional, and legal frameworks of education in rural contexts. Talk about the challenges faced by educators in rural areas.
• Effects of motivation on student performance. Explain the importance of motivation in students. You can focus on high-school learners and assess the effectiveness of a particular system of rewards for good performance.
• Language and literacy in education. Identify and define language issues during early years and the implications for future achievements. Talk about reading and language barriers affecting young children.
• Bell curve approach. Explore the fairness of the bell curve system of grading. Discuss the history of this method and its pros and cons. Explain its educational relevance and role in motivating students.
• Positive psychology in education. Evaluate the role of positive psychology in encouraging student performance. Analyze how schools can integrate mental health education into teaching achievement and accomplishment.
• Stress management techniques. Suggest the best approach to managing academic stress and preventing depression among students. Talk about the leading causes and effects of stress among college students and effective coping techniques.
• Impact of peer pressure. Explain the upsides and downsides of peer groups in school-going children. Discuss the effects of peer pressure on the moral conduct of students.

Here are some more examples of educational psychology topics for your research writing:

• The importance of educational psychology.
• Educational psychology: theory and practice.
• How does a child’s brain develop during learning?
• The risk factors and outcomes of bullying.
• Educational psychology: changing students’ behavior.
• The significance of peer interaction in adolescents.
• Effects of substance abuse on student performance.
• Using educational psychology in teaching.
• The influence of cartoons on a child’s mental state.
• Discuss teenage rebellion against parents.
• Reinforcers in classrooms: educational psychology in teaching.
• The relationship between speech disorders and cognitive development.
• An analysis of psychological theories in education.
• Educational psychology: behaviorism.
• The impact of media violence on child development.
• Explore the trends in educational psychology.
• School facilities in educational psychology.
• The effect of gender stereotyping in schools.
• Autism spectrum : the perspectives of parents and teachers.
• Psychology of learning and memory .
• The influence of the authoritarian parenting style on student performance.
• The impact of single parenting on children’s cognitive development.
• Cognitive learning and IQ tests.
• Discuss major challenges in mathematical thinking.
• An analysis of social-emotional development in children.
• Pathways of adult learning.
• The influence of modern technology on educational psychology.
• The importance of critical thinking in learners.
• Learning styles and their importance .
• Should schools teach moral behavior?
• A comparative study of psychological disorders.
• Anxiety causes and effects on language learning.
• Leading causes of mental health issues among students.
• The significance of professional educators.
• Student motivation and ways to enhance it.
• Discipline approaches for moral development.
• The mechanism of character development in young children.
• Learning and memory relations.

🧸 53 Child Development Topics to Explore

Child development is an important field of study since it investigates the changes a person undergoes from conception to adolescence. Finding a unique topic on child development may be challenging. We offer a comprehensive list of child development topics to simplify your research project:

• Child development theories. Explore significant theories and their importance in explaining children’s social and emotional development. For example, talk about the contributions of Jean Piaget to understanding children’s cognition.
• The significance of social interaction. Evaluate the importance of socialization in a child’s behavior. Present the outcomes of interacting with peers and its influence on a child’s personality.
• Mental health in early childhood development. Explain why mental health is often overlooked in young children. Discuss the signs of psychological problems in children.
• Jean Piaget’s perspective on child development. Explore the history of Piaget’s philosophy and the importance of child psychology in the modern world. Talk about the relevance of each developmental stage.
• Early childhood personality. Study personality development at a young age. Discuss how childhood shapes an individual’s personality throughout their life.
• The impact of gender roles in child development. Explore what part parents and educators play in teaching children about gender roles. Discuss the possible effects of learning gender roles on shaping a child’s perception and actions as an adult.
• The significance of the environment. Explain the role of the environment in developing the human mind during childhood. Consider such environmental factors as friends, housing, climate, and access to basic needs.
• Communication skills in language development. Explain the importance of consistent communication with a child from conception to the early years. Talk about parent-child bonding through communication and how it influences language development.
• The influence of culture on child development. Conduct a comprehensive study of how cultural differences impact a child’s development. Talk about the cultural norms that children are trained to accept as they grow from infancy to adulthood.
• Importance of child observation . Explain why observing a child during the early years is crucial to identify issues in achieving developmental milestones. Discuss the role of parents and educators in child development.
• Attachment theory by John Bowlby. Explore the attachment theory and why interpersonal relationships are essential among humans. Talk about the significance of an emotional bond between a child and a parent to facilitate normal development.
• Erickson’s stages of development. Analyze the eight phases of human development. Discuss the importance of each stage and how it affects an individual’s future behavior and personality.
• Asynchronous development. Explore the challenges of asynchronous development to parents, educators, and the child. Talk about the possible causes and effects of asynchronous development.
• Child research methods. Conduct a comparative analysis of infant research methods. Discuss the key challenges when studying infants. Talk about such approaches as eye tracking, the sucking technique, or brain imaging technology.
• Ethical considerations in child research. Explore the ethical dilemmas when conducting studies on children. Describe the verbal and non-verbal indicators that researchers can use as a child’s consent to participation.

Here are more exciting topics on child development:

• Discuss Piaget’s theory of child development.
• Child development from birth to three wears and the role of adults.
• Importance of play in improving gross motor skills.
• Why do parents need to understand child development theories?
• Attachment and its role in child development.
• The role of music in increasing focus in children.
• Discuss the five steps of cognitive development.
• Child development and education: physical exercise.
• Ego formation in a child.
• Discuss positive parenting styles.
• Cognitive domain of child development: activity plan.
• Effects of food insecurity on child development.
• Explore Vygotsky’s social-cultural theory.
• Gifted students: child development.
• Child development: The role of a mother .
• Importance of language stimulation in young children.
• Physical education: impact on child development.
• Significance of movement in child development.
• An analysis of effective parenting styles.
• Child development theories.
• The influence of genetics on child development.
• The role of a balanced diet in child development.
• Educative toys’ role in child development.
• Why are children more creative than adults?
• The importance of pretend-play on development.
• Connection between screen time and child development.
• Discuss social development theory in relation to children.
• A comparative analysis of Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s theories.
• Child development: ages one through three.
• Discuss the impact of literate communities on child development.
• How can parents deal with stress in children and teenagers?
• Child development and environmental influences.
• The environmental influences on a child’s behavior.
• Pros and cons of imaginary friends.
• The impact of dyslexia on child development.
• Effective approaches in language development.
• The role of books in child development.
• Child development during the COVID-19 pandemic.

👩🏻‍💼 53 Educational Management Research Topics

Educational management is a collection of various components of education. Research topics cover multiple concepts ranging from administrative to financial aspects of education. Here are inspiring educational management research topics for your perusal:

• Higher education leadership. Explore the qualifications of higher education leaders in developed countries. Discuss their implications for pursuing a career in educational management.
• A review of the educational ecosystem. Explore the governing bodies in education. Talk about the government ministries, statutory bodies, principals, administrative personnel, educators, and non-teaching staff. Explain why management is vital at all levels.
• Significance of extra-curricular activities. Explore the role of co-curricular activities in maintaining a holistic education approach. Discuss the types of activities and their benefits for student performance.
• Curriculum planning. Explore the strategies used in curriculum planning and the factors affecting its development, evaluation, and implementation. Discuss the three stages involved in this process.
• Friedrich Frobel’s approach to curriculum development. Explore the key educational components at the preschool level and describe the forms of knowledge. Explain Frobel’s focus on life, knowledge, and beauty.
• The impact of technology. Explore the significance of technology in education management. Investigate such issues as budget limitations, data security concerns, and poor network infrastructure.
• Importance of financial policies in schools. Explain how economic policies offer administrative support to ensure seamless operations. Talk about the revenue streams, school funds, government subsidies, grants, and allowances.
• Health and physical development. Explain why institutions need a health and physical education department. Talk about healthy living and the importance of exercise.
• Significance of human resources. Discuss the role of the HR department in educational institutions. Present the benefits of specific organizational structures and operational policies in ensuring smooth functioning.
• The objectives of educators. Explore the strategies for planning and implementing lessons. Talk about the importance of pedagogical practices in educational management. Discuss the effects of the classroom-management approach.
• National examples of educational management. Conduct a comparative study on Australia, Finland, and Singapore. Discuss the school structure, curriculum, and government policies and involvement.
• Parents’ perception of educational administrative policies. Discuss the parents’ attitudes toward policies from preschool to the university level. Explore both private and public institutions.
• The goals of education ministries. Explore the objectives of the education ministry, such as designing, implementing, monitoring, and evaluating educational legislation. Discuss the leadership roles in ensuring smooth operations of learning institutions.
• Challenges of educators. Explore the leadership styles of educators in high school. Talk about the discipline strategies for dealing with rebellious teenagers and cases of indiscipline.
• Special education. Analyze the features of education management in special schools. Discuss the process of developing individual education plans and dealing with special education issues, such as budgeting or parent education.

Here are some more engaging topics in educational management you can check out to get inspiration:

• Discuss the critical issues of classroom management.
• Why is the UK education system successful?
• Effects of guidance on student performance.
• The effectiveness of standardized tests for measuring student performance.
• Corruption in the education sector: Democratic Republic of Congo.
• The features of managing distance learning systems.
• The role of a principal in school functioning.
• The financial issues in the secondary education area in the US.
• The relationship between a principal’s leadership style and teachers’ satisfaction.
• The link between classroom management and student behavior.
• School principals as agents of change.
• Effects on instructional-based learning on academic performance.
• An analysis of interactive teaching methods.
• School-community partnership and its benefits.
• The influence of government policies in educational administration.
• Discuss educational leadership in the digital age.
• Program quality assessment: teaching and learning.
• The role of educators in moral discipline.
• The impact of a poor educational system.
• The lack of sex education in the Thai educational system.
• An analysis of Montessori education.
• Importance of curriculum planning.
• Teachers’ certification: is it necessary?
• The effects of progressive education.
• The influence of the environment on academic performance.
• How can a principal improve the quality of special education?
• Discuss the impact of teacher motivation.
• Does strict school supervision translate to high academic performance?
• Effectiveness of educational leadership management skills.
• Can poor management of schools result in increased student indiscipline?
• The influence of good administrative leadership in education.
• Educational leadership and instruction differentiation.
• Factors preventing effective school management.
• Explore biases in educational administration.
• The use of standardized tests in college admissions.
• The link between academic performance and school accountability.
• Gender equality in educational management.
• Financial issues facing US higher education.

📑 15 Dissertation Topics in Education

Dissertation research is more complex than usual research for college or university assignments. It requires more originality and extends over a longer period. Here are some dissertation topics in education you can consider for your forthcoming dissertation project:

• Examine the impact of COVID-19 social isolation on students of your university.
• Social media impact on English language learning.
• Cross-cultural communication and conflict management at your chosen online study course.
• Principals’ concerns and attitudes toward social distancing policies in Texas schools.
• Formative assessment: impact on student achievement.
• A case study of children’s first and second language use in play-based interactions in a private kindergarten.
• The impact of present-day economic pressures on the K-12 curriculum development in the US: Teachers’ and policymakers’ perspectives.
• How does inclusion impact autistic children?
• Collaborative inquiry and video documentation to facilitate school teachers’ critical thinking competencies: Analysis of the INSIGHT project at a public school.
• Using computer-based reading interventions for at-risk preschoolers: Teachers’ perspectives.
• Homeschooling and its impact on learners.
• Relationship between the Math assessment method and student self-esteem.
• Parents’ attitudes toward the use of technology in elementary school.
• Impact of classroom technology on learner attitudes.
• Impact of teacher training on student attainment: An EU study.
• The link between homework load and student stress levels.
• How common are shootings in American schools?
• The impact of classroom size on academic performance in elementary schools.
• The relationship between school safety measures and student psychological well-being.
• How effective is an inclusive school environment in fostering better academic outcomes?
• The impact of socioeconomic factors on school dropout rates.
• What is the role of school policies in addressing cyberbullying among students?
• The influence of socioeconomic aspects on the quality of education in public schools.
• How prevalent is bullying in public schools?
• The influence of standardized testing on student success.
• How important is parent involvement in the learning process?
• The effect of extracurricular overload on student anxiety development.
• How does peer pressure affect student decision-making?
• The influence of inclusive education on the performance of students with learning disabilities.
• How can AI technology in education engage students in more active learning?
• The link between socioeconomic background and access to educational resources.
• The impact of government funding on the education system.
• How limited is access to mental health support in high schools?

Now that you have a comprehensive list of educational research topics of all complexity levels, you can easily ace any assignment for your Pedagogy course. Don’t hesitate to share this article with your peers and post a commentary if any topic has been helpful to you.

❓ Education Research Topics FAQ

What are some good research topics in education.

Well-chosen topics for educational research should be carefully scoped and relevant to your academic level and context. It’s vital to cover hot issues by linking theory and practice, thus ensuring that your study is valuable and related to present-day education.

What is an example of educational research?

Educational research covers many subjects and subdisciplines, so you may focus on any area important to you. It may be a special education class where you can approach teachers or observe students with special needs . Or it can be educational leadership research, where you will search for new, efficient ways of school administration for principals.

What topics should be addressed in sex education?

Sex education is a pressing issue in many schools worldwide, as teenage pregnancy rates are increasing. You may approach this subject by examining the attitudes to sex education among parents with different religious affiliations. Or you can compare the rates of teenage abortion and pregnancies in states with and without sex education in the formal curriculum.

What is action research in education?

Action research is a combination of practice and research in one endeavor. You should first study theory, develop an assumption that can be applied in practice, and then implement that method in your educational setting. After the intervention, you measure the outcomes and present findings in your research paper, thus concluding whether your assumption was valid.

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414 Proposal Essay Topics for Projects, Research, & Proposal Arguments

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Learning how to develop a research question throughout the PhD process: training challenges, objectives, and scaffolds drawn from doctoral programs for students and their supervisors

• Open access
• Published: 15 July 2024

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• Nathalie Girard   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1036-0010 1 ,
• Aurélie Cardona 2 &
• Cécile Fiorelli 3  

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With the higher education reform putting forward the professionalization of doctoral students, doctoral education has been strongly focused on generic transferable skills to ensure employability. However, doctoral training should not forget core skills of research and especially the ability to formulate research questions, which are the key to original research and difficult to develop at the same time. Learning how to develop a research question is traditionally seen as a one-to-one learning process and an informal daily transmission between a novice and a senior researcher. The objective of this paper is to offer a framework to design doctoral programs aimed at supporting the process of development of research questions for doctoral candidates guided by their supervisors. We base our proposal on two doctoral training programs designed with a pedagogical strategy based on dialogs with peers, whether they be students, supervisors, or trainers from a diversity of scientific backgrounds. The resulting framework combines three learning challenges faced by doctoral students and their supervisors when developing their research question, as well as training objectives corresponding to what they should learn and that are illustrated by the scaffolds we have used in our training programs. Finally, we discuss the conditions and originality of our pedagogical strategy based on the acquisition of argumentation skills, taking both the subjective dimensions of PhD work and the added value of interactions with a diversity and heterogeneity of peers into account.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

With the higher education reform ongoing in the Western world, doctoral education has undergone “a shift from the master–apprentice model to the professional model” (Poyatos Matas, 2012 ), focusing doctoral education on doctoral graduate employability (Cardoso et al., 2022 ) and thus on generic transferable skills (Christensen, 2005 ). However, Poyatos Matas ( 2012 ) warns doctoral educators of the danger of reducing doctoral education to a business or team skills approach, arguing the “importan[ce of maintaining] an adequate balance between skill-based and knowledge-based approaches to doctoral education.” Along the same line, Christensen ( 2005 ) argues that training in transferable skills “should not be overemphasised with respect to original research.” Nevertheless, Poyatos Matas ( 2012 ) does not explicitly explain what the core skills of research, grouped into a broad category referred to as “research skills,” are among seven other skills listed by the European Universities Association’s Salzburg principles.

Among research skills, the way the research question is formulated is critical. As Einstein and Infeld expressed it in 1971 , “the formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution […]. To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old questions from a new angle, requires creative imagination and marks real advance in science.” In this article, we consider the development of a research question as a process that consists of determining and reducing the identified problems, whether scientific or socio-economic, and translating them into a relevant and treatable question (Callon, 1984 ). We assume that it is a key process for research activities and a skill that PhD students have to acquire during their PhD experience. However, learning how to develop a research question is far from being easy, as revealed by the multiplication of methodological guides and tutorials on this topic. As researchers and human resource advisors working in a multidisciplinary research institute (INRAE) Footnote 1 , we have also observed many PhD students struggling to formulate their research question, which may seriously inhibit the writing of the final manuscript, whether it be a thesis by publication or not. Some authors have pointed out that the current graduate school education system has largely focused on producing better learners and problem solvers, thus neglecting problem-finding or creativity development in doctoral education (Whitelock et al., 2008 ). Preparing a “research proposal” and developing a researchable question is even recognized as a critical step for doctoral students (Zuber-Skerrit & Knight, 1986 ), becoming a “threshold to cross” during the PhD journey (Chatterjee-Padmanabhan & Nielsen, 2018 ). It thus appears essential to explore the challenges of research question development and how doctoral training programs can contribute to its learning.

The objective of our article is to offer a framework to think about and design doctoral training programs that support the development of research questions for doctoral candidates guided by their supervisors. Our proposal is grounded in two doctoral training programs designed with a pedagogical strategy based on dialogs with peers, whether they be other students, supervisors, or trainers from a diversity of scientific backgrounds. This article is structured into four sections. We present our theoretical background in order to explore the diversity of approaches to develop a research question, laying out our vision of doctoral experience and education, and the way in which the concept of scaffolding has been used in the learning processes that underlie the development of research questions (“ Theoretical background ” section). We then present our methodology, combining an analysis of the literature, our experience in conducting research, supervising and training doctoral students and their supervisors, and our case studies (“ Materials and methods ” section). Our results consist of a framework that combines three learning challenges and the corresponding training objectives, illustrated by scaffoldings we have used in our training programs (“ Results: scaffolding learning challenges for the development of the research question within a thesis ” section). Finally, we discuss the conditions and originality of our proposal based on the acquisition of argumentation skills, with the consideration of the subjective dimensions of PhD work and the added value of interactions with a diversity and heterogeneity of peers (“ Discussion: Enriching peer-learning scaffolding to support the development of a research question as a dialogical process ” section).

Theoretical background

Opening up the process of research question development: a diversity of approaches.

According to the literature about the development of research questions, it is a task that is difficult to formalize and for which several approaches coexist. It may differ according to the disciplines (Xypas & Robin, 2010 ) as well as according to the practical context of the doctoral thesis (i.e., participative research, methodological or fundamental research, financial support). We identified four approaches to research question development:

Gap-spotting (e.g., Locke & Golden-Biddle, 1997 ), the more classical approach, which consists in identifying gaps in existing literature that need to be filled.

Challenging the assumptions underlying existing theory in order to develop and evaluate alternative assumptions. Such an approach aims at coming up “with novel research questions through a dialectical interrogation of one’s own familiar position, other stances, and the domain of literature targeted for assumption challenging” (Alvesson & Sandberg, 2013 ). These authors explicitly adopt a critical perspective of gap-spotting, which they consider as a form of “underproblematization.”

Expressing a contrastive stance to create dialogical space, presented as critical in order to develop a convincing research question (Mei, 2006 ). This approach has addressed the research question formulation by focusing on the writing process.

Problem-solving study based on a negotiation about the “problem framing” involving scientists and stakeholders, and which focuses on practical problem-solving (Archbald, 2008 ).

The literature and our experience show that these different approaches coexist, but do not fall within the same temporality. For example, gap-spotting can be an operation that takes place at the beginning of the research process and which is limited in time, whereas the negotiation of problems between scientists and stakeholders can be much longer and can arise at different stages of the research process. In the same way, challenging existing theories can be a long and incremental process that evolves as the doctoral student acquires new knowledge from scientific literature along the doctoral path or due to an unexpected observation in the field. Trafford and Leshem ( 2009 ) also explain how research begins with a gap in knowledge or professional practices and how research questions evolve with new inputs from the literature, fieldwork, and the progressive establishment of a conceptual framework and theoretical perspectives, to finally end up by proposing a “justifiable contribution to knowledge”. In this perspective, the formulation of a research question can be considered as an incremental path that continues during the doctoral journey.

The knowledge and know-how involved in research question development are thus of a very specific nature (metacognition, implicit, diversity of thinking, etc.), rendering it impossible to design doctoral training programs focused on this complex task as a simple “knowledge transfer”. Moreover, beyond the cognitive learning required, it also refers to more developmental challenges, both for doctoral students and their supervisors, since it is embedded in their specific epistemological and social working situation.

Our vision of the PhD experience and doctoral education

We consider research and, thus, doctoral experience as an activity involving affects, interests, and social networks (Shapin, 2010 ). In line with other scholars (Lonka et al., 2019 ; Sun & Cheng, 2022 ; Xypas & Robin, 2010 ), we argue that doctoral education should rely on a person-centered approach. This means paying attention to doctoral students’ profiles, their perceptions of the academic environment and their professional aims, i.e., the individual contexts of each PhD thesis and the diversity of PhD researchers’ needs and goals (Inouye, 2023 ), as well as their conceptions of research or epistemological backgrounds (Charmillot, 2023 ). We thus consider the PhD process as a professional experience with its multidimensional nature and the distinct quests of PhD students (quest for the self; intellectual quest; professional quest) when navigating their doctoral paths (Skakni, 2018 ).

This type of view leads to a developmental approach of the PhD journey, with doubts, uncertainties, and paradoxes in becoming doctoral researchers, and a “transformation of understanding and of self” (Rennie & Kinsella, 2020 ). Influenced by their personal trajectories and post-PhD goals, doctoral students may thus adopt various approaches in the yearly phase of the PhD process when developing their research projects, whether writing a research proposal constitutes or not a formal step to becoming a full doctoral candidate Footnote 2 . We also consider the PhD experience as a transformative process of a bidirectional nature, for both doctoral students and their supervisors (Halse & Malfroy, 2010 ; Kobayashi, 2014 ).

When it comes to doctoral education, this point of view implies the necessity to combine both generic support and individual guidance, to tailor training and to take each of the doctoral student’s stage of development into account. It also requires that trainers take on the role of facilitators more than those “who know”, in a socio-constructivist approach to learning. Nevertheless, designing doctoral training dedicated to research question development throughout the doctoral journey opens up questions on how to promote such learning in the workplace.

Scaffolding as an adaptive support of learning

In line with Vygotsky’s approach to learning, we consider that the concept of scaffolding can be beneficial to understanding how PhD supervisors can assist their doctoral students in learning how to develop their research question. Firstly defined by Wood et al. ( 1976 ) as a process similar to parents helping infants to solve a problem, this concept has proven to be an efficient pedagogical strategy to support learning in science (Lin et al., 2012 ). It can then be connected to Vygotski’s Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) ( 1978 ), consisting of tasks that students cannot yet carry out on their own, but which they can accomplish with assistance. Scaffolding has been specified by Belland ( 2014 ) in instructional settings as a “just-in-time support provided by a teacher/parent (tutor) that allows students (tutees) to meaningfully participate in and gain skill at problem solving”. Beyond this use within formal instruction, it has been put forward as “a central educational arrangement in workplace learning”, considered as a “socially-shared situation between master and apprentice” (Nielsen, 2008 ). Scholars argued that scaffolding could also be used to improve higher-order thinking abilities through social interaction, such as argumentation when solving ill-structured problems or when building dialectical arguments.

Three critical features are central to successful scaffolding:

Firstly, the notion of a shared understanding of the goal of the activity is crucial (Puntambekar & Hübscher, 2005 ), requiring an “intersubjectivity” between the tutor and the tutee (Belland, 2014 ), which is reached when they collaboratively redefine the task. The stake here is to make sure that learners are invested in the task, as well as to help sustain this motivation, encouraging them to be informed participants who understand the point of the activity, the value and use of the strategies and “making it worthwhile for the learner to risk the next step” (Wood et al., 1976 ).

Secondly, the tutor should provide the tutee with a graduated assistance based on an ongoing diagnosis of the tutee’s current level of skill, which Belland ( 2014 ) sums up by “providing just the right amount of support at just the right time, and backing off as students gained skill”. Therefore, scaffolding is highly contingent on both the task and the learner’s characteristics, thus being “dynamically adjusted according to tutee ability” (Belland, 2014 ) and requiring the tutor to manage a careful calibration of support (Puntambekar & Hübscher, 2005 ).

Thirdly, scaffolding is successful when the learner controls and takes responsibility for the task, thus moving towards autonomous activity. Scaffolding should then promote this transfer of responsibility, as well as including its own fadeout as internalization progresses.

First focused on the interactions between individuals, the scaffolding concept is now being more broadly applied to artifacts, resources, and environments designed as scaffolds (Puntambekar & Hübscher, 2005 ), with three main “scaffolding modalities”:

One-to-one scaffolding, which “consists of a teacher’s contingent support of students within their respective ZPDs”, considered as the ideal modality with a tailored scaffolding;

Peer scaffolding, which goes beyond the original idea of assistance by a more capable individual (Wood et al., 1976 ) and which hypothesizes that peers can also provide such support;

Computer/paper/artifact-based scaffolding, which emerged as a solution to the dilemma that teachers cannot provide adequate one-to-one scaffolding to all students in a classroom.

Beyond the advantages and limitations of each scaffolding modality, various scholars have discussed the challenges of designing scaffolding in complex environments. It can be a question of taking the heterogeneity of learners into consideration when designing tools (Puntambekar & Hübscher, 2005 ), of building dynamic assessments and fading into the whole environment (Puntambekar & Hübscher, 2005 ; Belland, 2014 ), or of considering the learning environment by combining tools and agents (Puntambekar & Hübscher, 2005 ) in a system of “distributed scaffolding” (Tabak, 2004 ). Lastly, beyond the dyadic relationship between the master and the apprentice, many authors have shown the distributed and collective nature of scaffolding at the workplace (Filliettaz, 2011 ), pointing out the role of “the entire work community” in workplace learning. This enlargement of the concept of scaffolding appears to be especially relevant for the learning of research question development, which is a long process that results from a diversity of interactions, as shown in the previous sub-section.

Existing scaffoldings to support the learning of research question development

In her report of the Bologna seminar on Doctoral Programs for the European Knowledge Society, Christensen ( 2005 ) argues that only training by doing research can provide doctoral candidates with core skills such as “problem solving, innovative, creative and critical thinking”. Until now, the traditional model of doctoral education was based on a supervisor-centered model and a transmission model “where the apprenticeship learns from the master by observation” (Poyatos Matas, 2012 ). Such informal learning thus takes place in private spaces, pointing out the lack of explicit knowledge on “what the academic career involves, the norms, values, and ethics embedded in their disciplines, and the expectations of work habits that they would be expected to meet” (Austin, 2009 ).

Even if this master-apprenticeship model was previously adequate, it turns out to be outdated because of the evolution of doctoral conditions. The increasing control and limitation of PhD duration and the obligation of regular reporting about the progress of the PhD leave less room and time for mimetic and trial-and-error learning. This is especially true in the case of specific doctoral education models such as the PhD by publication, the professional doctorate, the practice-based doctorate (Poyatos Matas, 2012 ), and the case of traditional PhDs. However, most of the time, doctoral students remain “without fully learning how to frame their own questions and design and conduct their own studies” (Austin, 2009 ). It is thus not surprising that the offer of learning supports for PhD students has greatly increased, with a wide diversity of options (handbooks, YouTube channels, writing courses or groups, etc.). Among the diverse training programs offered to doctoral students and sometimes supervisors, some doctoral schools and universities have also created specific training programs to support research question development, while some authors like Inouye ( 2020 ) put forward that training and supervision should include explicit training on the Research Proposal as a “threshold to cross” (see footnote n°2). On the basis of this diversity of offers, we identified three main scaffoldings corresponding to the three main modalities identified in the previous section: artifacts, peer-learning groups (e.g., Chatterjee-Padmanabhan & Nielsen, 2018 ; Poyatos Matas, 2012 ; Zuber-Skerritt & Knight, 1986 ), and supervisors (e.g., Manathunga et al., 2006 ; Whitelock et al., 2008 ).

Following a developmental approach to the PhD process, the present study aims at offering a generic framework to think about and design doctoral programs that scaffold the learning of the development of research questions.

Materials and methods

Building a framework by combining our experiences with the literature.

This research was based on two distinct doctoral training programs that we designed and independently ran over a period of 10 years. Having reflected together on our department’s doctoral training policy, we then progressively formalized the issues at stake in doctoral training and analyzed how our programs responded to them. The importance and difficulties of learning how to develop research questions during doctoral studies then became crucial, leading us to formalize what we had learned from our two programs. In this article, these programs are our case studies, i.e., the situation where we conducted an empirical inquiry to investigate the scaffolding of research question development and from which we can expand and generalize theories on doctoral training (Yin, 2018 ).

For each case study, we combined several methods to collect data:

We used ethnographic techniques (Parker-Jenkins, 2018 ) with a participant observer stance. As researchers conducting research and supervising doctoral students, as HR advisors supporting doctoral students and researchers at INRAE, and as trainers and coordinators in two doctoral training programs, we are involved in prolonged and repeated periods of observation. We thus documented detailed field notes that were revisited as research data.

We built a corpus of pre-existing documents presenting the two doctoral programs (brochures, Website contents, scientific articles, time schedules and targeted objectives at each sequence). For each document, we carried out an open-coding operation to identify the narratives about research question development.

We gathered feedback spontaneously expressed by the trainees during the training courses, the hot debriefs occurring at the end of each course, and training assessments one month after the course, as well as in the course of our activity (in individual HR interventions or in reading the acknowledgements of a PhD thesis).

In parallel with data collection, we carried out a review of the literature on the evolution of doctoral education and the emerging learning challenges for doctoral students and their supervisors, some epistemological articles on research question development and the process of doctoral experience, empirical articles describing training for research question development and seminal articles, and reviews on scaffolding in education sciences. We undertook a cross-reading of this literature to build a conceptual framework identifying the key concepts to study training for research question development: scaffolds, scaffolding objectives, learning challenges, and scaffolding practices. We then analyzed our data to identify the scaffolds mobilized in each case study, the objectives of this scaffolding, and the learning challenges of research question development considered as a scaffolding system. Finally, we characterized our scaffolding practices, i.e., the way in which we, as trainers, concretely support the learning required to achieve the challenges of research question development. Both training programs result from a continuous improvement process based on the feedback of the trainees: with such feedback and our own observations, we were thus able to identify and select the most effective teaching methods in line with our objectives to support the learning of research question development. Behind the classical scaffolding modalities identified in the literature, we chose to identify the diversity of very contextual scaffolding practices and devices used, which we then linked to our training objectives. For each program, we also detailed how these objectives relate to the larger learning challenges of research question development. This led us to formalize a generic grid, which was tested and improved by using it to describe each of our programs.

Two doctoral training programs as case studies for cross-analysis

As a public research institute, the main goals of INRAE are to produce and disseminate scientific knowledge, with a specific focus on the contribution to education and training. Given the broad field of competences within INRAE devoted to the development of agriculture, food and the environment, and its inherent multidisciplinary nature, the thesis defended may draw from extremely various disciplines, ranging from molecular biology to sociology, with a dominance of life and environmental sciences. Moreover, INRAE is a targeted research institute that works with and for various partners in higher education and research, industry, and the agricultural sector and regional governments. This means that many research projects, including doctoral research, are designed and carried out within partnerships with these various stakeholders. INRAE doctoral students are supervised by INRAE researchers, mainly within complex multidisciplinary supervision teams together with French or international academic partners.

In this context, we have developed our vision of research activity and doctoral experience (see the “ Our vision of the PhD experience and doctoral education ” section) and have been designing, improving, and leading two doctoral training programs for more than 10 years (Table  1 ), which share common postulates such as the following:

Considering the PhD process as a part of the professional trajectory.

Aiming at supporting autonomy of doctoral students through the enhancement of their capacity to defend the choices they have made to build research questions, thus also aiming at helping supervisors to adopt a companionship stance.

Considering research question development as an activity, which implies the choice of pedagogical principles based on action learning rather than knowledge transfer.

Considering diversity as an asset, we base our training programs on multidisciplinary workshops.

Nevertheless, they differ in terms of the training audience and times of training in the PhD process:

Course A is only open to doctoral students of the ACT Footnote 3 division of INRAE, whereas course B trains both doctoral students and their supervisors belonging to the different divisions of INRAE.

Doctoral students may attend course A three times during their thesis, whereas course B is designed to train doctoral students once during their thesis, at the end of the first year.

Results: scaffolding learning challenges for the development of the research question within a thesis

In this section, we present a generic framework to think about and design doctoral training programs with the aim of scaffolding the learning of research question development. It combines learning challenges (LC) faced by doctoral students and their supervisors when formulating their research question and training objectives (TO) corresponding to what the participants should learn. We also illustrate how each of these TO can be scaffolded, drawing on some examples from our training programs.

First challenge: to empower doctoral students in the development of their research question, guided by their supervisors

As a professionalization period, the PhD process is considered as a peer-learning process (Boud & Lee, 2005 ) that relies on a mentoring relationship that aims at developing the autonomy of the young researcher (Willison and O’Regan, 2007 ). Developing doctoral agency (Inouye, 2023 ) and, more specifically, promoting a subject-centered approach (Sun & Cheng, 2022 ) to research question development is the first learning challenge that we identified. We then consider that the doctoral student is the one who makes the subject evolve, who reflects and chooses the components of the research question. We divide this first learning challenge into three training objectives and various sub-objectives (see Fig.  1 ), one focused on the doctoral student, one on the supervisor, and one on their relative roles.

Training objectives set out for the challenge: “to empower doctoral students in their research question development”

First, the doctoral student needs to understand the expectations, nature, and difficulties of PhD research and, specifically, of research question development (TO1). This encompasses the sub-objective of understanding the iterative and unplanned nature of the research process as well as making it clear with their supervisor(s) how their creativity can be expressed regarding institutional or financial constraints. For many authors, problem finding or identifying and describing a research question is part of doctoral subjective creativity and a key for an original contribution to knowledge. At the same time, we observe, as other scholars (Brodin, 2018 ; Frick, 2011 ; Whitelock et al., 2008 ) have, that there is a lack of explicit expectations on creativity in doctoral education, which is then limited by scholarly traditions and institutional requirements. During research question development, “standing at the border between the known and the unknown” Footnote 4 can put doctoral students in a situation of uncertainty about their identity and purpose (Trafford & Leshem, 2009 ). For Frick ( 2011 ), doctoral becoming requires an alignment between “how students view themselves in relation to the research process of becoming a scholar (ontology), how they relate to different forms of knowledge (epistemology), how they know to obtain and create such knowledge (methodology), and how they frame their interests in terms of their values and ethics within the discipline (axiology)”. At the crossroads between these four dimensions, research question development is thus a key process that stimulates doctoral student becoming and that requires the support of supervisors so that their students can understand what is expected of them. Knowing that this can be a source of stress for doctoral students, we put the subject of “what is a research process” up for discussion between supervisors and students in course B. After discussing with other students on their perception of creativity in their thesis, students are invited to watch, together with their supervisors, a video calling for scientists to stop thinking of research as a linear process from question to answer but, instead, as a creative and eventually sinuous path (see footnote n°4). Students often express a sense of relief later on when they work with their supervisors on the second reformulation of the thesis subject. In this way, doctoral students become aware that a formulation is likely to evolve during the thesis and feel more comfortable about formulating one that is in no way definitive at the end of the course. In the same way, in course A, we invite the second-year PhD students to work on the transformation of their research subject in order to illustrate its evolution. We ask them to write the formulation of their subject as worded in the PhD offer or initial PhD contract and the formulation that they would use today to describe it. We then collectively work with the other PhD students at various stages in their thesis to identify the differences between the two formulations, so that the concerned second-year PhD students may explain their choices, eventualities, or constraints that led to the transformation of the subject. During debriefs, trainees express that this exercise helped them to understand that this transformation is an integral part of the research process.

This learning challenge also implies that doctoral students and their supervisors clarify their respective roles regarding research question development (TO2). The degree to which supervisors encourage doctoral students to think and act autonomously has been shown to be associated with students’ supervision satisfaction and greater research self-efficacy (Overall et al., 2011 ). This can be done firstly by clarifying the distinction between the supervisor(s)’s research project, professional career issues and those of the PhD. In course B, asking the doctoral students and their supervisors to describe and discuss the thesis supervision ecosystem has been observed as one of the crucial steps in this clarification of their respective roles in research question development. For doctoral students, research question development also implies that they take ownership of the subject, whereas it was often initially written by the supervisors. In course B, the rule “letting the student speak first” has been expressed by doctoral students as very useful for taking on the role, especially during the three workshops focused on the formulation of the thesis subject. In course A, we ask the doctoral students to present the professional context of their PhD (research project, subsidy, disciplines of the supervisors, proximity of the supervisors to the subject, etc.). This presentation helps the trainees to clarify the contextual framing of the PhD students’ theses, as well as the margin of freedom. For their part, supervisors need to let the PhD students develop their research question by themselves and find the right stance, with a careful balance between “hands-off” and “hands-on” (Gruzdev et al., 2020 ). In course B, supervisors first exchange between themselves about what it means to supervise a thesis and their role in the PhD process. The three reformulation workshops are then practical opportunities to take on this role: experiencing this role of being a support and not the leader of the PhD project is sometimes seen as difficult by supervisors who are used to being research project leaders, but they also admit that it is a necessary step to experience the supervision stance.

Supervisors also need to understand the challenges faced by PhD candidates in the development of research questions (TO3) by first abandoning the assumption of the already autonomous student (Manathunga & Goozée, 2007 ). According to Halse and Malfroy ( 2010 ), the supervisor is “responsible for recognizing and responding to the needs of different students”, within a “learning alliance” with the student. When it comes to formulating their research question, it becomes important to be able to situate their own role with their values and desires in the research process, in general, and, in particular, in the development of the research question, which is not just made up of rational intellectual choices. For this objective, supervisors have to be able to clearly identify the doctoral student’s state of progress in the development of the research question within the thesis and, more broadly, the doctoral student’s values and desires in doing research (Skakni, 2018 ). In course B, we ask them to step back and remain silent (even stolid!) when their doctoral students present their subject. While listening and writing down their observations, they foster their understanding of the states of progress and the orientations chosen by the students. With this rule, we then observe that most of them are able to adopt the correct stance for later workshops when they are asked to work with students on their research question.

Second challenge: to be aware of the various forms and processes of research question development within a diversity of ways of doing research and to be able to situate oneself in this diversity.

The second learning challenge focuses on making the PhD students (and their supervisors) aware of the diversity of ways of doing research and especially various forms and processes of research question development (see the “ Opening up the process of research question development: a diversity of approaches ” section) and situating oneself in this diversity. Many authors argue that doctoral education should highlight scientific pluralism (Pallas, 2001 ), opening the epistemological doctoral experience in order to question the implicit norm of neutrality of the positivist ideal (Charmillot, 2023 ). This is particularly true when it comes to the development of research questions for “wicked problems” (Rittel & Webber, 1973 ), i.e., economic, political, and environmental issues involving many stakeholders with different values and priorities. In this context, developing research questions often requires analysis at the crossroads between several disciplines (Bosque-Perez et al., 2016 ) and between different social stakes (Manathunga et al., 2006 ). It requires reinforcing a scientific culture favorable to this practice of multi-/inter-/transdisciplinarity (Kemp & Nurius, 2015 ), then making interdisciplinary research skills a part of graduate education (Pallas, 2001 ; Bosque-Perez et al., 2016 ). Doctoral students then have to develop their awareness about the diversity of forms and processes of research question development, requiring that they are able to understand this diversity, to know how they themselves relate to different forms of knowledge (Frick, 2011 ), and to acknowledge their performativity in the world.

Within this second learning challenge, we distinguish four training objectives (Fig.  2 ), all concerning doctoral students and their supervisors.

Training objectives for the challenge: “to be aware of the diversity of ways of doing research, to be able to situate oneself in this diversity”

Both of them need to understand and respect the diversity of research stances (TO4). In both of our case studies, we ensure that a diversity of disciplines is represented in each working group, and we guarantee the mutual respect among them. We facilitate the expression of all doctoral students about how they are developing their research question, thus illustrating the diversity of research stances. During the hot debrief of course A, trainees regularly point out the discovery of this diversity as a positive outcome, which helps them to situate their own work. Moreover, discussing research question development within small and heterogeneous groups in terms of disciplines is experienced by participants as a strength “to take a step back and clarify key points” (student, course B, 2017), acknowledging that “working with other disciplines, it helped us to refocus and clarify the subject” (supervisor, course B, 2023).

Doctoral students and their supervisors also need to be able to formulate questions and clearly explain the doctoral research project, especially the way they develop their research question, whatever their discipline may be (TO5). This is why active participation is required in the workshops in both case studies, putting doctoral students and supervisors in the position of an active learner, not a passive trainee. Since such workshops may be very demanding for the PhD student and might be emotionally intense, it is of utmost importance that the trainers carefully manage the collective discussion, guaranteeing trust, mutual respect, and achieving balance in speaking. In particular, doctoral students and their supervisors are the ones who know the scientific community(ies) to which they will contribute and are the only ones who can assess the relevance of the subject. Participants are then asked to question the PhD students without calling the relevance of their theses into question. When aiming at promoting the expression of PhD students as human subjects , trainers have to pay particular attention to the fact that participants do not reformulate the subject for the students but, on the contrary, help them to open up the possibilities, to sort out, and to clarify the status of the elements presented. Trainers also use expression modes such as the questioning forms (open/closed questions), the subject pronouns used (I/we), and the origin of the arguments or events expressed by the PhD student as points of vigilance for managing the group discussion and as levers to go deeper into the questioning and analysis of the PhD students’ thinking about their research questions.

They both have to examine (in their own research and that of others) the place of stakeholders in the development of the research question (TO6). In course A, we use the conceptual framework of translation from Callon ( 1984 ) to analyze how a social problem can be translated into a research question. In course B, the framework given to trainees to develop their research question specifically points out the distinction to be made between the academic research stakes and the stakes for society. They also have to understand how the diversity of ways of scientific knowledge production perform or do not perform in problematic situations (TO7).

Third learning challenge: to know how to develop their research question throughout the research process

The third learning challenge concerns the staggered process of formulation of the research question throughout the PhD process. For many authors, the formulation of a “researchable question” or “research conceptualization” (Badenhorst, 2021 ) by the doctoral student is the first step in the doctoral research process with the writing, and sometimes formal presentation, of a “research proposal”. It is often seen as a threshold in the doctoral journey (Chatterjee-Padmanabhan & Nielsen, 2018 ) and a key feature of “doctorateness”, combining gaps in knowledge, contributions to knowledge, research questions, conceptual frameworks, and research design (Trafford & Leshem, 2009 ). For Frick ( 2011 ), the preparation of a proposal requires background reading and “demarcation of the research question”. It consists in knowing to which scientific issues the thesis will contribute and in identifying the relevant disciplinary concepts. Mastering the various modes of communication in the development of a research question is of utmost importance for PhD students, enabling them to accurately formulate their research question (Lim, 2014 ), as well as to take most of their supervisors’ or other researchers’ (colleagues, reviewers) feedback into consideration (Carter & Kumar, 2017 ). More widely, knowing how to formulate their research question is not sufficient without being able to step back from their own formulation. Boch ( 2023 ) expresses it as a necessary reflexivity in research writing, which means becoming aware of oneself in research and integrating this experience into the writing in an argumentative and convincing way. Stepping back from their research question also puts forward the need for doctoral students to be clear about the translations and reductions made (Callon, 1984 ), their research strategies (Inouye, 2023 ), or research stances (Hazard et al., 2020 ).

This learning challenge includes three training objectives (Fig.  3 ), two of them concerning the doctoral student and the third one concerning the students and their supervisors.

Training objectives for the challenge: “to know how to express their research question throughout the research process”

Doctoral students must clearly lay out the research stakes (both academic and for society) throughout their thesis process (TO8). In course B, we give learners a framework to think about and discuss research question development as a combination of three main ingredients (operational and scientific stakes, research question, strategy), requiring that students make the difference between the scientific stakes and the thesis objective clear, while defining the scope of the thesis within broader issues (European project, lab project). In course A, the conceptual framework of the translation from Callon is useful to recognize the driving forces of the reductions and translations in order to identify them and their consequences on the formulation of the research question. It helps clarify their research practices and understand how they contribute to the development of the research strategy, beyond what has been done so far. In course A, we use a trajectory to identify the consistency and the sense of the various research practices of the 3 rd year PhD students. In course B, the “research strategy,” viewed both as a “realized” and “planned” one (Mintzberg, 1987 ), is useful as both a hindsight (what have been my choices so far?) and planning tool (how to reach my research objective as I can express it today?), allowing students to put the weight of their thesis schedule into perspective.

In order to progress in their reflection, the doctoral students need to understand the importance of different oral and written (scientific or not) communications for making the formulation of their research question evolve (TO9). In course A, when designing the trajectory of the 3 rd year PhD students, we question them about their scientific communications or articles and about the consequences they had on the evolution of the formulation of their research question. We also ask them about the impact of the different feedback they had at the time of these communications and articles (from peers, from supervisors and other researchers, and from stakeholders) on the development of their research question. In course B, there are three exercises focused on the research question. While being considered as difficult, these exercises are also seen by trainees as effective for training themselves in expressing (orally and then on a written basis) their own subject and receiving feedback and questions from other students and their supervisors. We can observe that research questions and soundness of argumentation deeply evolve throughout the week, to the great satisfaction of students and their supervisors.

Doctoral students, as well as their supervisors for the research carried out under their responsibility, have to understand and explain the consequences of research question choices on the ways knowledge produced in the thesis could be used in the real world (TO10). In course A, we use a heuristic tool to help PhD students to understand the relevance for action of the knowledge they generate (Hazard et al., 2020 ).

Discussion: enriching peer-learning scaffolding to support the development of a research question as a dialogical process

Learning how to build a research question is traditionally seen as a one-to-one learning process based on informal and daily transmission between a novice and a senior researcher. In order to open up this informal process, we have grounded our pedagogical strategy in multiple opportunities for dialog with peers, whether it be other students, supervisors, or trainers. Taken as a whole, it thus combines interdisciplinarity, peer-learning, and dialogical principles that result in the construction of an “overall distributed scaffolding strategy” (Belland, 2014 ) and that create synergy between peer scaffolding, one-to-one and media scaffolding (Belland, 2014 ).

Firstly, our case studies emphasize speaking and argumentation skills rather than writing competencies. Many research works like Zuber-Skerritt and Knight ( 1986 ), Maher et al. ( 2013 ), Kumar and Aitchison ( 2018 ), and Badenhorst ( 2021 ) have explored the needs and modalities of doctoral education in terms of writing, even from the supervisor’s perspective (González-Ocampo & Castelló, 2018 ). Our pedagogical choice contrasts with this focus on doctoral writing since we give trainees many dialogical opportunities to train themselves to orally express and defend their intellectual autonomy. Doing so, we join Cahusac de Caux et al. ( 2017 ) who argue, “peer feedback and discussion benefits students by helping them verbalise their internal reflective thinking, fostering reflective practice skills development”. Even if we use some media-based scaffoldings, tools are not at the core of our case studies: our objective is instead to help trainees to put their thoughts into words, in line with the cognitive apprenticeship of Austin ( 2009 ), referring to a specific kind of apprenticeship for the less easily observed processes of thinking.

Secondly, our training programs make the most of the diversity and heterogeneity of peers, whether they be more or less experienced in supervision, from various disciplines, or at different stages of their thesis, thus enriching peer-learning scaffolding. All the participants, in their capacity as scientists, are considered as peers who are able to understand the work of other researchers, regardless of the discipline and the thesis subject. It is also by striving to understand and question subjects that are sometimes far from their field of research that researchers acquire the capacity for analysis, synthesis, and hindsight that is necessary in research work. By setting up dialogical spaces to help inexperienced researchers hone their argumentation skills, our training programs implement our view of research in practical terms as a collective process and of doctoral education as a professional socialization process, thus requiring that research organizations facilitate collective practices in the workplace (Malfroy, 2005 ). Moreover, with the inherent heterogeneity of participants, these workshops also constitute places where the multidisciplinarity and plurality of the sciences are experienced firsthand, convergent with Manathunga et al. ( 2006 ) or Bosque-Perez et al. ( 2016 ). Doing so, we are taking part in the debate of whether scaffolds need to contain domain-specific knowledge (Belland, 2014 ) by saying that there is no need for discipline or domain-specific scaffolds. Moreover, being active on one’s own case as well as on others’ situations is an efficient training strategy to move away from the objects and routines of a discipline or community when expressing ideas between specialists. Such collective reflexivity, sometimes turning into an analysis of professional practices, is a classic vocational training principle known to enhance the development of professionalization in the long term. What we add in our training sessions is the heterogeneity of participants, which is a resource for reflexivity, but that has to be carefully managed.

Thirdly, trainees are considered as human subjects engaged in their PhD with their various motivations and professional projects, which can strongly impact the way they see their thesis and envision their research work (Skakni, 2018 ), as well as their affinities and values, their doubts, and fears. Thanks to our focus on oral exchanges, we are then able to reveal and deal with these subjective dimensions of PhD work, which are often hidden when training PhD students in scientific writing. More precisely, expressing one’s doctoral experience and professional situations experienced is known as an efficient scaffolding practice within the collaborative reflective writing of “learning journals” with peer feedback (Boldrini & Cattaneo, 2014 ). We have shown how to implement such scaffolding in small groups of doctoral students with the facilitation of experienced researchers.

However, our proposal requires that some binding conditions be met:

Learning to formulate a research question through dialog with peers requires spending time, in our case, 4 full days, within small groups to ensure that everyone can take part in it and take advantage of the feedback of others.

This dialog is made possible and emphasized by the diversity of participants (either in terms of discipline, stage of the thesis, experience, etc.).

Managing both the human and scientific conditions of this dialog requires reflexive and open-minded trainers that adopt a facilitating stance.

As a result, our perspective on scaffolding is not merely an issue of training technique but, on the contrary, a situated perspective that echoes the view of Nielsen ( 2008 ) on training “both as part of a social practice and as part of the learner’s trajectory of participation”, within an expansive process inspired by Engeström’s work. With this developmental view on doctoral experience, we acknowledge that research question development is a process that goes beyond the limited time of a 4-day training program. Trainee feedback collected after their participation in course A or B revealed that they continue the work begun during the training programs, on the basis of the given scaffolding (e.g., “I feel that we familiarized ourselves with these tools [referring to the concepts of translation and reduction] because we work on them and I started to think. […] I know these tools will remain in my head until I write my thesis and that I really learned a lot” Hot debrief, course A, 2016). It is also not rare that trainees mention their participation in course A or B to their PhD steering committees as having helped to frame/define their research question. Course A or B is also frequently mentioned as an essential support in acknowledgement of their PhD thesis. Although limited in time, the training programs studied in this article act as an accelerator in research question development (e.g. course B “we saved several months”, supervisor, 2017, “In just 2 days, everything became much clearer and more focused”, student, 2021). We thus assume that they contribute to awareness and reflexivity on research activity and to the professional development of trainees, which is particularly crucial in France with the pressure put on thesis duration and the absence of formal recognition of the research proposal stage.

Our experience puts forward two avenues for future research. Firstly, bringing together doctoral students at different stages of their thesis and then offering them the opportunity to participate each year of their PhD process opens a window on to their intellectual trajectory and a situated adjustment of our scaffolding practices. Secondly, training doctoral supervisors—and trainers involved in these doctoral programs—remains of utmost importance to make scaffolding last and be adapted throughout the next months and years.

This study examined the learning challenges and objectives required for the task of research question development throughout the PhD process, both for doctoral students and their supervisors. We have drawn some lessons for the scaffolding of these challenges and objectives from two different doctoral training programs that we have been designing and leading for more than 10 years.

Considering the development of a research question as a dialogical process, we suggest three conditions to scaffold these learnings: firstly, offering many dialogical opportunities is an effective way for students to train themselves to express their intellectual autonomy and to defend their research project; secondly, making the most of the diversity and heterogeneity of peers, whether they be more or less experienced in supervision, from various disciplines, or at different stages of their thesis, thus enriching peer-learning scaffolding, proved to be beneficial when the multidisciplinarity and plurality of the sciences are experienced firsthand; and finally, giving priority to oral communication allows trainers and trainees to reveal and deal with the subjective dimensions of PhD work and their various motivations and professional projects that always underlie the development of a research question. Taken as a whole, our work seriously rises to the challenge of training reflexive researchers with an acute awareness of the collective nature of research and an intellectual openness to the plurality of sciences.

INRAE, the French public research institute devoted to the development of agriculture, food and the environment ( https://www.inrae.fr/en ), continuously hosts some 2000 PhD students.

For example, in the UK, writing and defending a research proposal allows a Transfer of Status from an initial probationary status to that of a full doctoral candidate (Inouye, 2020 ), whereas in France, there is no such formal assessment.

The ACT research division of INRAE aims at understanding and supporting transformative changes in socio-ecosystems and agrifood systems, which take actors’ practices and strategies into account in order to promote sustainable innovations and transitions, particularly at the territorial level.

As Uri Alon puts it in his TED video: “Why science demands a leap into the unknown” https://www.ted.com/talks/uri_alon_why_science_demands_a_leap_into_the_unknown .

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Girard, N., Cardona, A. & Fiorelli, C. Learning how to develop a research question throughout the PhD process: training challenges, objectives, and scaffolds drawn from doctoral programs for students and their supervisors. High Educ (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-024-01258-2

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Example 3: Teachers take a survey to examine an education policy that restricts the number of extracurricular activities offered at a particular academic institution. The findings help better understand the far-reaching impacts of extracurricular opportunities on academic performance.

Making the Most of Research Design Methods for Good: Vanderbilt University’s Peabody College

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Qualitative vs Quantitative Research Methods & Data Analysis

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What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they collect and analyze.

Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify patterns, and make predictions.

Qualitative research , on the other hand, collects non-numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings.

Quantitative data is information about quantities, and therefore numbers, and qualitative data is descriptive, and regards phenomenon which can be observed but not measured, such as language.

What Is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as language. Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs, or audio recordings. This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews and analyzed using grounded theory or thematic analysis.

Qualitative research is multimethod in focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 2)

Interest in qualitative data came about as the result of the dissatisfaction of some psychologists (e.g., Carl Rogers) with the scientific study of psychologists such as behaviorists (e.g., Skinner ).

Since psychologists study people, the traditional approach to science is not seen as an appropriate way of carrying out research since it fails to capture the totality of human experience and the essence of being human.  Exploring participants’ experiences is known as a phenomenological approach (re: Humanism ).

Qualitative research is primarily concerned with meaning, subjectivity, and lived experience. The goal is to understand the quality and texture of people’s experiences, how they make sense of them, and the implications for their lives.

Qualitative research aims to understand the social reality of individuals, groups, and cultures as nearly as possible as participants feel or live it. Thus, people and groups are studied in their natural setting.

Some examples of qualitative research questions are provided, such as what an experience feels like, how people talk about something, how they make sense of an experience, and how events unfold for people.

Research following a qualitative approach is exploratory and seeks to explain ‘how’ and ‘why’ a particular phenomenon, or behavior, operates as it does in a particular context. It can be used to generate hypotheses and theories from the data.

Qualitative Methods

There are different types of qualitative research methods, including diary accounts, in-depth interviews , documents, focus groups , case study research , and ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understanding of how people perceive their social realities and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

The researcher has several methods for collecting empirical materials, ranging from the interview to direct observation, to the analysis of artifacts, documents, and cultural records, to the use of visual materials or personal experience. Denzin and Lincoln (1994, p. 14)

Here are some examples of qualitative data:

Interview transcripts : Verbatim records of what participants said during an interview or focus group. They allow researchers to identify common themes and patterns, and draw conclusions based on the data. Interview transcripts can also be useful in providing direct quotes and examples to support research findings.

Observations : The researcher typically takes detailed notes on what they observe, including any contextual information, nonverbal cues, or other relevant details. The resulting observational data can be analyzed to gain insights into social phenomena, such as human behavior, social interactions, and cultural practices.

Unstructured interviews : generate qualitative data through the use of open questions.  This allows the respondent to talk in some depth, choosing their own words.  This helps the researcher develop a real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.

Diaries or journals : Written accounts of personal experiences or reflections.

Notice that qualitative data could be much more than just words or text. Photographs, videos, sound recordings, and so on, can be considered qualitative data. Visual data can be used to understand behaviors, environments, and social interactions.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive. The researcher does not just leave the field with mountains of empirical data and then easily write up his or her findings.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the data, such as content analysis, grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), or discourse analysis .

For example, thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that involves identifying implicit or explicit ideas within the data. Themes will often emerge once the data has been coded .

Key Features

• Events can be understood adequately only if they are seen in context. Therefore, a qualitative researcher immerses her/himself in the field, in natural surroundings. The contexts of inquiry are not contrived; they are natural. Nothing is predefined or taken for granted.
• Qualitative researchers want those who are studied to speak for themselves, to provide their perspectives in words and other actions. Therefore, qualitative research is an interactive process in which the persons studied teach the researcher about their lives.
• The qualitative researcher is an integral part of the data; without the active participation of the researcher, no data exists.
• The study’s design evolves during the research and can be adjusted or changed as it progresses. For the qualitative researcher, there is no single reality. It is subjective and exists only in reference to the observer.
• The theory is data-driven and emerges as part of the research process, evolving from the data as they are collected.

Limitations of Qualitative Research

• Because of the time and costs involved, qualitative designs do not generally draw samples from large-scale data sets.
• The problem of adequate validity or reliability is a major criticism. Because of the subjective nature of qualitative data and its origin in single contexts, it is difficult to apply conventional standards of reliability and validity. For example, because of the central role played by the researcher in the generation of data, it is not possible to replicate qualitative studies.
• Also, contexts, situations, events, conditions, and interactions cannot be replicated to any extent, nor can generalizations be made to a wider context than the one studied with confidence.
• The time required for data collection, analysis, and interpretation is lengthy. Analysis of qualitative data is difficult, and expert knowledge of an area is necessary to interpret qualitative data. Great care must be taken when doing so, for example, looking for mental illness symptoms.

Advantages of Qualitative Research

• Because of close researcher involvement, the researcher gains an insider’s view of the field. This allows the researcher to find issues that are often missed (such as subtleties and complexities) by the scientific, more positivistic inquiries.
• Qualitative descriptions can be important in suggesting possible relationships, causes, effects, and dynamic processes.
• Qualitative analysis allows for ambiguities/contradictions in the data, which reflect social reality (Denscombe, 2010).
• Qualitative research uses a descriptive, narrative style; this research might be of particular benefit to the practitioner as she or he could turn to qualitative reports to examine forms of knowledge that might otherwise be unavailable, thereby gaining new insight.

What Is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research involves the process of objectively collecting and analyzing numerical data to describe, predict, or control variables of interest.

The goals of quantitative research are to test causal relationships between variables , make predictions, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative researchers aim to establish general laws of behavior and phenomenon across different settings/contexts. Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Quantitative Methods

Experiments typically yield quantitative data, as they are concerned with measuring things.  However, other research methods, such as controlled observations and questionnaires , can produce both quantitative information.

For example, a rating scale or closed questions on a questionnaire would generate quantitative data as these produce either numerical data or data that can be put into categories (e.g., “yes,” “no” answers).

Experimental methods limit how research participants react to and express appropriate social behavior.

Findings are, therefore, likely to be context-bound and simply a reflection of the assumptions that the researcher brings to the investigation.

There are numerous examples of quantitative data in psychological research, including mental health. Here are a few examples:

Another example is the Experience in Close Relationships Scale (ECR), a self-report questionnaire widely used to assess adult attachment styles .

The ECR provides quantitative data that can be used to assess attachment styles and predict relationship outcomes.

Neuroimaging data : Neuroimaging techniques, such as MRI and fMRI, provide quantitative data on brain structure and function.

This data can be analyzed to identify brain regions involved in specific mental processes or disorders.

For example, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a clinician-administered questionnaire widely used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms in individuals.

The BDI consists of 21 questions, each scored on a scale of 0 to 3, with higher scores indicating more severe depressive symptoms. 

Quantitative Data Analysis

Statistics help us turn quantitative data into useful information to help with decision-making. We can use statistics to summarize our data, describing patterns, relationships, and connections. Statistics can be descriptive or inferential.

Descriptive statistics help us to summarize our data. In contrast, inferential statistics are used to identify statistically significant differences between groups of data (such as intervention and control groups in a randomized control study).

• Quantitative researchers try to control extraneous variables by conducting their studies in the lab.
• The research aims for objectivity (i.e., without bias) and is separated from the data.
• The design of the study is determined before it begins.
• For the quantitative researcher, the reality is objective, exists separately from the researcher, and can be seen by anyone.
• Research is used to test a theory and ultimately support or reject it.

Limitations of Quantitative Research

• Context: Quantitative experiments do not take place in natural settings. In addition, they do not allow participants to explain their choices or the meaning of the questions they may have for those participants (Carr, 1994).
• Researcher expertise: Poor knowledge of the application of statistical analysis may negatively affect analysis and subsequent interpretation (Black, 1999).
• Variability of data quantity: Large sample sizes are needed for more accurate analysis. Small-scale quantitative studies may be less reliable because of the low quantity of data (Denscombe, 2010). This also affects the ability to generalize study findings to wider populations.
• Confirmation bias: The researcher might miss observing phenomena because of focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on the theory of hypothesis generation.

Advantages of Quantitative Research

• Scientific objectivity: Quantitative data can be interpreted with statistical analysis, and since statistics are based on the principles of mathematics, the quantitative approach is viewed as scientifically objective and rational (Carr, 1994; Denscombe, 2010).
• Useful for testing and validating already constructed theories.
• Rapid analysis: Sophisticated software removes much of the need for prolonged data analysis, especially with large volumes of data involved (Antonius, 2003).
• Replication: Quantitative data is based on measured values and can be checked by others because numerical data is less open to ambiguities of interpretation.
• Hypotheses can also be tested because of statistical analysis (Antonius, 2003).

Antonius, R. (2003). Interpreting quantitative data with SPSS . Sage.

Black, T. R. (1999). Doing quantitative research in the social sciences: An integrated approach to research design, measurement and statistics . Sage.

Braun, V. & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology . Qualitative Research in Psychology , 3, 77–101.

Carr, L. T. (1994). The strengths and weaknesses of quantitative and qualitative research : what method for nursing? Journal of advanced nursing, 20(4) , 716-721.

Denscombe, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social research. McGraw Hill.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln. Y. (1994). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications Inc.

Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L., & Strutzel, E. (1968). The discovery of grounded theory; strategies for qualitative research. Nursing research, 17(4) , 364.

Minichiello, V. (1990). In-Depth Interviewing: Researching People. Longman Cheshire.

Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social Research: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches. London: Sage

Further Information

• Mixed methods research
• Designing qualitative research
• Methods of data collection and analysis
• Introduction to quantitative and qualitative research
• Checklists for improving rigour in qualitative research: a case of the tail wagging the dog?
• Qualitative research in health care: Analysing qualitative data
• Qualitative data analysis: the framework approach
• Using the framework method for the analysis of
• Qualitative data in multi-disciplinary health research
• Content Analysis
• Grounded Theory
• Thematic Analysis

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

• Quantitative vs Qualititave Research
• Searching For Qualitative Research
• Searching for Quantitative Research
• More Resources

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Research can be done using either qualitative or quantitative data. The decision of which data to use depends on the purpose of the research.

Qualitative Research:  Explores an unfamiliar topic, concept, or idea. The data for this research is hard to measure, provided by open ended questionnaires for example. It is presented in the research in descriptive, narrative, exploratory way where a vague topic needs to be clearly defined, explained, the problem should be identified in details.

Quantitative Research:  Explores a problem or correlation with variables (measurable data, numbers, or statistics) provided by surveys and questionnaires with closed ended questions for example. Usually uses large samples of data to warrant generalization.

Empirical Research:  The terms quantitative and empirical research are often used interchangeably. Empirical research however simply means any form of research that is directly observed.  Therefore not all empirical research is quantitative.

Borrowed from the John M. Pfau Library

Examples of Qualitative Vs. Quantitative 

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How schools can save lives

July 16, 2024

Schools and universities are ideal environments in which to implement interventions addressing the problem of suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs) in young people. A systematic review and network meta-analysis by Kiran et al., published in Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice , examined the effectiveness of various interventions developed to reduce STBs and improve suicide prevention skills among young people, their peers, their guardians, and teachers in educational settings.

The authors searched Medline, APA PsycInfo, and CENTRAL up to April 2021 to find quantitative intervention studies with control groups involving young people 12 to 25 years old. They identified 49 studies involving 42,039 participants.

Interventions were categorized as universal (targeting all participants) or selective (targeting high-risk participants). Universal interventions were associated with an almost twofold reduction in the odds of STBs (odds ratio [OR] = 1.85, 95% confidence interval [CI] [1.43, 2.38]). Both selective interventions (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 0.51, 95% CI [0.32, 0.70]) and universal interventions (SMD = 0.40, 95% CI [0.26, 0.54]) moderately increased suicide prevention competencies.

In terms of content, education and awareness programs (OR = 1.59, 95% CI [1.23, 2.04]) and psychotherapy programs (OR = 2.22, 95% CI [1.25, 3.33]) led to a 1.5- to twofold reduction in the odds of STBs. Gatekeeper universal interventions (SMD = 1.04, 95% CI [0.73, 1.34]) led to large increases in suicide prevention skills compared with no treatment. Education and awareness interventions led to modest improvements in suicide prevention skills (SMD = 0.28, 95% CI [0.12, 0.44]) compared with no treatment.

The study findings align with the findings of previous high-quality trials in the field. However, the low quality of most of the studies included in the meta-analysis suggests that the conclusions should be interpreted and applied with caution, especially in settings lacking large, high-quality clinical trials, such as low- and middle-income countries.

The findings of this study provide clear and informative messages for policymakers. On the basis of the study results, the authors recommend the wide implementation of universal mental health and suicide awareness training as a first-line preventive strategy in schools and educational settings.

Selective and intensive interventions are promising under certain circumstances. Intensive psychotherapeutic programs appear to be more suitable for students who previously engaged with STBs. Gatekeeper training programs hold promise for equipping students, peers, and educators with essential skills to recognize and respond to suicide risks.

This article is in the Clinical Psychology topic area.

Kiran, T., Angelakis, I., Panagioti, M., Irshad, S., Sattar, R., Hidayatullah, S., Tyler, N., Tofique, S., Bukhsh, A., Eylem-van Bergeijk, O., Özen-Dursun, B., Husain, N., Chaudhry, N., & Hodkinson, A. (2024). Controlled interventions to improve suicide prevention in educational settings: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice , 31 (1), 85–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/cps0000179

About the authors

Ioannis Angelakis , PhD, is a lecturer in clinical psychology whose research focuses on applying behavioral science principles to improve health and care services for individuals with psychological trauma and self-harm and suicidal behaviors. His work explores the causes and prevention of suicide, mechanisms of resilience in trauma survivors, and the development of interventions for self-management in mental health conditions.

Maria Panagioti , PhD, is a professor of health services research in the Division of Population Health, Health Services Research, and Primary Care at the University of Manchester. Her research focuses on patient safety, service delivery interventions, workforce well-being, and planning in primary care, as well as the interfaces between primary, secondary, and social care in both high- and low-resource settings.

Sehrish Irshad , PhD, is a clinical psychologist and research associate at the Pakistan Institute of Living and Learning. She has actively contributed to numerous research projects and interventions focused on reducing suicide rates and improving mental health outcomes in vulnerable populations in Pakistan. Her work includes culturally adapted psychosocial interventions and training programs for health care practitioners to effectively manage and prevent suicidal behaviors.

Rabia Sattar is a research associate and clinical psychologist at the Pakistan Institute of Living and Learning. She has been involved in managing large psychosocial research trials on parenting interventions for depressed parents of young children in Pakistan. She is also involved in capacity capability building of researchers and community health workers in parenting interventions both nationally and internationally. She does qualitative research with vulnerable populations. Besides research, she has been instrumental in setting up the Community Engagement and Involvement Group in collaboration with national and international stakeholder groups.

Sobia Hidayatullah is a clinical psychologist and research assistant at the Pakistan Institute of Living and Learning. She works in the Division of Child and Adolescent Mental Health, focusing on self-harm and suicide prevention, parenting, and perinatal mental health. Sobia is also involved in community development and quantitative research, contributing to the enhancement of mental health services and interventions.

Natasha Tyler , PhD, is a research fellow in the National Institute for Health and Care Research School for Primary Care Research at the University of Manchester. Her work focuses on improving patient safety in mental health care transitions.

Ozlem Eylem-van Bergeijk , PhD, is a postdoctoral research associate at the National Institute for Health and Care Research School for Primary Care and Health Services Research at the University of Manchester. Her work focuses on improving the communication and accessibility of mental health services for diverse service-user populations. Her work explores developing and evaluating culturally adapted digital and face-to-face psychological interventions in treating suicidal behavior among ethnic minority populations. She has codesigned mental health literacy campaigns incorporating participatory research methods such as Photovoice in partnership with multiple stakeholders and nongovernmental organizations in high- and low-resource contexts.

Nasim Chaudhry , PhD, is CEO of the Pakistan Institute of Living and Learning and an esteemed consultant psychiatrist renowned for her pioneering work in suicide prevention and self-harm, particularly in low-income countries. Her research addresses critical mental health issues such as maternal depression and adolescent self-harm, focusing on the significant treatment gap in these regions. By developing culturally tailored, cost-effective psychosocial therapies, she has significantly advanced mental health care in Pakistan, leading numerous impactful research initiatives to bridge critical gaps.

Alexander Hodkinson , PhD, is a senior research fellow at the University of Manchester’s National Institute for Health and Care Research School for Primary Care and Health Services Research. His work focuses on creating and applying evidence-based research to enhance care quality and patient safety for those with mental health issues in primary care. He is also dedicated to improving health care organizations’ sustainability and efficiency through evidence-based workforce planning and well-being programs.

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