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Human Development in India

Last updated on September 30, 2023 by ClearIAS Team

Human development in India has witnessed significant progress and challenges, reflecting the country’s diverse population, complex social fabric, and economic disparities. But has it been at par with the economic development? Read further to learn more.

Human development refers to the overall well-being and development of individuals, including factors like health, education, income, and quality of life.

According to the latest Human Development Index 2021-22, 9 out of 10 countries fall backward in human development in the face of multiple crises like COVID-19, the war in Ukraine , and dangerous planetary changes .

India ranks 132 out of 191 countries and territories on the 2021/22 Human Development Index, tracking the global decline in human development.

Table of Contents

Human Development Index 2021-22

HDI measures progress on 3 key dimensions of human development –

a long and healthy life
access to education
a decent standard of living

It is calculated using 4 indicators –

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life expectancy at birth
mean years of schooling
expected years of schooling
Gross National Income (GNI) per capita.

The last two years have had a devastating impact on billions of people worldwide when crises like COVID-19 and the war in Ukraine hit back-to-back and interacted with sweeping social and economic shifts and dangerous planetary changes.

Ninety percent of countries have registered a reduction in their Human Development Index (HDI) value in 2020 or 2021, reversing much of the progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals.

A large contributor to the Human Development Index’s recent decline is a global drop in life expectancy, down from 72.8 years in 2019 to 71.4 years in 2021.
The report also suggests that stress, sadness, anger, and worry have been increasing over the last decade, now reaching record levels.

The report recommends implementing policies that focus on 3 Is –

Investment – from renewable energy to preparedness for pandemics and
Insurance – including social protection- to prepare our societies for the ups and downs of an uncertain world.
Innovation in its many forms- technological, economic, cultural- can also build capacities to respond to whatever challenges come next.

Read: Human Capital

The intersecting crises have impacted India’s development trajectory just as they have in much of the world.

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India’s HDI value of 0.633 places the country in the medium human development category, lower than its value of 0.645 in the 2020 report.

Policies that focus on the 3Is will enable people to thrive in the face of uncertainty.

India is already a frontrunner in these areas with its push towards renewable energy, boosting social security for the most vulnerable, and driving the world’s largest vaccination drive through Co-WIN, supported by UNDP.
Over the last decade, India has lifted 271 million out of multidimensional poverty. The country is improving access to clean water, sanitation, and affordable clean energy.
India has also boosted access to social protection for vulnerable sections of society, especially during and after the pandemic, with a 9.8 percent increase in the budgetary allocation to the Social Services sector in 2021-22 over 2020-21.

Human development in India remains a dynamic and evolving process. The government, civil society, and international organizations continue to work towards addressing disparities, enhancing access to basic services, and improving the overall well-being of its diverse population.

Challenges such as poverty, healthcare access, and education quality require ongoing efforts and policy initiatives.

India has made significant progress in increasing life expectancy. Factors such as reduced child mortality rates and advancements in healthcare have contributed to longer life expectancies.
Challenges in Healthcare: Despite progress, India faces challenges in providing equitable healthcare access to all citizens. Disparities in healthcare infrastructure and services exist between urban and rural areas.
Public Health Concerns: India faces health challenges related to communicable diseases (e.g., tuberculosis ), non-communicable diseases (e.g., diabetes ), and maternal and child health. Malnutrition remains a significant concern, particularly among children.

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Increase in Literacy Rates: India has made notable progress in increasing literacy rates, with a particular focus on improving female literacy. Government initiatives like “Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan” have aimed to provide universal elementary education.
Quality of Education: While there have been improvements in enrollment, concerns remain regarding the quality of education, school infrastructure, and access to higher education. Disparities in educational outcomes persist.

Economic development

Economic Growth: India has experienced rapid economic growth over the past few decades, contributing to increased income levels and reduced poverty rates.
Income Inequality: Income inequality remains a challenge, with significant disparities between urban and rural areas, and among different states and regions.

Gender equality

Women’s Empowerment: There have been advances in women’s empowerment, including increased participation in the workforce and political representation . Gender-based violence and discrimination, however, continue to be concerns.
Female Education: Promoting female education is considered a key factor in advancing gender equality.

Accessibility

Clean Water and Sanitation: Efforts have been made to improve access to clean drinking water and sanitation facilities, but disparities still exist, particularly in rural areas.
Housing and Infrastructure: Access to adequate housing and infrastructure services like electricity and roads varies widely across the country.

Cultural plurality

India’s rich cultural diversity and pluralism contribute to the country’s human development. However, issues related to social exclusion, caste-based discrimination, and religious tensions persist.

Urbanization

Rapid urbanization has posed both opportunities and challenges, with urban areas experiencing greater access to services and economic opportunities, but also facing issues like overcrowding and environmental pollution.
Government programs like “MGNREGA” aim to improve rural livelihoods and infrastructure.

Sustainable development

India is increasingly focusing on sustainable development, addressing environmental issues, and promoting renewable energy sources to combat climate change.

Economic development vs Human development

Economic development and human development are related but distinct concepts often used to assess a country’s progress and well-being. In the case of India, both dimensions have seen significant advancements, but challenges remain.

Economic development primarily focuses on the growth of a nation’s economy and the improvement of material well-being.
Human development goes beyond economic indicators and encompasses broader aspects of well-being, including health, education, and quality of life.

The disparity between human development and economic development in India is a complex issue with multiple contributing factors.

While India has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, improvements in human development indicators, such as education, healthcare, and living standards, have not kept pace.

Inequality: India grapples with high levels of income and wealth inequality. Economic growth has disproportionately benefited certain segments of the population, leading to a widening wealth gap. This inequality can limit access to quality education, healthcare, and other essential services for a large portion of the population.
Healthcare Disparities: Despite economic growth, access to quality healthcare remains limited in many parts of India, especially in rural areas. High out-of-pocket healthcare expenses can push families into poverty, and preventable diseases continue to affect a significant portion of the population.
Education: While India has made strides in increasing literacy rates, the quality of education remains a concern. A large number of children attend schools with inadequate infrastructure, underqualified teachers, and outdated curricula. This affects the overall development and employability of the workforce.
Gender Disparities: Gender inequality continues to hinder human development in India. Discrimination against women and girls in terms of access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities limits their contribution to the workforce and overall development.
Malnutrition and Food Security: Malnutrition remains a critical issue in India, particularly among children. Poor nutrition during the early years of life can have long-term impacts on physical and cognitive development.
Sanitation and Clean Water: Access to clean drinking water and sanitation facilities is uneven across India. Poor sanitation and lack of access to clean water can lead to health issues and hinder human development.
Social and Cultural Factors: Deep-rooted cultural norms and social hierarchies can perpetuate disparities in access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities. Discrimination based on caste, ethnicity, and religion can limit the development prospects of marginalized groups.
Regional Disparities: India is a vast and diverse country with significant regional disparities in human development. States in the southern and western regions tend to have better human development indicators compared to states in the northern and eastern regions.
Government Priorities: The allocation of government resources and policy priorities can affect human development outcomes. Shifts in public spending and policy focus are necessary to address disparities.
Infrastructure Gaps: Inadequate infrastructure, including transportation, electricity, and digital connectivity, can limit economic opportunities and access to services in rural and remote areas.

Way forward

India’s international contributions to sustainable development continue to grow.

A leader of the International Solar Alliance and the Coalition for Disaster-Resilient Infrastructure , India is a champion of South-South cooperation and emerged as a major global supplier of COVID-19 vaccines and medicines.
India’s climate leadership is demonstrated by its ambitious targets and commitment to net zero by 2070.

The world’s largest democracy is also fast-tracking the implementation and monitoring of the SDGs at the national and sub-national levels to meet the ambitious goals.

Addressing the gap between economic development and human development in India requires a multifaceted approach that addresses the social, economic, and cultural factors contributing to disparities.

It involves targeted investments in healthcare, education, and social welfare programs, along with efforts to promote gender equality and reduce inequality. Additionally, regional and local disparities need to be addressed through tailored development strategies.

Previous year question

Q. Why did human development fail to keep pace with economic development in India? (Answer in 250 words) (GS Paper 1 2023)

-Article by Swathi Satish

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India shows progress in Human Development Index, ranks 134 out of 193 countries

After a drop in 2021, India’s HDI value increases from 0.633 to 0.644 in 2022, placing the country in the medium human development category.

March 14, 2024

With a Gender Inequality Index value of 0.437 in 2022, India has shown progress and fares better than the global average of 0.462 and the South Asian average of 0.478.
Global HDI is projected to reach record highs in 2023. However, this progress is uneven. Rich countries are experiencing record levels of human development, while half of the world’s poorest countries remain below their pre-crisis level.
This uneven progress is leaving the poorest behind, exacerbating inequality, and stoking political polarization on a global scale. The result is a dangerous gridlock that must be urgently tackled through collective action.

New Delhi, March 14, 2024 : After a drop in its Human Development Index (HDI) value in 2021 and following a flat trend over the past few years, India’s HDI value has increased to 0.644 in 2022, placing the country 134 out of 193 countries and territories in the just released 2023/24 Human Development Report (HDR) titled, “Breaking the Gridlock: Reimagining Cooperation in a Polarized World."

The 2023-2024 HDR builds on the 2021–2022 Human Development Report findings, which saw the global HDI value fall for the first time—two years in a row. This report reveals that while rich countries attained record human development, half of the poorest remain below their pre-crisis level of progress.

In 2022, India saw improvements across all HDI indicators–life expectancy, education, and Gross National Income (GNI) per capita. Life expectancy rose from 67.2 to 67.7 years, expected years of schooling reached 12.6, mean years of schooling increased to 6.57, and GNI per capita saw an increase from $6,542 to $6,951.

Moreover, India demonstrated progress in reducing gender inequality. India’s GII value of 0.437 is better than the global and South Asian averages.

“India has shown remarkable progress in human development over the years. Since 1990, life expectancy at birth has risen by 9.1 years; expected years of schooling have increased by 4.6 years, and mean years of schooling have grown by 3.8 years. India's GNI per capita has grown by approximately 287 percent. This highlights the country’s commitment over time to not only accelerating economic growth but also improving the quality of life for all its citizens. But there is room for improvement. With a renewed focus on women-led development, and digital public goods for people and planet, I am confident India can further unlock socio-economic progress, paving the way for a brighter and more equitable future for all,” said Ms. Caitlin Wiesen, Resident Representative a.i, UNDP India.

The report notes that the global overall Human Development Index (HDI) value is greater than it was in 2019. But that doesn’t mean the world has recovered fully from the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, compounded by other global crises. The 2023 figure remains below the level that was predicted before the pandemic. Essentially, we have not reached the level of human development that could have been expected had the pandemic not happened.

Before the crisis, the world was on track to reach an average “very high” HDI by 2030, coinciding with the deadline for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Now we are off track, with every region running below its pre-2019 projections.

The report indicates that while wealthy countries are showing signs of robust recovery, the poorest are struggling. All the member countries in the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) have surpassed their 2019 HDI level. But among least developed countries, only one in two have recovered their already low pre-crisis HDI levels.

This ‘partial, incomplete and unequal’ recovery is leaving the poorest behind, exacerbating inequality and stoking political polarization on a global scale. The result is a dangerous gridlock** that must be urgently tackled through collective action.

However, the Asia-Pacific emerges as a standout region for human development progress, with India demonstrating considerable improvement in its HDI value since 1990.

INDIA HDI TRENDS

With an HDI value of 0.644, the latest HDR places India in the medium human development category. Between 1990 and 2022, the country saw its HDI value increase by 48.4 percent, from 0.434 in 1990 to 0.644 in 2022.

India has also shown progress in reducing gender inequality and ranks 108 out of 166 countries in the GII 2022. The GII measures gender inequalities in three key dimensions – reproductive health, empowerment, and labour market.

The country's GII value of 0.437 is better than the global average of 0.462 and the South Asian average of 0.478*. India’s performance in reproductive health is better than the average of other countries in the medium human development group or South Asia. India's adolescent birth rate in 2022 was 16.3 (births per 1,000 women ages 15-19), an improvement from 17.1 in 2021.

However, India also has one of the largest gender gaps in the labour force participation rate—a 47.8 percentage points difference between women (28.3%) and men (76.1%).

Global inequality on the rise

The report notes that inequality across the world is rising again: after 20 years of convergence, the gap between the richest and poorest countries has started to widen from 2020.

These global inequalities are compounded by substantial economic concentration. As referenced in the report, almost 40 percent of global trade in goods is concentrated in three or fewer countries. In 2021, the market capitalization of each of the three largest tech companies surpassed the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of more than 90 percent of countries that year.

India's loss in HDI due to inequality is 31.1 percent. South Asia’s loss in the HDI due to inequality is among the highest in the world (after sub-Saharan Africa), followed by the Pacific.

“ The widening human development gap revealed by the report shows that the two-decade trend of steadily reducing inequalities between wealthy and poor nations is now in reverse. Despite our deeply interconnected global societies, we are falling short. We must leverage our interdependence as well as our capacities to address our shared and existential challenges and ensure people’s aspirations are met, ” said Achim Steiner, Administrator, UN Development Programme. “ This gridlock carries a significant human toll. The failure of collective action to advance action on climate change, digitalization, poverty, and inequality not only hinders human development but also worsens polarization and further erodes trust in people and institutions worldwide. ”

The report proposes four areas for immediate action to break through the current deadlock and reignite a commitment to a shared future:

planetary public goods for climate stability as we confront the unprecedented challenges of the Anthropocene;
digital global public goods for greater equity in harnessing new technologies for equitable human development;
new and expanded financial mechanisms, including a novel track in international cooperation that complements humanitarian assistance and traditional development aid to low-income countries; and
dialing down political polarization through new governance approaches focused on enhancing people's voices in deliberation and tackling misinformation.

“ Whether it is placing the SDGs on the development agenda during India’s G20 Presidency or vaccine diplomacy during COVID, the country has shown leadership in leveraging international cooperation for global public goods, demonstrating that breaking the gridlock is possible. India is already a frontrunner in utilizing Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) to increase citizens' access to essential services, which can help shape agile, global AI ecosystems and responses that meet the needs of people most left behind, ” added Ms. Wiesen.

This report opens a new trilogy of human development reports that will explore further the layers of uncertainty identified in the latest HDR: how to address polarization (2023-24), shape our shared digital future to advance human development (2025), and marshal human aspirations to navigate the Anthropocene (2026).

Read and download the 2023-24 Human Development Report: https://www.undp.org/india/publications/human-development-report-2023-24-0

Editor’s Note

HDRO has consistently advised users of the Human Development Indices not to compare values and ranks published in different editions of the HDR. It is not meaningful to compare the Human Development Indices values and ranks published in the HDR2021/22 with the values and ranks published in the HDR2023/24, because the full indices time series for each country was recalculated afresh, to incorporate revisions in the time series of the different indicators, new data availability, and other changes implemented by the entities from where HDRO sources the data.

* A low GII value indicates low inequality between women and men.

** As per the report gridlock means that systemic risks arising from global interdependence are mismanaged or simply unaddressed, that people are walloped by surprises not capitalizing on them.

For media inquiries, please contact:

Amrah Ashraf | Head of Communications | +91-9167535506 | [email protected]

Ankita Bhalla | Communications Officer | +91-9810360492 | [email protected]

The World Bank In India

With a population of more than 1.4 billion, India is the world’s largest democracy. Over the past decade, the country’s integration into the global economy has been accompanied by economic growth. India has now emerged as a global player.

AT A GLANCE

India is one of the fastest growing economies of the world and is poised to continue on this path, with aspirations to reach high middle income status by 2047, the centenary of Indian independence. It is also committed to ensuring that its continued growth path is equipped to deal with the challenges of climate change, and in line with its goal of achieving net-zero emissions by 2070.

The growth of the past two decades has also led to India making remarkable progress in reducing extreme poverty. Between 2011 and 2019, the country is estimated to have halved the share of the population living in extreme poverty - below $2.15 per person per day (2017 PPP) (World Bank Poverty and Inequality Portal and Macro Poverty Outlook, Spring 2023). In recent years, however, the pace of poverty reduction has slowed especially during the COVID-19 pandemic, but has since moderated in 2021-22.

Certain challenges persist. Inequality in consumption continues, with a Gini index of around 35 over the past two decades. Child malnutrition has remained high, with 35.5 percent of children under the age of 5 years being stunted, with the figure rising to 67 percent for children in the 6-59 months age group. Headline employment indicators have improved since 2020 but concerns remain about the quality of jobs created and the real growth in wages, as well as around the low participation of women in the laborforce.

India’s aspiration to achieve high income status by 2047 will need to be realized through a climate-resilient growth process that delivers broad-based gains to the bottom half of the population. Growth-oriented reforms will need to be accompanied by an expansion in good jobs that keeps pace with the number of labor market entrants. At the same time, gaps in economic participation will need to be addressed, including by bringing more women into the workforce.

The World Bank is partnering with the government in this effort by helping strengthen policies, institutions, and investments to create a better future for the country and its people through green, resilient, and inclusive development.

Economic Outlook

After real GDP contracted in FY20/21 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, growth bounced back strongly in FY21/22, supported by accommodative monetary and fiscal policies and wide vaccine coverage. Consequently, in 2022, India emerged as one of the fastest growing economies in the world, despite significant challenges in the global environment – including renewed disruptions of supply lines following the rise in geopolitical tensions, the synchronized tightening of global monetary policies, and inflationary pressures.

In FY22/23, India’s real GDP expanded at an estimated 6.9 percent. Growth was underpinned by robust domestic demand, strong investment activity bolstered by the government’s push for investment in infrastructure, and buoyant private consumption, particularly among higher income earners. The composition of domestic demand also changed, with government consumption being lower due to fiscal consolidation.

Since Q3 FY22/23, however, there have been signs of moderation, although the overall growth momentum remains robust. The persisting headwinds – rising borrowing costs, tightening financial conditions and ongoing inflationary pressures – are expected to weigh on India’s growth in FY23/24. Real GDP growth is likely to moderate to 6.3 percent in FY23/24 from the estimated 6.9 percent in FY22/23.

Both the general government fiscal deficit and public debt to GDP ratio increased sharply in FY20/21 and have been declining gradually since then, with the fiscal deficit falling from over 13 percent in FY20/21 to an estimated 9.4 percent in FY22/23. Public debt has fallen from over 87 percent of GDP to around 83 percent over the same period. The consolidation has largely been driven by an increase in revenues and a gradual withdrawal of pandemic-related stimulus measures. At the same time, the government has remained committed to increasing capital spending, particularly on infrastructure, to boost growth and competitiveness.

Last Updated: Sep 27, 2023

THE WORLD BANK GROUP AND INDIA

The World Bank Group’s (WBG) over seven decade-long partnership with India is strong and enduring. Since the first loan to Indian Railways in 1949, the WBG’s financing, analytical work, and advisory services have contributed to the country’s development. International Development Association – the WBG’s soft-lending arm created for developing countries like India - has supported activities that have had a considerable impact on universalizing primary education; empowering rural communities through a series of rural livelihoods projects; revolutionizing agriculture through support of the Green and White (milk) Revolutions; and helping to combat polio, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS. In FY18, the relationship reached a major milestone when India became a low middle-income country and graduated from International Development Association financing.

COUNTRY PARTNERSHIP FRAMEWORK

The WBG’s present engagement with India is guided by its Country Partnership Framework for FY18-22 (CPF). The CPF builds on the decades-long partnership and seeks to address the country’s development aspirations and priority needs identified in the Group’s Systematic Country Diagnostic for India . It aims to work with India so that the country’s rapidly growing economy makes much more efficient use of resources; fosters inclusiveness by investing in human capital and generating more quality jobs; and develops strong public sector institutions that are capable of meeting the demands of a rising middle-class economy. The CPF’s approach combines a focus on ‘what’ the WBG will work on and ‘how’ it will engage India in the process. What will the WBG work on?

Promoting resource-efficient growth , including in the rural, urban, and energy sectors as well addressing disaster risk management and air pollution;
Enhancing competitiveness and enabling job creation , including improving the business climate, access to finance, connectivity, logistics, skilling, and increasing female labor force participation;
Investing in human capital through early childhood development, education, health, social protection, and rural water supply and sanitation.

How will the WBG amplify the impact of its work in India?

By leveraging the private sector
By harnessing India’s federalism
By strengthening public institutions
By supporting Lighthouse India to foster knowledge exchanges within the country and between India and the rest of the world.

In all its activities, the WBG will seek to address climate change, gender gaps, and the challenges and opportunities afforded by technology .

WORLD BANK GROUP PROGRAM

The World Bank’s lending program consists of 98 lending operations. Of the $21.4 billion in commitments, $19.3 billion is from IBRD, $2.0 billion is from IDA – the Bank’s soft lending arm - and $0.1 billion is from other sources, primarily grant funding from the Global Environment Fund.

Roughly a little more than one third of these operations and around 40% of commitments are either for central or multi-state operations, while the remainder consists of state-specific operations in 26 of India’s 28 states.

The four largest portfolios are Agriculture (15 operations totaling $3.1 billion in commitments), Energy , (11 projects totaling $4.0 billion in commitments), Health, Nutrition & Population (11 projects totaling $2.8 billion) and Transport and Water (11 projects each totaling $2.5 billion respectively).

In FY23, the Bank approved 15 operations amounting to $4.37 billion. Of this, $ 4.32 billion is lending from IBRD and $0.05 billion from IDA (recommitted from cancelled IDA programs). Around 15-18 projects are expected to be delivered in FY24, with total commitments in the range of $3.5 – 4 billion.

For the IFC, India is the biggest client country, accounting for over 10 percent of its global portfolio with a committed portfolio of US$6.5 billion as of June 30, 2023. IFC has more than 250+ active projects in sectors including infrastructure, health, energy, manufacturing, housing, technology, and finance. Since its first engagement in 1958, IFC has invested more than US$27 billion (including mobilization) in over 500 companies in India. India is the sixth largest shareholder in IFC, owning a 4.01 percent stake.

IBRD and IFC work together in several areas, most notably in energy, transport, water and health. The World Bank partnership has been particularly strong in raising financing for renewable energy initiatives, especially in supporting the Government of Madhya Pradesh in setting up the largest solar park project that provides solar power with a total capacity of 2.25 gigawatts at a record low cost, reducing carbon emissions by 3.8 million metric tons per year and powering 60% of the Delhi metro. Similarly, IFC and IBRD collaborated under the Government of India’s flagship Clean Ganga program, ‘ Namami Gange ,’ helping revamp sewage treatment plants using hybrid annuity-based PPP projects, treating 218 million liters of water per day in three cities, and contributing to the steady rejuvenation of the sacred river for millions. IFC led the PPP mandate, while IBRD loan facilitated payment guarantees to boost private sector participation in the sector.

The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) does not have exposure in India. MIGA has been working closely with the Ministry of Finance to provide credit enhancement solutions at the state-level and state-owned enterprise (SOE) level. This will enable state governments and SOEs to utilize long-term commercial financing, which can complement concessional lending provided by other multilaterals and development finance institutions.

The WBG has a wide-ranging program of Advisory Services & Analytics. The program informs policy debate, provides analytical underpinnings and learnings for operations and strategy, facilitates the scale up of innovative solutions, and helps to improve state capability. As of October 2021, some 18 analytical studies and 15 advisory activities were ongoing. Key areas of focus include poverty and macroeconomic analysis , financial sector reform , enhancing human capital including universal health coverage and gender , air quality management , as well as state capability and governance .

*FY23 means Financial Year from July 2022 - June 2023

WBG financing supported India’s achievement of numerous results over the past five years, highlights of which include:

Education : The World Bank’s approximately $2.7 billion support for education in India covers primary, secondary, and tertiary education, as well as skills development for its young population.

The World Bank’s $250 million Skill India Mission Operation (SIMO) is backing Central and State government initiatives to skill young people—including the disadvantaged and vulnerable—to acquire the skills needed for a wide range of jobs that are in demand in the market. The project has trained almost 6 million young people, 34 percent of whom are women. Some 40 percent of the trainees were employed within six months of completing their course.

The World Bank also supports state government programs for reforms in primary and senior secondary education. School education projects in Andhra Pradesh , Chhattisgarh , Gujarat and Nagaland are helping strengthen foundational learning of the students, provide training and resources for the professional development of teachers, and use data-driven programs to improve learning assessment systems for remedial education.

A new World Bank program - Multidisciplinary Education and Research Improvement in Technical Education Project to be implemented in 14 States and Union Territories will support research and innovation in climate change and sustainable energy. The program is expected to benefit around 350,000 students. In Madhya Pradesh and Odisha , reforms in tertiary education have helped close to 2 million students from disadvantaged groups get access to quality higher education and skills, making them more employable.

Social Protection :

During the COVID-19 pandemic, World Bank support of $1.65 billion through two projects, Accelerating India’s COVID-19 Social Protection Response Program and Creating a Coordinated and Responsive Indian Social Protection System helped protect the poor and vulnerable through transfers in cash and kind. About 320 million vulnerable people received cash transfers into their bank accounts. About 800 million people received additional food rations.

In Jharkhand , a market-driven skills training and secondary education program has helped set up about 13,000 strong community level clubs that provide skills and education to over one million adolescent girls and young women.

In West Bengal , an ongoing program is providing social protection services to poor and vulnerable groups, with a focus on strengthening institutions for delivering care to elderly persons and those with disabilities. The program is also working to increase female labor force participation. Digital transfers through the Jai Bangla Platform reached 3.1 million beneficiaries in the first half of 2023.

The World Bank’s current health portfolio in India of around $2.8 billion includes both national and state-level projects:

A $1 billion COVID-19 Emergency Response Project helped the government strengthen health facilities in states, procure essential medical supplies – such as testing-equipment and kits, personal protective equipment, gloves, masks, and oxygen cylinders. It also helped insure 2.2 million frontline health workers. In addition, it helped expand health facilities dedicated to COVID-19, raising their number from 163 in March 2020 to more than 23,000 in June 2022. Over 926 million COVID-19 tests were supported and 3,362 testing laboratories created.

An additional $1 billion in World Bank support is helping the government strengthen health service delivery . This includes all aspects of pandemic preparedness and response , improving real-time disease surveillance, better One Health coordination and enhancing capacity for biosecurity.

World Bank is also supporting the National Tuberculosis (TB) Elimination Program to improve success rates of treatment, including of multidrug-resistant TB (MDR-TB). It is also scaling up direct transfer of cash benefits into the bank accounts of TB patients.

In Andhra Pradesh , Meghalaya , Mizoram , Nagaland , Tamil Nadu , and Uttarakhand ongoing programs focus on improving the quality of health care services, and strengthening the management of non-communicable diseases. In Uttarakhand, clusters of public health facilities, using a public private partnership (PPP) model, now have specialists available regularly, resulting in improved service delivery. Digital health strategies for improved service delivery are being implemented in Andhra Pradesh, Nagaland and Tamil Nadu.

Rural Water Supply and Sanitation : Since 2000, World Bank projects have contributed over $2.8 billion in financing for rural water supply and sanitation. About 30 million people from over 30,000 villages—with populations ranging from 150 to 15,000—have gain better access to drinking water. About 167 million rural people have benefitted from improved sanitation. Many of the projects have helped promote women’s participation in discussions around changing age-old sanitation behaviors. Local institutions have been strengthened to improve operations and maintenance of water and sanitation infrastructure and upgrade service delivery.

Agriculture

World Bank-financed projects are promoting climate resilient agriculture in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra Odisha and Tamil Nadu. The focus is on introducing climate smart technologies, using water more efficiently, adopting crop diversification for better soil health and using climate resilient seeds. World Bank is also focusing on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and using clean energy in post-harvest activities. Since 2016, World Bank-financed projects have brought around 1.7 million hectares of land under climate resilient agriculture. Around 2 million farmers are adopting improved agriculture technologies.

Empowering Rural Women

Since 2003, World Bank has provided $2.2 billion in support of the Women’s Self-Help Group (SHG) movement in India through several state and national projects. Around 32 million rural women have been mobilized into 2.9 million SHGs. Rural women have been trained and now earn their own livelihood as Pashu Sakhis (looking after animals), Bank Sakhis (helping rural people operate Bank accounts), or operating canteens at government hospitals and offices, and as masons building toilets. These empowered women have also been encouraged to become entrepreneurs, running small businesses like poultry and goat farms, grocery shops, and cottage industries, and provided access to markets. These entrepreneurial initiatives have helped the SHGs access commercial finance of over $14.5 billion. These projects were also the genesis of the Government of India’s National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM), which is world’s largest platform for women’s social and economic empowerment. As of April 2023, the NRLM supports over 91 million women through 8.4 million SHGs.

of India's electricity is projected to be carried by Powergrid, India’s national power transmission agency by the end of 2012

India: Commitments by Fiscal Year (in millions of dollars)*

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Papers by IHDS Users

Mukherjee, T., I. Mukhopadhyay, and S. Bhattacharya. 2023. “Intergenerational Co-residence and Women’s Employment in Urban India”, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics , 1-21. Link . Mukhopadhyay, S. 2023. “Revisiting Women’s Empowerment as an Agriculture–Nutrition Pathway Using the Framework of Intersectionality”, In Achieving Zero Hunger in India: Challenges and Policies , pp. 261-286. Springer. Link . Gurung, R., C. Tirkey, K.K. Takri, N. Diyali, M. Choubey, and R. Rai. 2023. “Determinants of Access to Improved Drinking Water and Sanitation in India: Evidence from India Human Development Survey-II (IHDS)”, Water Policy, wp2023083. Link . Duggal, K. 2023. “The Relationship between Child Marriage and Female Educational Attainment in India”, Warwick-Monash Economics Student Papers No. 2023/57 . September. Link . Kumar, D. and Y. Chengyu. 2023. “Role of Banks in Promoting Risky Financial Assets”, Economic & Political Weekly , 58(41). October 14. Link . Biswal, D. and C.S. Bahinipati. 2023. “Crop-insurance Adoption and Impact on Farm Households’ Well-Being in India: Evidence from a Panel Study”, Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy , 1-20. Link .

Narayanan, S., K. Naraparaju, and N. Gerber. 2023. “An Assessment of India's Multiple National Social Protection Schemes in Improving Nutrition and Health”, Food Security , 1-15. Link .

Nandwani, B. and P. Roychowdhury. 2023. “Rural Roads Infrastructure and Women Empowerment in India", GLO Discussion Paper No. 1320 . Global Labor Organization. Link . Rawat, S. 2023. “Inequality of Opportunity in Changing Access to Employment in India: A Panel Study”, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics , 1-26. August 31. Link . Ranganathan, T., and A. Mendonca. 2023. “Does Being Educated More Than the Spouse Give Women Higher Autonomy? Findings from India”, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics , 1-21. August 29. Link . Tandel, V., A. Dutta, S. Gandhi, and A. Narayanan. 2023). “Women’s Right to Property and the Child Quantity-Quality Trade-off: Evidence from India”, Journal of Population Economics , 1-37. August 29. Link .

Khari, P. and R. Jain. 2023. “Dynamics of Consumption Expenditure and Poverty Statistics in a Rural-Urban Context: Insights from IHDS Panel Data Analysis”, V EETHIKA-An International Interdisciplinary Research Journal, Vol. 9, Issue 2, April-June, Link . Ghirnikar, T. 2023. “Understanding the Impacts of Environmental, Economic, and Policy Factors on Developing Economies”, Dissertation submitted to the Department of Economics, University of Oklahoma. Link . Das, P.K., B. Ganguli, S. Marjit, and S.S. Roy. 2023. “Finance, Growth and Inequality: Does Source of Finance Matter?”, Research Square . Link . Anil, D.S., D. Pakrashi, and S. Saha. 2023. “The Gendered Effect of Co-residence on Health. Reconciling Labour and Autonomy Responses”, Preprint. Link . Basu, R., P. Roy, and S. Roy. 2023. “Inheritance of Educational Attainment: Instance of Caste Certificate in India”, In T. Banerjee Chatterjee, Arpita Ghose, and Poulomi Roy (eds.), Risks and Resilience of Emerging Economies: Essays in Honour of Professor Ajitava Raychaudhuri, pp. 313-329, Springer. Link .

Mishra, U.S., H. Mallick, and B. Padhi. 2023. “An Inquiry into Households’ Confidence Levels in Various Institutions in India: A Temporal Assessment from the IHDS”, Review of Development and Change, Vol. 28, Issue 1. Link .

Jaffrelot, C. 2023. “Indian Muslims: Varieties of Discriminations and What Affirmative Action Can Do”, In Handbook on Economics of Discrimination and Affirmative Action, pp. 1-22. Springer. Link .

Sahasranaman, A. and N. Kumar. 2023. “Distributional Dynamics of Income in Indian States: Inequality, Redistribution and Poverty Transitions”, Economic & Political Weekly, Vol. 58, Issue No. 25-26, Link .

Bhattacharjee, A. and J.D. Dubey. 2023. “Can Employment Empower Women in Rural India?”, Economic Papers: A Journal of Applied Economics and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1111/1759-3441.12397 . Link .

Alvi, M.F. 2023. “Caste, Religion and the Labor Force Participation of Women: Evidence from India”, Review of Social Economy, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/00346764.2023.2223167 . Link .

Bhan, T. and A. Patel. 2023. “Migration and Health: Exploring the Effect of Destinations on the Health Outcomes among Rural-Urban Migrants in India”, Social Science & Medicine, Vol. 331, August, 116079. Link .

Maitra, P. and N. Menon. Forthcoming. “Excess Weight in India: Gender Differentials, Location Patterns and Health Consequences”, in Pallavi Choudhuri, Sonalde Desai, and Amaresh Dubey (eds.), India’s Social and Economic Transformation in the 21st Century , pp. 75-94. Routledge India. Link .

Paul, S. Forthcoming. “Do Income and Income Inequality Have Any Impact on Morbidity? Evidence from the India Human Development Survey”, in India’s Social and Economic Transformation in the 21st Century , pp. 55-74. Routledge India. Link .

Pande, S. and A. Dubey. Forthcoming. “Private Schooling in India: Changes in Learning and Achievement Experience”, in India’s Social and Economic Transformation in the 21st Century , pp. 126-166. Routledge India. Link .

Choudhuri, P., S. Desai, and A. Dubey (eds.). Forthcoming. India’s Social and Economic Transformation in the 21st Century . Routledge India. Link .

Panda, S. 2023. “Public trust in government doctors and hospitals in India”, International Journal of Social Economics . May 23. Link .

Pinilla‐Roncancio, M., J.L. Amaya‐Lara, G. Cedeño‐Ocampo, P. Rodríguez‐Lesmes, and C. Sepúlveda, C. 2023. “Catastrophic health‐care payments and multidimensional poverty: Are they related?”, Health Economics , 2023: 1-21. Link

Kulkarni, V., V. Kulkarni, K. Imai and R. Gaiha. Forthcoming. “Changes in Subjective Well-Being in India”, Social Indicators Research. Link .

Acharya, R.H. and A.C. Sadath. 2023. “Who Bears the Burden of Rising Prices of Petroleum Products Due to Taxes in India?”, Economic & Political Weekly, 58(16). Link .

Lahiri, Bidisha, and Richard Daramola. "Effects of credit and labor constraints on microenterprises and the unintended impact of changes in household endowments: Use of threshold estimation to detect heterogeneity." The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance 88 (2023): 21-38. Link.

Mandal, R., B. Goswami, M. Sarma, and H.K. Nath. 2023. “Extreme Weather Events and Food Insecurity in Northeast India”, in S. Anand, M. Das, R. Bhattacharya, and R.B. Singh (eds.), Sustainable Development Goals in Northeast India: Challenges and Achievements, Springer, pp. 101-126. Link .

Ahuja, A. and A. Mehta. 2023. “How Does Growth Affect Everyday Corruption? Exit, Empowerment and Voice in Indian Public Services”, Heidelberg Papers in South Asian and Comparative Politics, 81(2023). Link.

Dhakad, M. and N. Saikia. 2023. “The Impact of Adult Death on Household Consumption, Expenditure, and Income in India: Evidence from a Nationally Representative Longitudinal Survey”, in M. Dhakad and N. Saikia (eds.), Adult Mortality in India: Trends, Socio-economic Disparities and Consequences, Springer, pp. 95-108. Link .

Jha J, Kelley EJ. Returns to Relationships: Social Capital and Household Welfare in India. Social Sciences . 2023; 12(3):184. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12030184 Link.

Chatterjee, P. and A. Dubey. 2023. “The Role of Women’s Empowerment on Child Nutrition in India: A Longitudinal Analysis”, Environment, Development and Sustainability (2023), DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10668-023-03183-3 . Link . Kumar, D., B. Pratap, and A. Aggarwal. 2023. “Children’s Early Foundational Skills and Education Continuation in India: Heterogeneous Analysis by Caste, Gender and Location”, World Development Perspectives, Volume 30, June. Link .

Agte, P. and A. Bernhardt. 2023. “The Economics of Caste Norms: Purity, Status, and Women’s Work in India”, Working Paper. Link .

George, M.S., T. Niyosenga, and I. Mohanty. 2023. “Does the Presence of Health Insurance and Health Facilities Improve Access to Healthcare for Major Morbidities Among Indigenous Communities and Older Widows in India? Evidence from India Human Development Surveys I and II”, PLoS One, 18(2): e0281539. Link .

Tyagi, Malvika, Deepak Kumar, and M.A. Hussain. 2023. “STEMming the Dowry Tradition: Empowering Girls in India”, Available at SSRN 4385778. Link . Azam, M. 2023. “Health Effects of Fuel Transitions in India: Evidence from Panel Data”, IZA Institute of Labour Economics Discussion Paper Series No. 15852 . Link .

Hassan, Mofidul and M.P. Bezbaruah. 2023. “Income Inequality: A Cross-states and Cross-community Analysis”, Economic and Political Weekly, 58(10), March 11, Link.

Borkar, A.R. and R.V. Vikhar. 2023. “Understanding the Inter-Caste Marriage Story in India”, Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research, 10(3):c29-c34. Link .

Tyagi, Malvika, Deepak Kumar, and M.A. Hussain. 2023. “STEMming the Dowry Tradition: Empowering Girls in India”, Available at SSRN 4385778. Link .

Azam, M. 2023. “Health Effects of Fuel Transitions in India: Evidence from Panel Data”, IZA Institute of Labour Economics Discussion Paper Series No. 15852. Link .

Kumar, D., B. Pratap, and A. Aggarwal. 2023. “Children’s Early Foundational Skills and Education Continuation in India: Heterogeneous Analysis by Caste, Gender and Location”, World Development Perspectives, Volume 30, June. Link .

Agte, P. and A. Bernhardt. 2023. “The Economics of Caste Norms: Purity, Status, and Women’s Work in India”, Working Paper. Link .

Nupur, Shreya and Meghna Dutta. 2023. “Perceived Economic Well-being among Rural Indian Households: Investigating the Role of Remittances”, Economic and Political Weekly, LVIII(9), March 4. Link. Natarajan, Rajesh Raj, Simone Schotte, and Kunal Sen. 2023. “Moving up or down the Job Ladder in India: Examining Informality-Formality Transitions”, in Gary S. Fields, T.H. Gindling, Kunal Sen, Michael Danquah, and Simone Schotte (eds.), The Job Ladder: Transforming Informal Work and Livelihoods in Developing Countries . UK: Oxford University Press. Link . Sangwan, Navjot. and Luca Tasciotti. Forthcoming. “Time to Remit: The Effect of Remittances on Household Consumption and Dietary Diversity in India”, IZA Journal of Development and Migration . Link . Sedai, Ashish Kumar. 2023. “Bank Presence and Household Well-being: Evidence from India”, Preprint , DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.33378.61122. Link .

Vikram, K. 2023. “Timing and Frequency of Fathers’ Migration and Nutritional Status of Left-Behind Children in India: A Life Course Approach”, Population Research and Policy Review , 42(1). Link . ———. 2023. “Modern Marriage in a Traditional Society: The Influence of College Education on Marriage in India”, Journal of Family Issues , 0(0). Link . George, M.S., T. Niyosenga, and I. Mohanty. 2023. “Does the presence of health insurance and health facilities improve access to healthcare for major morbidities among Indigenous communities and older widows in India? Evidence from India Human Development Surveys I and II”, PLoS One , 18(2). Link . Sarkhel, S. 2023. “Gender Gap and Socio-cultural Influences: A Study on the Indian Labour Market”, in Dominic Savio, Samrat Roy, and Saswati Chaudhuri (eds), Transforming our World Together towards Sustainable Development . UK: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Link . Bahure, V. 2023. “Essays in Development Economics”, Thèse de doctorat, Univ. Genèv, DOI: 10.13097/archive-ouverte/unige:166215. Link

Kumar, P., D.R. Mawkhlieng, D. Sinha, and M. Alagarajan. 2023. “Back to Basics: The Role of Living Arrangement on Self-Reported Morbidity Among Older Adults in India”, Ageing International . https://doi.org/10.1007/s12126-023-09517-w. Link .

Azad, P. and M. Refeque. 2022. “Wage Returns to English Language and Technical Skills in India: An Inter-Occupational Disparity”, Research Square. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2247895/v1. Link .

Santhya, K.G., S. Banerjee, B.K. Panda, A.J.F. Zavier, A. Hazra, and S. Rampal. 2022. “Role of Debt in Overseas Labour Migration in India”, Technical Report, New Delhi: Population Council. Link.

Luke, N., K. Munshi, S. Singh, and A.M. Oommen. 2022. “Economic Development, Undernutrition and Diabetes”, Working Paper. Link . Unnikrishnan, V. and S. Dey. 2022. “Political Meddling in Social Assistance Programme: Panel Data Evidence from India”, Journal of International Development . Link . Godbharle, S., A. Jeyakumar, and H. Kesa. 2022. “Socio-demographic and Economic Determinants of Household Expenditure on Eating out in India – Evidence from India Human Development Survey (IHDS) II”, Nutrition and Health , https://doi.org/10.1177/02601060221139571. Link . Pinilla-Roncancio, M., J.L. Amaya-Lara, G. Cedeño-Ocampo, P. Rodríguez-Lesmes, and C. Sepúlveda. 2022. “The Links between Catastrophic Health Expenditures and Poverty: An Instrumental Variable Analysis in India”, Documentos de Trabajo 020597 , Universidad del Rosario. Link .

Goel, S. 2022. “Effect of Deagrarianization at the Household Level on the Scale and Nature of Women’s Work in Rural India”, The Indian Journal of Labour Economics, 65(4): 1053-1082. Link .

Shrinivas, A., S. Jalota, A. Mahajan, and G. Miller. 2022. “The Importance of Wage Loss in the Financial Burden of Illness: Longitudinal Evidence from India”, Social Science & Medicine, Vol. 317. Link .

Mondal, S. 2022. “Intergenerational Educational and Occupational Mobility across Caste Groups in West Bengal”, Contemporary Voice of Dalit, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2455328X221136384. Link .

Sharma, A. and A. Banerjee. 2022. “Socio-Economic Determinants of Digital Divide in India”, Demography India, 51(1): 78-92. Link .

Mohanty, S.K., S.K. Singh, S.K. Sharma, K. Banerjee, and R. Acharya. 2022. “Asset and Consumption Gradient of HEALTH ESTIMATES in India: Implications for Survey and Public Health Research”, SSM—Population Health , 19, 101258. Link. Duhon, M.E. (2022). “Essays in Development and Demography”, Dissertation submitted for PhD in Economics, University of California, Berkeley. Link . Neekhra, B., K. Kapoor, and D. Gupta. 2022. “Generating Synthetic Population”, Working Paper. Accepted for oral presentation at New In ML Workshop of the 39th International Conference on Machine Learning, Baltimore, Maryland, USA, 2022. Link . Nolan, S. 2022. “Measuring Upward Mobility in Times of Change”, Dissertation submitted for PhD in Public Policy Studies, Duke University. Link . Reed, M.N. 2022. “Marriage and Family in India”, Dissertation submitted for PhD in Sociology and Demography, University of Pennsylvania. Link .

Fors, Heather Congdon and Annika Lindskog. 2022. “Within-family Inequalities in Human Capital Accumulation in India”, Review of Development Economics, https://doi.org/10.1111/rode.12929 , Link . Sagarika, Dey. 2022. “Structure and Dynamics of Livelihoods in Rural India: A Panel Data Analysis”, Poverty and Public Policy, 14(3): 307-334. Link . Bhattacharjee, Ayona and Kshitij Awasthi. 2022. “How Does Education Affect Health Beliefs? A Case of Women in India”, Economic Papers: A Journal of Applied Economics and Policy , https://doi.org/10.1111/1759-3441.12363 , Link

Kandikuppa, S. and C. Gray, C. 2022. Climate change and household debt in rural India. Climatic Change , 173, 20(2022). Link .

Siddiqui, L.A. and A. Singh. 2022. “Socio-economic Inequality in Longevity in India”, Economic and Political Weekly , 57(32). Link . Berg, C., B. Blankespoor, M.S. Emran, and F. Shilpi. 2022. “Does Market Integration Increase Rural Land Inequality?: Evidence from India”, Preprint , July 22. Link . Maitra, P., R. Miller, and A. Sedai. 2022. “Household Welfare Effects of ROSCAs”, Discussion Paper No. 2022-14 , Clayton, Victoria: Monash University. Link . Kandpal, D. and D. Maiti. 2022. “Social Identity, Local Neighbourhood Effect and Conspicuous Consumption: Evidence From India”, Working Paper No. 327 , Delhi: Centre for Development Economics, Delhi School of Economics. Link . Khanna, A. 2022. ‘Three essays on development economics and human Capital”, Dissertations and Theses Collection, Singapore Management University. Link . Pandeya, S., L. Bevisa, and T. Raob. 2022. “Food Price Subsidies and Nutrition in India: Is Less Targeting More?” Agricultural and Applied Economics Association Annual Meeting 2022, Anaheim, CA. Link .

Das, Upasak and Karan Singhal. 2022. “Gender Difference in Mathematics Learning in Rural India”, Ideas For India, January 24. Link .

Adkins, S. 2022. “Three Essays in Development Economics: An Examination of Female Health and Labor in India”, PhD Dissertation submitted to Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts, May. Link .

Kundu, Sridhar and Maynor Cabrera. 2022. "Fiscal Policies and Their Impact on Income Distribution in India," Commitment to Equity (CEQ) Working Paper Series 120, Department of Economics, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana. Link .

Mishra, S.K. and S. Dutta. 2022. “Single Versus Multiple Deprivations among Children in India”, Indian Journal of Human Development. May 1. Link .

Bhattacharjee, D. and P.C. Mohanty. 2022. “Does social network impact rising out-of-pocket health care expenditure in India? A propensity score matching approach”, The International Journal of Health Planning and Management, 1-13. Doi: 10.1002/hpm.3485. Link .

Sundaram, R., V. Sharma, and A. Saraswat. 2022. “Anthropometric Measurements for Children in Nuclear and Joint Families”, Indian Journal of Economics, 399(C) (Part IV): 533-546. Link .

Dongre, N.L. 2022. “The Caste System is Not Merely a Division of Labour: It Is Also a Division of Labourers”, Working Paper, Link .

Ahmed, Tanima. 2022. “Pro-Girl Attitudes and Childhood Stunting in India”, Journal of Asian and African Studies, https://doi.org/10.1177/ 00219096221086542 . Link.

Roy, Sutirtha Sinha and Roy van der Weide. 2022. “Poverty in India Has Declined over the Last Decade but Not as Much as Previously Thought”, Policy Research Working Paper 9994, Washington D.C.: Poverty and Equity Global Practice and Development Research Group, World Bank. Link .

Kukreja, Rolly. 2022. “Essays on Political Economy and Institutions”, PhD Thesis submitted to the Indian Statistical Institute, New Delhi. Link .

Gupta, Seema. 2022. “Multidimensional Poverty Dynamics: Social Protection and Its Implication on Rural Poverty Dynamics in India”, PhD Thesis submitted to the Department of Economics, SOAS, University of London. Link .

Paul, Piyali and Suman Chakrabarty. 2021. Double Burden of Malnutrition in the form of Undernutrition among children - Overweight/Obesity among mothers within Households in India: A Systematic Review”, Journal of Commerce, Arts and Science, 4(1): 80-92. Link.

Mondal, Dinabandhu and Joydeep Saha. (2022). “Sheltering Urban Poor: Looking for a New Approach”, in A. Kundu, T. Ponce Dentinho, H. Magsi, K. Basu, and S. Bandyopadhyay (eds.) Accessible Housing for South Asia, Springer, Cham. Link.

Guha, Prithviraj and Nirban Roy. 2022. “An Exploration into Inter-Generational Occupational Mobility in India: Evidences from IHDS-II”, in S. Bagli, G. Chakrabarti, and P. Guha (eds.), Persistent and Emerging Challenges to Development. India Studies in Business and Economics. Springer, Singapore. Link.

Chugh, Kabir, Namrata Gulati, and Tridip Ray. 2022. “Neighbourhood and the Perception of the Quality of Medical Treatment”, Arthaniti: Journal of Economic Theory and Practice, March 1, Link.

Bagli, Supravat and Debanjali Ghosh. 2022. “Incidence of Wasted Pregnancy and Health Facilities: An Empirical Study of the Indian Women”, in in S. Bagli, G. Chakrabarti, and P. Guha (eds.), Persistent and Emerging Challenges to Development. India Studies in Business and Economics. Springer, Singapore. Link.

Gebremedhin, T.A., I. Mohanty, T. Niyonsenga. 2022. “Public Health Insurance and Maternal Health Care Utilization in India: Evidence from the 2005–2012 Mothers’ Cohort Data”, BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 22, Article No. 155. Link.

Ahsan, Md. Nazmul, M. Shahe Emran, Hanchen Jiang, and Forhad Shilpi. 2022. “What the Mean Measures of Mobility Miss: Learning About Intergenerational Mobility from Conditional Variance”, Working Paper, Link.

Agte, Patrick, Arielle Bernhardt, Erica Field, Rohini Pande, and Natalia Rigol. 2022. “Investing in the Next Generation: The Long-Run Impacts of a Liquidity Shock”, Working Paper, Link.

Bag, Sugata and Anirban Kar. 2022. “Made in Heaven, Matched by Parents: Does Arranged Marriage Restrict Labour Market Autonomy and Participation of Women? Theory and Evidence from India”, Working Paper No. 317, Delhi: Centre for Development Economics, Delhi School of Economics. Link .

Kumar, Deepak, Debasmita Padhi, Bhanu Pratap, and Archana Aggarwal. 2022. “Corporal Punishment and Praise in Indian Schools: Caste-based Heterogeneity on Children’s Cognitive Skills”, International Journal of Educational Development, 89, 102554. Link .

Paul, R., R. Rashmi, and S. Srivastava. 2022. “Association of Mass Media Exposure with Combustible and Smokeless Tobacco Use among Indian Population: Findings from a Panel Survey”, BMC Public Health, 22, 125(2022). Link.

Sedai, Ashish. 2022. “Who Benefits from Indoor Piped Drinking Water Supply? A Gender Analysis”, Ideas for India. January 17. Link .

Hassan, Mofidul. 2022. “Inequality Adjusted Per Capita Income of Indian States in 2004-05 and 2011-12”, The Journal of Development Practice, 7: 29-34. Link .

Sennimalai, Sarath, and S.D. Sivakumar. 2022. “Income Inequality and Consumption Pattern among BOP Consumers in India”, International Review of Business and Economics, 5(2): 1-13. Link .

Dhamija, Gaurav and Gitanjali Sen 2022. “Lasting Impact on Health from Natural Disasters, Potential Mechanisms and Mitigating Effects”, Preprint. Link .

Kundu, Anustup and Kunal Sen. 2022. “Multigenerational Mobility among Males in India”, Review of Income and Wealth. https://doi.org/10.1111/roiw.12568 . Link .

Bhattacharjee, Deepabali and Pratap C. Mohanty. 2022. “Do Information Differentials and Confidence in Medical Institutions Influence Out-of-pocket Expenditure on Health Care in India?”, Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health, 13, 100952. Link.

Sarma, N. Forthcoming in January 2022. “Domestic violence and workfare: An evaluation of India’s MGNREGS”, World Development, Vol. 149. Link .

Kishan, P.K.V. 2021. “Intergenerational Education Mobility in India: Nonlinearity, and the Great Gatsby Curve”, Paper prepared for the 36th International Association for Research in Income and Wealth (IARIW) Virtual General Conference, August 23-27, 2021. Link .

Jaikumar, Saravana and Rashmi Kumari. (2021). “Uncovering the Secrets of Small Family Businesses in a Developing Economy: The Unsuspected Role of Social Capital and Household Income Interactions”, Working Paper Series, WPS No 872, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta. Link .

Khound, Kaveri. 2021. “Role of Weather Shock and Variability on Food Security in India”, ARTHAVAAN, 4(1): 98-105. Link .

Iversen, Vegard. 2021. “Social Mobility in Developing Countries: Measurement and Downward Mobility Pitfalls”, in Vegard Iversen, Anirudh Krishna, and Kunal Sen (eds.), Social Mobility in Developing Countries: Concepts, Methods and Determinants, pp. 75-96, U.K.: Oxford University Press. Link .

Imran, M. Shahe and Forhad Shilpi. 2021. “Economic Approach to Intergenerational Mobility” in Vegard Iversen, Anirudh Krishna, and Kunal Sen (eds.), Social Mobility in Developing Countries: Concepts, Methods and Determinants, pp. 197-220, U.K.: Oxford University Press. Link .

Thangjam, Melody, Manjit Das and Laishram Ladusingh. 2021. “Changes in Incidence of Morbidities of Children and Its Determinants in Northeast India”, Demography India, 50(2): 44-54. Link .

Kujur, Archana, Dhiren Sahoo, and Hanumant Waghmare. 2021. “Effect of Household and School Characteristic on Absenteeism among Primary School Children in EAG States of India”, Demography India, 50(2): 101-112. Link .

Maitra, Sudeshna. 2021. “Migration, Social Interaction and Mothers’ Preference for Sons in India”, Demography India, 50(2): 152-166. Link .

Giri, Manohar and Devlina Chatterjee. 2021. “Factors Affecting Changes in Insured Status of Rural and Urban Households: A Study over Two Time Periods in India”, IIMB Management Review, December 31. Link .

Dakua, M., and B. Sarkar. (2021). “Prevalence, Pattern, and Determinant of Sex Preference in India: Evidence from India Human Development Survey-II (2011-12)”, International Journal of Research—Granthaalayah , 9(11): 109–121. Link . Chen, Jingjing, 2021. "Do mobile phones empower women? A perspective from rural India," Warwick-Monash Economics Student Papers 09 , Warwick Monash Economics Student Papers. Link . Rajkhowa, P. (2021). “Personalized digital extension services, electronic marketplaces, and mobile phones: Implications of digital technology for rural development in India”, Dissertation submitted to the Center for Development Research (Zentrum Für Entwicklungsforschung), The Agricultural Faculty, Rhenish Friedrich Wilhelm University of Bonn (der Landwirtschaftlichen Fakultät der Rheinischen Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität Bonn). Link . Jain, R., and S. Biswas. (2021). “The road to safety- Examining the nexus between road infrastructure and crime in rural India”, Working Paper . Link.

George, M.S., T. Niyosenga, and I. Mohanty. (2021). “Does the presence of health insurance and health facilities improve healthcare utilisation for major morbidities among Indigenous communities and older widows: Evidence from the India Human Development Surveys I and II”, medRxiv , DOI: https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.12.05.21267327 . Link .

Nupur, S., and M. Dutta. (2021). “Determinants of Migration from Rural Households in India: An Empirical Investigation”, The Migration Conference 2021 Selected Papers , London. Link .

Keskar, A. (2021). “Matching on Height in India”, Thesis submitted to Department of Economics, Rice University, Houston, Texas. Link .

Patidar, H., & Chothodi, S. (2021). Livelihood Diversification in Rural India. Space and Culture, India , 9 (3), 32-44. Link .

Heyes, A. and S. Saberian. 2021. “Hot Days, the ability to Work and climate resilience: Evidence from a representative sample of 42,152 Indian households”, Journal of Development Economics. Link.

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Human Development

Human development refers to the positive growth and changes in human habitation and livelihood. The human development has a huge impact on the quality of people’s life, such as their dignity, opportunities, freedom, etc.

Being an important topic, human development is discussed widely and is featured in the General Studies I section of the UPSC syllabus.

This article gives a good understanding of the topic, human development from the IAS Exam point of view.

Growth and Development

Both growth and development refers to the changes over a period of time. Growth is quantitative and it may be either positive (showing an increase) or negative (depicting a decrease).
Development is qualitative change which is always positive. Development takes place when growth is positive. Yet, positive growth does not necessarily result in development. Development occurs when there is positive change in quality.
If the population of a city increases from one lakh to two lakhs, it is growth. However, if the facilities like housing, provision of basic facilities and other characteristics remain same, then the growth has not led to the development of the city.
Earlier, a country’s development was measured in terms of its economic growth, though this growth did not really mean much change in the lives of most people. The quality of life people enjoy in a country, the opportunities they have and the freedom they enjoy are important aspects of a country’s development.
The concept of human development was introduced by Dr Mahbub-ul-Haq (Pakistani economist) who created the human development index in 1990. According to him, development is all about enlarging people’s choices in order to lead long and healthy lives with dignity. People are central to all development under this concept. The United Nations Development Programme has used his concept of human development to publish the Human Development Report annually since 1990.
Nobel Laureate Prof Amartya Sen saw an increase in freedom (or decrease in unfreedom) as the main objective of development. His work explores the role of social and political institutions and processes in increasing freedom.

Four Pillars of Human Development –

The four pillars of human development are-

Equity – It means that equal opportunities must be made available to people irrespective of their race, income, gender and caste.
Sustainability – It means continuity in the availability of opportunities. All environmental, financial and human resources must be used keeping in mind the future. Misuse of any of these resources will lead to fewer opportunities for future generations.
Productivity – It means productivity in terms of human work. It is people who are the real wealth of a country and the efforts to increase their knowledge or provide better health facilities will result in better work efficiency.
Empowerment – It refers to the power to make choices and this comes from increasing freedom and capability. The empowerment of socially and economically disadvantaged groups is of special importance.

Approaches to Human Development –

The important approaches of looking at the problem of human development are-

Income Approach- This is an old approach to human development. Higher the level of income, the higher is the level of human development. Human development is directly related to income.
Welfare Approach – In this approach, the government is responsible for increasing levels of human development by maximising expenditure on welfare (health, education, etc.). Here, humans act as beneficiaries of all developmental activities.
Basic Needs Approach – In this approach emphasis is laid on providing six basic needs- health, education, food, water supply, sanitation and housing. This approach was initially proposed by the International Labour Organisation (ILO).
Capability Approach – This approach is associated with Prof Amartya Sen. The key to increasing human development is to build human capabilities in the areas of health, education and access to resources.

Measuring Human Development –

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) publishes the Human Development Report every year since 1990. It provides a rank wise list of all its members (countries) according to the level of human development. The Human Development Index and the Human Poverty Index are the two important indices to measure human development used by UNDP.

Human Development Index (HDI) – The HDI ranks the countries based on their performance in the key areas of health, education and access to resources. The rankings are based on a score between 0 – 1.
To access health, the indicator chosen is the life expectancy at birth.
The adult literacy rate and the gross enrolment ratio represent access to education.
Access to resources is measured in terms of purchasing power (in US dollars).

Each dimension is given a weightage of ⅓. The human development index is a sum total of weights assigned to all these dimensions. The closer the score to one, the greater is the level of human development. HDI is not considered to be the most reliable measure as it does not say anything about the distribution.

2.The Human Poverty Index (HPI) – This index measures the shortfall in human development. It is a non- income measure. The probability of not surviving till the age of 40, the adult literacy rate, the number of people who do not have access to clean water and the number of small children who are underweight are all taken into account to measure the shortfall in human development in any region. HPI is considered to be more revealing than HDI.

International Comparisons –

International comparisons of human development reveal that the size of the territory and per capita income are not directly related to human development. Relatively poor countries have been ranked higher in terms of human development than their richer neighbours. Also, smaller countries often have done better than larger ones in human development. Despite having smaller economies, Sri Lanka, Trinidad and Tobago have higher rank than India. Within India, Kerala performs better than Punjab and Gujarat despite having lower per capita income.
On the basis of human development scores, countries have been classified into four groups-

Top ten countries ranked with high human development index are-

Countries with high levels of human development invest more in the social sectors and are generally free from political turmoil and instability. Distribution of the country’s resources is also far more equitable.
Countries with low levels of human development tend to spend more on defence rather than social sectors indicating that these countries have political instability and have not been able to initiate accelerated economic development.
India was 126th in the Human Development Index as per Human Development Report 2006. According to the HDI report 2020, India has gone down to 131.

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Migration and Human Development in India

Deshingkar, Priya, Akter, Shaheen. 2009. Migration and Human Development in India. New York.

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Essay on Viksit Bharat: A Path to India’s Development

Updated on
Apr 5, 2024

Essay on Viksit Bharat: The Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi, has an ambition for India; that is to make India a ‘Developed Country’. The Leader has stated that every action of an Indian civilian should be done to make India a developed country; that is, Viksit Bharat.

The formal launch of the Viksit Bharat Mission was a major milestone in India’s development. It is an opportunity for India to show its true potential and become a developed country by 2047, which will complete the 100 years of India’s independence. With the rapid development in major sectors of the economy , experts have predicted that this mission will be accomplished within its time limit.

This Blog Includes:

Viksit bharat history, viksit bharat key objectives, developments so far.

Quick Read: Essay on Digital India

On 11 December 2023, the Indian Prime Minister launched the Viksit Bharat @2047 scheme via a video conferencing platform. In this video conference, he declared the formal launch of this scheme along with its four pillars: Yuva (Youth), Garib (Poor), Mahila (Women) and Kisan (Framers).

Viksit Bharat represents a blueprint for India’s development. It aims to achieve the ‘India Great’ target by the year 2047; which was termed as ‘Amrit Kaal’. On 3rd March 2024, the Prime Minister chaired the Council of Ministers, where he talked about a plan for the next five years to work on the ‘Viksit Bharat 2047’ vision.

He stated that if the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) forms a government after the upcoming Lok Sabha elections in 2024, the government will aim to make India a global power in terms of economic growth, social development, technological innovations and soft diplomacy.

‘ Today, the goal of the country is Viksit Bharat, Shrestha Bharat!’ – PM Narendra Modi

The Viksit Bharat has been the prime focus of the NDA. The Prime Minister has expressed his ministry’s action plan to make India a developed nation by 2047. The immediate objectives of the Viksit Bharat scheme are economic growth and sustainable development goals, better standard of living, ease of doing business, infrastructure, social welfare, etc.

To achieve the Viksit Bharat objectives, the Indian Prime Minister aims to enable every Indian citizen to participate in the country’s development at their own level. PM Modi’s vision is strong and sustainable, where every individual will be offered decent living standards and an opportunity to serve their mother country.

The government is encouraging investors to invest in India for advanced economic growth in the subsequent years. The sub-schemes launched under this mission show the government’s dedication to creating a favourable environment for economic growth and business development.

The government is constantly encouraging the youth to actively participate in the government’s schemes and engage in entrepreneurial activities. With schemes like Startup India, Made in India, and Digital India, more and more people are encouraged to participate in the government’s plans for India’s development.

The government is launching schemes on its digital platforms that encourage people to understand the importance of indigenous products and rely on their skills.’

Developing world-class infrastructure to promote sustainable development and an enhanced standard of living for everyone is another objective of the Viksit Bharat scheme. The government is launching large-scale projects to develop the country’s infrastructure, which includes the construction of world-class roads and highways, trains and railway stations, ports, etc. Some of the popular projects launched by the government are the Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana , Smart Cities Mission, Bharatmala, Sagarmala, etc.

Quick Read: 200+ English Essay Topics

Unveiling the 10 pillars of Viksit Bharat Abhiyan with #economy at the core- paving the way for a #prosperous and #Developed India. India’s model of #development should lead the way for the world to follow. To know more, visit: https://t.co/sqRvRGJePp pic.twitter.com/qhYT2UqeLf — Viksit Bharat Abhiyan (@ViksitBharat) March 5, 2023

India is currently ranked #5 in economic development in the world, where the nominal GDP is approximately USD 4 Trillion. However, the Indian government is planning to secure the 3rd spot in economic development by surpassing Japan and Germany.

On 3rd March 2024, the Prime Minister discussed the entire roadmap of this scheme with the Cabinet Ministers. Viksit Bharat is a result of over 2 years of intensive preparation. It involves a holistic approach where all the ministries are involved to achieve its prime objective: Make India Great.

The government strategised its planning by consulting its ministers, state governments, academic institutions, private organizations, and ordinary people to come up with innovative and sustained ideas for India’s growth.

Ans. The Prime Minister of India, Shri Narendra Modi, has an ambition for India; that is to make India a ‘Developed Country’. The Leader has stated that every action of an Indian civilian should be done to make India a developed country; that is, Viksit Bharat. The formal launch of the Viksit Bharat Mission was a major milestone in India’s development. It is an opportunity for India to show its true potential and become a developed country by 2047, which will complete the 100 years of India’s independence. With the rapid development in major sectors of the economy, experts have predicted that this mission will be accomplished within its time limit.

Ans. Individuals can visit the MyGov portal to participate in the Viksit Bharat scheme at https://www.mygov.in/.

Ans. On 11 December 2023, the Indian Prime Minister launched the Viksit Bharat @2047 scheme via a video conferencing platform. The four pillars of the Viksit Bharat scheme are Yuva (Youth), Garib (Poor), Mahila (Women) and Kisan (Framers). The immediate objectives of the Viksit Bharat scheme are economic growth and sustainable development goals, better standard of living, ease of doing business, infrastructure, social welfare, etc.

Shiva Tyagi

With an experience of over a year, I've developed a passion for writing blogs on wide range of topics. I am mostly inspired from topics related to social and environmental fields, where you come up with a positive outcome.

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Nuclear energy, human capital, and urbanization tackling environmental concerns in India: evidence from QARDL and quantile co-integration

Published: 09 April 2024

Cite this article

Ashar Awan ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9922-7795 1 , 2 ,
Mustafa Kocoglu ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2942-8276 3 , 4 ,
Ahmet Tunc ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0864-2695 5 ,
Aviral Kumar Tiwari ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-1822-9263 6 &
Nora Yusma bte Mohamed Yusoff 7

Besides being a nuclear power and home to 1.4 billion people, India is transforming through rapid urbanization. Given the contribution of urbanization to the improvement of living standards and economic growth, countries are pursuing it; however, policymakers are concerned about its impact on the environment. Against this backdrop, this study analyzed the influence of urbanization and nuclear energy on ecological footprints while also considering economic growth and natural resources. To this end, the study employed annual data from 1971 to 2017. The research used the innovative QARDL approach for a thorough examination of quantile dynamics to guide policymakers. Results revealed economic growth upsurges environmental degradation while human capital and urbanization reduce ecological footprints in India. Interestingly, nuclear energy is found to have a negative impact; however, it is significant at quantiles closer to the median. Furthermore, natural resources are found to be insignificant across all quantiles. The policy implications emphasize the importance of urbanization in achieving India's sustainable environmental goals and long-run equilibrium.

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Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Awan, A., Kocoglu, M., Tunc, A. et al. Nuclear energy, human capital, and urbanization tackling environmental concerns in India: evidence from QARDL and quantile co-integration. Environ Dev Sustain (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-04789-x

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Essays on Human Capital & Development in India

Cornell University, 2017

Abstract: This dissertation consists of three independent research papers, tied under a broad research agenda of “human capital” in India. Chapters 1 and 2 are closely related and both utilize a self-collected, primary dataset on the subjective beliefs, of a sample of 12th-grade students, regarding factors that may influence their decision to invest in post-secondary education. Chapter 3 examines a different dimension of human capital and investigates the role of agriculture in improving the nutritional status of rural, Indian women. In the first paper, I examine the inaccuracy of students’ beliefs regarding the labor market returns (i.e. wage earnings) associated with post-secondary (college) education. Towards this end, I randomize information on measured population wages to a sample of 12th-grade students, drawn from schools affiliated with a large public state university in India, who at the time were roughly six months away from making a decision regarding college attendance and college track (technical, academic, vocational) conditional on attendance. I find that, at baseline, students’ beliefs about population earnings deviate substantially from true earnings in the population. Upon the receipt of potentially new information, students revise beliefs regarding own-wages in the direction of the information, though the average extent of updating is small and masks substantial sub-group heterogeneity. Additionally, subsequent changes in enrollment intentions and intentions to borrow for higher education are in line with both the extent and direction of wage belief updating. A portion of the heterogeneity in wage belief updating can be explained by initial misperceptions regarding population earnings, and baseline relevance of earnings to enrollment intentions. Yet a large portion remains unexplained, consistent with wide heterogeneity in updating heuristics, at the individual level. From a policy standpoint, these findings point to the limited capacity of information campaigns based on population-level aggregates to induce, on average, large changes in individual priors and help to rationalize a number of recent papers that find heterogeneous impacts of information provision on education outcomes. In my second paper, I draw descriptive insights about the extent and implications of the same sample of 12th-grade students’ misperceptions about post-secondary (college) expenses, elicited 5-9 months prior to them completing high school. Students’ subjective beliefs about post-secondary expenses are compared to a reference distribution of actual expenses incurred by students of post-secondary education. Students overestimate expenses for two out of three tracks. I estimate that if students perceived expenses more accurately, then their perceived affordability for technical tracks and general tracks would increase by 10 percentage points and 55 percentage points, respectively. Students’ have relatively more accurate beliefs about the expenses associated with their utility-maximizing track or their most preferred track, which I estimate using a flexible model of track-choice. Nevertheless, I show that purging cost beliefs of errors, also increases the perceived affordability of students’ preferred tracks by an economically and statistically large magnitude. My third paper is co-authored with Dr. Prabhu Pingali. In this paper, we establish a statistically important relationship between household agricultural income and maternal BMI using a five-year panel dataset of agricultural households drawn from 18 villages across five Indian states. Using within household variation over time, we estimate both, the extent to which short-term changes in agricultural income are associated with short-term changes in BMI, and the effect of agricultural income growth on BMI growth over a longer term. Over the longer term, and for the group of households that regularly farm, we find a 10 pp. agriculture income growth to be associated with a 0.15 pp. growth in BMI. Consistent with the literature, this effect is economically modest, but important considering that we do not nd a corresponding effect for growth in non-agricultural income. We present evidence to suggest that the own-production of food is not an important pathway for nutritional improvements, but the agricultural income effect is likely operational through purchase of food, specifically of protein-rich pulses. The effects of agricultural income are stronger for younger women, in the age-group 15-25 years, who face a particularly strong nutritional disadvantage in India.

Research Areas

Agriculture Transformation, Food Systems & Nutrition Transition

Essay on India is a Developing Country

Students are often asked to write an essay on India is a Developing Country in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

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100 Words Essay on India is a Developing Country

Introduction.

India, located in South Asia, is often referred to as a developing country. This means it’s in a phase of economic and social transformation.

Economic Growth

India’s economy is growing rapidly. It’s a hub for information technology and has a booming service sector. However, agriculture still employs many people.

Social Development

India is making strides in education and healthcare. Yet, challenges like poverty and illiteracy persist, indicating a need for further development.

Despite challenges, India’s progress is commendable. With continued efforts, it’s poised to achieve more growth and development.

250 Words Essay on India is a Developing Country

India, officially known as the Republic of India, is often categorized as a developing nation. Despite being the world’s largest democracy and the seventh-largest country by land area, its economic, social, and political aspects are still in a state of evolution.

Economic Perspective

From an economic viewpoint, India is a mixed bag. It is the world’s fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP, thanks to its robust sectors like IT, telecommunications, textiles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, steel, and aviation. However, it still grapples with issues like poverty, unemployment, and a significant informal economy.

Social Aspect

India’s social fabric is a rich tapestry of diverse cultures, languages, religions, and traditions. However, the country faces challenges such as illiteracy, gender inequality, and social discrimination. These issues, coupled with a high population density, make social development a complex task.

Political Landscape

India’s political structure is a federal parliamentary democratic republic, where the President is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government. While the political system has been stable, corruption and bureaucratic inefficiency remain significant hurdles.

In conclusion, India is indeed a developing country, with a vast potential for growth and improvement. Its journey towards development is marked by both achievements and challenges. The nation’s future hinges on how effectively it can address its issues and capitalize on its strengths.

500 Words Essay on India is a Developing Country

India, a country rich in history, culture, and diversity, is classified as a developing nation by various global economic indicators. Despite being the world’s fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP, India is still grappling with numerous challenges that hinder its progress towards becoming a developed nation.

India’s Economic Landscape

India’s economy is a mixed bag of traditional agriculture, modern industries, and a multitude of services. The agricultural sector, although decreasing in its contribution to the GDP, still employs a significant portion of the population. The services sector, on the other hand, has seen a steady rise, contributing to over half of India’s GDP. The industrial sector, though growing, has yet to reach its potential due to issues like inadequate infrastructure and regulatory bottlenecks.

Challenges to Development

Despite impressive economic growth, India faces several critical challenges. Poverty and income inequality remain significant issues, with a large segment of the population living under the poverty line. Lack of access to quality education and healthcare, particularly in rural areas, further exacerbates these disparities.

Infrastructure development is another major challenge. Issues like inadequate transport facilities, inconsistent electricity supply, and lack of clean drinking water are prevalent, particularly in rural and underdeveloped regions.

The Demographic Dividend

India’s demographic profile presents both opportunities and challenges. With over 65% of its population under the age of 35, India has a vast pool of young, working-age individuals. This demographic dividend can propel economic growth if harnessed effectively. However, the lack of skills and opportunities, particularly in rural and semi-urban areas, could turn this potential asset into a liability.

Steps Towards Development

India is taking steps to address these challenges. The government has initiated several programs aimed at poverty alleviation, improving healthcare and education, and developing infrastructure. The ‘Make in India’ initiative is aimed at boosting the manufacturing sector and creating jobs. Similarly, the ‘Digital India’ initiative seeks to leverage technology to enhance governance and public services.

India’s journey from a developing to a developed nation is a complex process, requiring concerted efforts to address the numerous challenges it faces. However, with its vast resources, youthful population, and strategic initiatives, India has immense potential to transform its status from a developing to a developed nation. The journey may be long and arduous, but with consistent efforts and strategic planning, India can indeed realize its vision of becoming a global economic powerhouse.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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