cold war essay 100 words

Essay on Cold War

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100 Words Essay on Cold War

What was the cold war.

The Cold War was a period of tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, two powerful countries, after World War II. They never fought directly, which is why it’s called “cold.” They disagreed on how countries should be run, with the US favoring democracy and the USSR supporting communism.

Main Events

Impact on the world.

The Cold War affected other countries, leading to wars in Korea and Vietnam. The US and USSR tried to spread their ways of government, causing conflicts. Many countries had to choose sides, which created global divisions.

The End of the Cold War

The Cold War ended around 1991 when the Soviet Union broke apart. This was because its economy was weak and people demanded more freedom. The world became less tense, and countries started working together more.

250 Words Essay on Cold War

The race for power.

Both nations wanted to be the strongest, not just with military might but also in politics and ideas. They tried to spread their ways of life around the world. The US liked democracy and capitalism, where people can vote and businesses compete. The Soviet Union believed in communism, where the government controls everything.

Spreading Influence

The US and the Soviet Union tried to get other countries on their side. They gave money, weapons, and support to allies. If a country seemed like it might become communist, the US would try to stop it, and vice versa.

Fear of Nuclear War

Both sides had nuclear weapons and were afraid the other might use them. This fear kept them from starting a real war, which might have led to both countries destroying each other.

The Cold War ended when the Soviet Union fell apart in 1991. Countries in Eastern Europe, which had been under Soviet control, became free. The US and the former Soviet countries started to get along better, but the effects of the Cold War can still be seen in many places today.

500 Words Essay on Cold War

The Cold War was a long period of tension between two of the world’s superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union. It lasted from the end of World War II in 1945 until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. During this time, these countries did not fight each other directly in a “hot” military conflict. Instead, they competed in other ways, such as spying, political games, and trying to spread their own ideas around the world.

The Start of the Cold War

Arms race and space race.

One of the biggest parts of the Cold War was the arms race. Both countries spent a lot of money and time building up huge amounts of weapons, including nuclear bombs. They wanted to be so strong that the other side would be scared to ever start a fight. There was also a space race, where both countries tried to show their power by exploring space. The Soviet Union sent the first satellite, Sputnik, into space, and later the United States was the first to land a man on the moon.

Life During the Cold War

For people living during the Cold War, the fear of a nuclear war was real. Schools taught children what to do if a bomb was dropped, and some families built bomb shelters in their backyards. At the same time, movies, books, and other parts of culture often showed the enemy in a bad way, trying to make people support their own country more.

Impact of the Cold War

In conclusion, the Cold War was a time of great worry and competition between two powerful nations. It shaped the world in many ways and its effects are still felt. Understanding the Cold War helps us learn about why countries behave the way they do and the importance of working together for a peaceful world.

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The Cold War (1945-1989) essay

The Cold War is considered to be a significant event in Modern World History. The Cold War dominated a rather long time period: between 1945, or the end of the World War II, and 1990, the collapse of the USSR. This period involved the relationships between two superpowers: the United States and the USSR. The Cold War began in Eastern Europe and Germany, according to the researchers of the Institute of Contemporary British History (Warner 15).  Researchers state that “the USSR and the United States of America held the trump cards, nuclear bombs and missiles” (Daniel 489). In other words, during the Cold War, two nations took the fate of the world under their control. The progression of the Cold War influenced the development of society, which became aware of the threat of nuclear war. After the World War II, the world experienced technological progress, which provided “the Space Race, computer development, superhighway construction, jet airliner development, the creation of international phone system, the advent of television, enormous progress in medicine, and the creation of mass consumerism, and many other achievements” (Daniel 489). Although the larger part of the world lived in poverty and lacked technological progress, the United States and other countries of Western world succeeded in economic development. The Cold War, which began in 1945, reflected the increased role of technological progress in the establishment of economic relationships between two superpowers.   The Cold War involved internal and external conflicts between two superpowers, the United States and the USSR, leading to eventual breakdown of the USSR.

• The Cold War: background information

The Cold War consisted of several confrontations between the United States and the USSR, supported by their allies. According to researchers, the Cold War was marked by a number of events, including “the escalating arms race, a competition to conquer space, a dangerously belligerent for of diplomacy known as brinkmanship, and a series of small wars, sometimes called “police actions” by the United States and sometimes excused as defense measures by the Soviets” (Gottfried 9). The Cold War had different influences on the United States and the USSR. For the USSR, the Cold War provided massive opportunities for the spread of communism across the world, Moscow’s control over the development of other nations and the increased role of the Soviet Communist party.

In fact, the Cold War could split the wartime alliance formed to oppose the plans of Nazi Germany, leaving the USSR and the United States as two superpowers with considerable economic and political differences. The USSR was based on a single-party Marxist–Leninist system, while the United States was a capitalist state with democratic governance based on free elections.

The key figure in the Cold War was the Soviet leader Gorbachev, who was elected in 1985. He managed to change the direction of the USSR, making the economies of communist ruled states independent. The major reasons for changing in the course were poor technological development of the USSR (Gottfried 115). Gorbachev believed that radical changes in political power could improve the Communist system. At the same time, he wanted to stop the Cold War and tensions with the United States. The cost of nuclear arms race had negative impact on the economy of the USSR. The leaders of the United States accepted the proposed relationships, based on cooperation and mutual trust. The end of the Cold War was marked by signing the INF treaty in 1987 (Gottfried 115).

• The origins of the Cold War

Many American historians state that the Cold War began in 1945. However, according to Russian researchers, historians and analysts “the Cold War began with the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917, for this was when the capitalist world began its systematic opposition to and effort to undermine the world’s first socialist state and society” (Warner13). For Russians, the Cold War was hot in 1918-1922, when the Allied Intervention policy implemented in Russia during the Russian Civil War. According to John W. Long, “the U.S. intervention in North Russia was a policy formulated by President Wilson during the first half of 1918 at the urgent insistence of Britain, France and Italy, the chief World War I allies” (380).

Nevertheless, there are some other opinions regarding the origins of the Cold War. For example, Geoffrey Barraclough, an outstanding English historian, states that the events in the Far East at the end of the century contributed to the origins of the Cold War. He argues that “during the previous hundred years, Russia and the United States has tended to support each other against England; but now, as England’s power passed its zenith, they came face to face across the Pacific” (Warner 13). According to Barraclough, the Cold War is associated with the conflict of interests, which involved European countries, the Middle East and South East Asia. Finally, this conflict divided the world into two camps. Thus, the Cold War origins are connected with the spread of ideological conflict caused by the emergence of the new power in the early 20-th century (Warner 14). The Cold War outbreak was associated with the spread of propaganda on the United States by the USSR. The propagandistic attacks involved the criticism of the U.S. leaders and their policies. These attacked were harmful to the interests of American nation (Whitton 151).

• The major causes of the Cold War

The United States and the USSR were regarded as two superpowers during the Cold War, each having its own sphere of influence, its power and forces. The Cold War had been the continuing conflict, caused by tensions, misunderstandings and competitions that existed between the United States and the USSR, as well as their allies from 1945 to the early 1990s (Gottfried 10). Throughout this long period, there was the so-called rivalry between the United States and the USSR, which was expressed through various transformations, including military buildup, the spread of propaganda, the growth of espionage, weapons development, considerable industrial advances, and competitive technological developments in different spheres of human activity, such as medicine, education, space exploration, etc.

There four major causes of the Cold War, which include:

• Ideological differences (communism v. capitalism);
• Mutual distrust and misperception;
• The fear of the United State regarding the spread of communism;
• The nuclear arms race (Gottfried 10).

The major causes of the Cold War point out to the fact that the USSR was focused on the spread of communist ideas worldwide. The United States followed democratic ideas and opposed the spread of communism. At the same time, the acquisition of atomic weapons by the United States caused fear in the USSR. The use of atomic weapons could become the major reason of fear of both the United States and the USSR. In other words, both countries were anxious about possible attacks from each other; therefore, they were following the production of mass destruction weapons. In addition, the USSR was focused on taking control over Eastern Europe and Central Asia. According to researchers, the USSR used various strategies to gain control over Eastern Europe and Central Asia in the years 1945-1980. Some of these strategies included “encouraging the communist takeover of governments in Eastern Europe, the setting up of Comecon, the Warsaw Pact, the presence of the Red Army in Eastern Europe, and the Brezhnev Doctrine” (Phillips 118). These actions were the major factors for the suspicions and concerns of the United States. In addition, the U.S. President had a personal dislike of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin and his policies. In general, the United States was concerned by the Soviet Union’s actions regarding the occupied territory of Germany, while the USSR feared that the United States would use Western Europe as the major tool for attack.

• The consequences of the Cold War

The consequences of the Cold War include both positive and negative effects for both the United States and the USSR.

• Both the United States and the USSR managed to build up huge arsenals of atomic weapons of mass destruction and ballistic missiles.
• The Cold War provided opportunities for the establishment of the military blocs, NATO and the Warsaw Pact.
• The Cold War led to the emergence of the destructive military conflicts, like the Vietnam War and the Korean War, which took the lives of millions of people (Gottfried13).
• The USSR collapsed because of considerable economic, political and social challenges.
• The Cold War led to the destruction of the Berlin Wall and the unification of the two German nations.
• The Cold War led to the disintegration of the Warsaw Pact (Gottfried 136).
• The Cold war provided the opportunities for achieving independence of the Baltic States and some former Soviet Republics.
• The Cold War made the United States the sole superpower of the world because of the collapse of the USSR in 1990.
• The Cold War led to the collapse of Communism and the rise of globalization worldwide (Phillips 119).

The impact of the Cold War on the development of many countries was enormous. The consequences of the Cold War were derived from numerous internal problems of the countries, which were connected with the USSR, especially developing countries (India, Africa, etc.). This fact means that foreign policies of many states were transformed (Gottfried 115).

The Cold War (1945-1989) essay part 2

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Origins of the Cold War

The struggle between superpowers.

• Toward a new world order

What was the Cold War?

How did the cold war end, why was the cuban missile crisis such an important event in the cold war.

• What was Harry S. Truman's reaction to communist North Korea's attempt to seize noncommunist South Korea in 1950?
• Should the United States maintain the embargo enforced by John F. Kennedy against Cuba?

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Trusted Britannica articles, summarized using artificial intelligence, to provide a quicker and simpler reading experience. This is a beta feature. Please verify important information in our full article.

This summary was created from our Britannica article using AI. Please verify important information in our full article.

The Cold War was an ongoing political rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies that developed after World War II . This hostility between the two superpowers was first given its name by George Orwell in an article published in 1945. Orwell understood it as a nuclear stalemate between “super-states”: each possessed weapons of mass destruction and was capable of annihilating the other.

The Cold War began after the surrender of Nazi Germany in 1945, when the uneasy alliance between the United States and Great Britain on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other started to fall apart. The Soviet Union began to establish left-wing governments in the countries of eastern Europe, determined to safeguard against a possible renewed threat from Germany. The Americans and the British worried that Soviet domination in eastern Europe might be permanent. The Cold War was solidified by 1947–48, when U.S. aid had brought certain Western countries under American influence and the Soviets had established openly communist regimes. Nevertheless, there was very little use of weapons on battlefields during the Cold War. It was waged mainly on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and lasted until 1991.

The Cold War came to a close gradually. The unity in the communist bloc was unraveling throughout the 1960s and ’70s as a split occurred between China and the Soviet Union . Meanwhile, Japan and certain Western countries were becoming more economically independent. Increasingly complex international relationships developed as a result, and smaller countries became more resistant to superpower cajoling.

The Cold War truly began to break down during the administration of Mikhail Gorbachev , who changed the more totalitarian aspects of the Soviet government and tried to democratize its political system. Communist regimes began to collapse in eastern Europe, and democratic governments rose in East Germany , Poland , Hungary , and Czechoslovakia , followed by the reunification of West and East Germany under NATO auspices. Gorbachev’s reforms meanwhile weakened his own communist party and allowed power to shift to the constituent governments of the Soviet bloc. The Soviet Union collapsed in late 1991, giving rise to 15 newly independent nations, including a Russia with an anticommunist leader.

In the late 1950s, both the United States and the Soviet Union were developing intercontinental ballistic missiles . In 1962 the Soviet Union began to secretly install missiles in Cuba to launch attacks on U.S. cities. The confrontation that followed, known as the Cuban missile crisis , brought the two superpowers to the brink of war before an agreement was reached to withdraw the missiles.

The conflict showed that both superpowers were wary of using their nuclear weapons against each other for fear of mutual atomic annihilation. The signing of the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty followed in 1963, which banned aboveground nuclear weapons testing. Still, after the crisis, the Soviets were determined not to be humiliated by their military inferiority again, and they began a buildup of conventional and strategic forces that the United States was forced to match for the next 25 years.

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Cold War , the open yet restricted rivalry that developed after World War II between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. The Cold War was waged on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. The term was first used by the English writer George Orwell in an article published in 1945 to refer to what he predicted would be a nuclear stalemate between “two or three monstrous super-states, each possessed of a weapon by which millions of people can be wiped out in a few seconds.” It was first used in the United States by the American financier and presidential adviser Bernard Baruch in a speech at the State House in Columbia, South Carolina , in 1947.

A brief treatment of the Cold War follows. For full treatment, see international relations .

Following the surrender of Nazi Germany in May 1945 near the close of World War II , the uneasy wartime alliance between the United States and Great Britain on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other began to unravel. By 1948 the Soviets had installed left-wing governments in the countries of eastern Europe that had been liberated by the Red Army . The Americans and the British feared the permanent Soviet domination of eastern Europe and the threat of Soviet-influenced communist parties coming to power in the democracies of western Europe. The Soviets, on the other hand, were determined to maintain control of eastern Europe in order to safeguard against any possible renewed threat from Germany, and they were intent on spreading communism worldwide, largely for ideological reasons. The Cold War had solidified by 1947–48, when U.S. aid provided under the Marshall Plan to western Europe had brought those countries under American influence and the Soviets had installed openly communist regimes in eastern Europe.

The Cold War reached its peak in 1948–53. In this period the Soviets unsuccessfully blockaded the Western-held sectors of West Berlin (1948–49); the United States and its European allies formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a unified military command to resist the Soviet presence in Europe (1949); the Soviets exploded their first atomic warhead (1949), thus ending the American monopoly on the atomic bomb; the Chinese communists came to power in mainland China (1949); and the Soviet-supported communist government of North Korea invaded U.S.-supported South Korea in 1950, setting off an indecisive Korean War that lasted until 1953.

From 1953 to 1957 Cold War tensions relaxed somewhat, largely owing to the death of the longtime Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin in 1953; nevertheless, the standoff remained. A unified military organization among the Soviet-bloc countries, the Warsaw Pact , was formed in 1955; and West Germany was admitted into NATO that same year. Another intense stage of the Cold War was in 1958–62. The United States and the Soviet Union began developing intercontinental ballistic missiles , and in 1962 the Soviets began secretly installing missiles in Cuba that could be used to launch nuclear attacks on U.S. cities. This sparked the Cuban missile crisis (1962), a confrontation that brought the two superpowers to the brink of war before an agreement was reached to withdraw the missiles.

The Cuban missile crisis showed that neither the United States nor the Soviet Union were ready to use nuclear weapons for fear of the other’s retaliation (and thus of mutual atomic annihilation). The two superpowers soon signed the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963 , which banned aboveground nuclear weapons testing. But the crisis also hardened the Soviets’ determination never again to be humiliated by their military inferiority, and they began a buildup of both conventional and strategic forces that the United States was forced to match for the next 25 years.

Throughout the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union avoided direct military confrontation in Europe and engaged in actual combat operations only to keep allies from defecting to the other side or to overthrow them after they had done so. Thus, the Soviet Union sent troops to preserve communist rule in East Germany (1953), Hungary (1956) , Czechoslovakia (1968) , and Afghanistan (1979) . For its part, the United States helped overthrow a left-wing government in Guatemala (1954) , supported an unsuccessful invasion of Cuba (1961), invaded the Dominican Republic (1965) and Grenada (1983) , and undertook a long (1954–75) and unsuccessful effort to prevent communist North Vietnam from bringing South Vietnam under its rule ( see Vietnam War ).

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110 Cold War Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

The Cold War, a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, lasted from the end of World War II until the early 1990s. This era shaped the modern world and influenced countless aspects of politics, economics, and society. If you're tasked with writing an essay about the Cold War, choosing a compelling topic is crucial. To help you brainstorm ideas and find inspiration, here are 110 Cold War essay topic ideas and examples.

• The origins of the Cold War: Analyzing the causes of the conflict.
• The Yalta Conference: Assessing its impact on the Cold War.
• The Truman Doctrine: Examining its role in shaping the Cold War.
• The Marshall Plan: Evaluating its impact on European recovery and the Cold War.
• The Berlin Airlift: Analyzing its significance in the context of the Cold War.
• The Korean War: Assessing its role as a proxy conflict during the Cold War.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis: Evaluating its impact on U.S.-Soviet relations and the Cold War.
• The Space Race: Analyzing its influence on the Cold War and technological advancements.
• The arms race: Assessing the importance of nuclear weapons during the Cold War.
• The Iron Curtain: Examining its role in dividing Europe during the Cold War.
• The domino theory: Evaluating its influence on U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War.
• The Suez Crisis: Analyzing its impact on the Cold War and decolonization.
• The Vietnam War: Assessing its role as a Cold War battleground.
• The Prague Spring: Evaluating its significance in the context of the Cold War.
• The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan: Analyzing its impact on the Cold War.
• Détente: Assessing the policies and consequences of the period of eased tensions.
• The Helsinki Accords: Evaluating their role in the Cold War and human rights.
• The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI): Analyzing its influence on U.S.-Soviet relations.
• The fall of the Berlin Wall: Assessing its importance in ending the Cold War.
• Perestroika and Glasnost: Evaluating their impact on the Soviet Union and the Cold War.
• The collapse of the Soviet Union: Analyzing its effects on the post-Cold War world.
• Proxy wars during the Cold War: Analyzing conflicts in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.
• The impact of the Cold War on the Third World: Assessing economic and political consequences.
• The role of propaganda during the Cold War: Analyzing its use by both sides.
• The cultural impact of the Cold War: Evaluating the influence on film, literature, and music.
• The role of espionage during the Cold War: Analyzing famous spies and intelligence agencies.
• The arms control talks: Assessing their effectiveness in reducing Cold War tensions.
• The role of non-aligned countries during the Cold War: Analyzing their significance.
• The impact of the Cold War on sports: Evaluating the use of athletic competitions for propaganda.
• The Cold War and the nuclear family: Analyzing the influence on societal norms.
• The Cold War and the Red Scare: Assessing the impact on civil liberties in the United States.
• The role of women during the Cold War: Analyzing their contributions and limitations.
• The impact of the Cold War on popular culture: Evaluating its portrayal in movies and TV shows.
• The Cold War and the arms trade: Assessing the influence on global weapons proliferation.
• The impact of the Cold War on the Middle East: Analyzing regional conflicts and alliances.
• The Cold War and the space exploration: Evaluating the role of technology and scientific advancements.
• The role of NATO during the Cold War: Assessing its importance in collective defense.
• The impact of the Cold War on East Asia: Analyzing the division of Korea and China's role.
• The Cold War and the European Union: Evaluating the influence on European integration.
• The impact of the Cold War on Latin America: Analyzing U.S. interventions and communist movements.
• The role of technology in the Cold War: Analyzing advancements in communication and surveillance.
• The Cold War and the United Nations: Assessing its role in maintaining global stability.
• The impact of the Cold War on the arms industry: Evaluating its economic consequences.
• The space race and its impact on scientific research: Analyzing technological advancements.
• The Cold War and nuclear accidents: Assessing the risks and consequences.
• The influence of Cold War propaganda on public opinion: Analyzing its effects.
• The Cold War and the media: Evaluating the role of journalism in shaping public perception.
• The impact of the Cold War on education: Analyzing curriculum changes and ideological influences.
• The Cold War and the military-industrial complex: Assessing its influence on the economy.
• The role of ideology in the Cold War: Analyzing the clash of capitalism and communism.
• The Cold War and the nuclear arms control treaties: Evaluating their effectiveness.
• The impact of the Cold War on human rights: Analyzing violations and international responses.
• The Cold War and the rise of terrorism: Assessing its connection to geopolitical rivalries.
• The role of intelligence agencies during the Cold War: Analyzing covert operations.
• The impact of the Cold War on the environment: Evaluating nuclear testing and pollution.

These are just a few examples of the many possible topics you can explore in a Cold War essay. Consider your interests, the requirements of your assignment, and the available resources to choose a topic that engages you and allows for in-depth research. Remember, a well-chosen topic is the first step towards crafting an exceptional essay on the Cold War.

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Cold War - Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

The Cold War was a defining period in world history, spanning from the end of WWII until 1991. It was a political, economic, and ideological struggle between the USSR and the United States, which dominated the global debate for decades. Writing a research paper about Cold War is a challenging task, but with the help of free essay examples on Cold War, students can gain insight into this complex period.

Our experts have prepared a collection of essay samples covering various aspects of this period, including its causes, effects, and debates. Students can use these examples to evaluate different thesis statements, outline their arguments, and craft an effective introduction and conclusion

The Cold War was fueled by the clash of two powerful ideologies: communism and capitalism. The Soviet Union was a communist country, while the USA was a capitalist democracy. The states involved in this struggle were split into two camps based on their ideology and political beliefs. The impact of the Cold War was felt worldwide, as many countries were forced to choose sides and take part in ideological conflict.

One of the most significant events of the Cold War was the construction of the Berlin Wall, which separated East and West Berlin for decades. By examining our argumentative essay topics, students can gain a deeper understanding of this critical period and make a summary of the human rights violations related to it.

The Cold War: Severe Tension between the United States and the Soviet Union

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Relationship between United States and Soviet Union during Cold War

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Effects of the Cold War

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The Longest War Fought in America’s History

The Vietnam War was iniated in November 1st 1955 and was finished on April 30 1975 because communism was starting to grow in Vietnam and the U.S wanted to keep it contained. At the time President Nixon was really worried that if Vietnam was to become communist other nations would soon follow and switch to communism. Ultimately at the end of the war there were a million plus casualties on both sides. The war officially ended in 1975 with the […]

The Significance of the Bay of Pigs Invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis on the Cold War

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Cold War Effects on America

The Cold War certainly changed and shaped the American economy, society, and politics from 1945 to 1992. The contrasting beliefs between Communism (the Soviet Union) and Democracy (the United States) caused the rift between the worlds top two most prominent superpowers -- Communism had established itself to be an immediate challenge to the importance of the United States of America. To stop these two world powers from becoming an even larger global conflict, a few military interventions were established in […]

The Vietnam War in the World History

Silence is all the soldiers could hear but they knew that they weren't alone. Soldiers from a foreign country attacked them from the shadows. Thousands of young American men were killed in the forests deep in Vietnam. The national interest of America that Americans developed after the Yalta Conference encouraged us to join the Korean War which led to the Vietnam War,the most regretted war in US History, guided America when it comes to foreign policies. At the end of […]

Ending the Cold War

The Cold War, America's risk of starting a third world war with the U.S.S.R but also one of America's most profitable and popular wars. The cold war begun after the WWII, when the soviets took control of half of Germany and wanted to expand their control over Asia and surrounding countries. Russia wanted to expand communism through out the pacific and the U.S wanted to liberate it and make it a more democratic place. Before this became an arms race, […]

Richard Nixon Foreign Policy and Cold War

The Cold War began to come to an end once President Richard Nixon stepped into office. He wanted to take a different approach to the international relations by using diplomacy instead of military action. In 1972, Leonid Brezhnev, the Soviet premier, and Nixon signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty. This treaty made both sides agree to halt all nuclear weapons manufacturing. This would then lead to a big step to ending the threat of nuclear war. Even though Nixon had […]

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John F. Kennedy grew up in Brookline, Massachusetts with nine siblings. He was the second child born to Rose Fitzgerald and Joseph Kennedy Sr. He attended a catholic all boys school but didn't really care about his academics. John F. Kennedy was also a very sick child having suffered severe colds, flu, scarlet fever, and many more severe undiagnosed diseases. Due to the many illnesses he had it caused him to have to miss months of school. Kennedy graduated and […]

Ideological Conflict in the Cold War

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Essays About the Cold War Those who are eager to know the American history of the 20th century without opening the history books should embark upon reading To Kill a Mockingbird, one of the most brilliant masterpieces of American literature that was created by Harper Lee. It tells the story of the American communities between the years of 1933 and 1935 – when the Great Depression was sniffing in the streets – in the light of a child’s point of view. The novel gives the readers a look into how capitalism became one of the main causes of the Cold War. And thanks to the Animal Farm essay you can understand what was happening in the society of the Soviet Union on the eve of the Cold War. World War II that followed not long after the Great Depression has become the first time when the Eastern Bloc and the Western Bloc united for the sake of conquering one enemy – the Nazis. Unfortunately, the topics that were predominant in the American community of the 1930s talked not about the relations between the Soviet Union and the United States but rather about examples of communities in which the blacks were not even considered human beings.  Writing an essay on the Cold War seemed to be nonsense in the times that are described in the novel. However, when the novel was published, the introduction of the United States into the world of communism has become a widely discussed DBQ. Given that the novel and the times that the author is talking about have been greatly analyzed, we are ready to write a research paper or an argumentative essay about the novel To Kill a Mockingbird. Our professional writers can follow your outline, or they can come up with one of their own, either way complying with the highest quality requirements. Ordering an essay on the Cold War from us, you can rest assured that your instructions will be followed, and your argument will be defended.

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Essay on the Cold War: it’s Origin, Causes and Phases

After the Second World War, the USA and USSR became two Super Powers. One nation tried to reduce the power of other. Indirectly the competition between the Super Powers led to the Cold War.

Then America took the leadership of all the Capitalist Countries.

Soviet Russia took the leadership of all the Communist Countries. As a result of which both stood as rivals to each other.

Definition of the Cold War:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

In the graphic language of Hartman, “Cold War is a state of tension between countries in which each side adopts policies designed to strengthen it and weaken the other by falling short by actual war”.

Image Source: i.ytimg.com/vi/y9HjvHZfCUI/maxresdefault.jpg

Infact, Cold War is a kind of verbal war which is fought through newspapers, magazines, radio and other propaganda methods. It is a propaganda to which a great power resorts against the other power. It is a sort of diplomatic war.

Origin of Cold War:

There is no unanimity amongst scholars regarding the origin of the Cold War In 1941 when Hitler invaded Russia, Roosevelt the President of USA sent armaments to Russia. It is only because the relationship between Roosevelt and Stalin was very good. But after the defeat of Germany, when Stalin wanted to implement Communist ideology in Poland, Hungery, Bulgaria and Rumania, at that time England and America suspected Stalin.

Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of England in his ‘Fulton Speech’ on 5 March 1946 said that Soviet Russia was covered by an Iron Curtain. It led Stalin to think deeply. As a result of which suspicion became wider between Soviet Russia and western countries and thus the Cold War took birth.

Causes of the Cold War:

Various causes are responsible for the outbreak of the Cold War. At first, the difference between Soviet Russia and USA led to the Cold War. The United States of America could not tolerate the Communist ideology of Soviet Russia. On the other hand, Russia could not accept the dominance of United States of America upon the other European Countries.

Secondly, the Race of Armament between the two super powers served another cause for the Cold War. After the Second World War, Soviet Russia had increased its military strength which was a threat to the Western Countries. So America started to manufacture the Atom bomb, Hydrogen bomb and other deadly weapons. The other European Countries also participated in this race. So, the whole world was divided into two power blocs and paved the way for the Cold War.

Thirdly, the Ideological Difference was another cause for the Cold War. When Soviet Russia spread Communism, at that time America propagated Capitalism. This propaganda ultimately accelerated the Cold War.

Fourthly, Russian Declaration made another cause for the Cold War. Soviet Russia highlighted Communism in mass-media and encouraged the labour revolution. On the other hand, America helped the Capitalists against the Communism. So it helped to the growth of Cold War.

Fifthly, the Nuclear Programme of America was responsible for another cause for the Cold War. After the bombardment of America on Hiroshima and Nagasaki Soviet Russia got afraid for her existence. So, it also followed the same path to combat America. This led to the growth of Cold War.

Lastly, the Enforcement of Veto by Soviet Russia against the western countries made them to hate Russia. When the western countries put forth any view in the Security Council of the UNO, Soviet Russia immediately opposed it through veto. So western countries became annoyed in Soviet Russia which gave birth to the Cold War.

Various Phases of the Cold War:

The Cold War did not occur in a day. It passed through several phases.

First Phase (1946-1949 ):

In this phase America and Soviet Russia disbelieved each other. America always tried to control the Red Regime in Russia. Without any hesitation Soviet Russia established Communism by destroying democracy in the Poland, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungery, Yugoslavia and other Eastern European Countries.

In order to reduce Russia’s hegemony, America helped Greece and Turkey by following Truman Doctrine which came into force on 12 March 1947. According to Marshall Plan which was declared on 5 June, 1947 America gave financial assistance to Western European Countries.

In this phase, non withdrawal of army from Iran by Soviet Russia, Berlin blaockade etc. made the cold was more furious. After the formation of NATO in 1949, the Cold War took a halt.

Second Phase (1949-1953 ):

In this phase a treaty was signed between Australia, New Zeland and America in September, 1957 which was known as ANZUS. America also signed a treaty with Japan on 8 September, 1951. At that time by taking armaments from Russia and army from China, North Korea declared war against South Korea.

Then with the help of UNO, America sent military aid to South Korea. However, both North Korea and South Korea signed peace treaty in 1953 and ended the war. In order to reduce the impact of Soviet Communism, America spent a huge amount of dollar in propaganda against Communism. On the other hand, Soviet Russia tried to be equal with America by testing atom bomb.

Third Phase (1953-1957):

Now United States of America formed SEATO in 1954 in order to reduce Soviet Russia’s influence. In 1955 America formed MEDO in Middle East. Within a short span of time, America gave military assistance to 43 countries and formed 3300 military bases around Soviet Russia. At that time, the Vietnamese War started on 1955.

To reduce the American Power, Russia signed WARSAW PACT in 1955. Russia also signed a defence pact with 12 Countries. Germany was divided into Federal Republic of Germany which was under the American control where as German Democratic Republic was under Soviet Russia. In 1957 Soviet Russia included Sphutnick in her defence programme.

In 1953 Stalin died and Khrushchev became the President of Russia. In 1956 an agreement was signed between America and Russia regarding the Suez Crisis. America agreed not to help her allies like England and France. In fact West Asia was saved from a great danger.

Fourth Phase (1957-1962):

In 1959 the Russian President Khrushchev went on a historical tour to America. Both the countries were annoyed for U-2 accident and for Berlin Crisis. In 13 August 1961, Soviet Russia made a Berlin Wall of 25 Kilometres in order to check the immigration from eastern Berlin to Western Berlin. In 1962, Cuba’s Missile Crisis contributed a lot to the cold war.

This incident created an atmosphere of conversation between American President Kenedy and Russian President Khrushchev. America assured Russia that she would not attack Cuba and Russia also withdrew missile station from Cuba.

Fifth Phase (1962-1969 ):

The Fifth Phase which began from 1962 also marked a mutual suspicion between USA and USSR. There was a worldwide concern demanding ban on nuclear weapons. In this period Hot Line was established between the White House and Kremlin. This compelled both the parties to refrain from nuclear war. Inspite of that the Vietnam problem and the Problem in Germany kept Cold War between USA and USSR in fact.

Sixth Phase (1969-1978 ):

This phase commencing from 1969 was marked by DETENTE between USA and USSR- the American President Nixon and Russian President Brezhnev played a vital role for putting an end to the Cold War. The SALT of 1972, the summit Conference on Security’ of 1975 in Helsinki and Belgrade Conference of 1978 brought America and Russia closer.

In 1971, American Foreign Secretary Henry Kissinger paid a secret visit to China to explore the possibilities of reapproachment with China. The American move to convert Diego Garcia into a military base was primarily designed to check the Soviet presence in the Indian Ocean. During the Bangladesh crisis of 1971 and the Egypt-Israel War of 1973 the two super powers extended support to the opposite sides.

Last Phase (1979-1987 ):

In this phase certain changes were noticed in the Cold War. That is why historians call this phase as New Cold War. In 1979, the American President Carter and Russian President Brezhnev signed SALT II. But in 1979 the prospects of mitigating Cold War were marred by sudden development in Afghanistan.

Vietnam (1975), Angola (1976), Ethiopia (1972) and Afghanistan (1979) issues brought success to Russia which was unbearable for America. American President Carter’s Human Rights and Open Diplomacy were criticised by Russia. The SALT II was not ratified by the US Senate. In 1980 America boycotted the Olympic held at Moscow.

In 1983, Russia withdrew from a talk on missile with America. In 1984 Russia boycotted the Olympic game held at Los-Angeles. The Star War of the American President Ronald Regan annoyed Russia. In this way the ‘New Cold War’ between America and Russia continued till 1987.

Result of the Cold War:

The Cold War had far-reaching implications in the international affairs. At first, it gave rise to a fear psychosis which resulted in a mad race for the manufacture of more sophisticated armaments. Various alliances like NATO, SEATO, WARSAW PACT, CENTO, ANZUS etc. were formed only to increase world tension.

Secondly, Cold War rendered the UNO ineffective because both super powers tried to oppose the actions proposed by the opponent. The Korean Crisis, Cuban Missile Crisis, Vietnam War etc. were the bright examples in this direction.

Thirdly, due to the Cold War, a Third World was created. A large number of nations of Africa, Asia and Latin America decided to keep away from the military alliances of the two super powers. They liked to remain neutral. So, Non-Alignments Movement became the direct outcome of the Cold War.

Fourthly, Cold War was designed against mankind. The unnecessary expenditure in the armament production created a barrier against the progress of the world and adversely affected a country and prevented improvement in the living standards of the people.

Fifthly, the principle ‘Whole World as a Family’, was shattered on the rock of frustration due to the Cold War. It divided the world into two groups which was not a healthy sign for mankind.

Sixthly, The Cold War created an atmosphere of disbelief among the countries. They questioned among themselves how unsafe were they under Russia or America.

Finally, The Cold War disturbed the World Peace. The alliances and counter-alliances created a disturbing atmosphere. It was a curse for the world. Though Russia and America, being super powers, came forward to solve the international crisis, yet they could not be able to establish a perpetual peace in the world.

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Cold War Essay

Table of Contents

Introduction

Cold War’s effects were felt in every area of the American Society.  Not only did it affect the American’s foreign policy, but also affected the relationships between the two dominant powers of the world by then. The war escalated as result of antagonist values that existed between the United States. The U.S values represented democracy and capitalism while the Soviet Union values represented authoritarianism and communism. The attitude of the American towards communism by then had been misled through propagandas such as editing of Hollywood scripts to act against the communist. The attitude of Americans towards communism during the cold wars can be best illustrated by the number of military interventions such as Vietnam and Korean war that it sent with the aim of stopping the expansion of communist. The attitude toward communism have taken a different direction since Cold War ended, and the current relationship between Russian and the United States and their policy can be traced back to the Cold War.

How Cold War originated

After some time, South Korea was invaded by North Korea. The United Nations had to send their military in aid of South Korea while China helped South Korea. Despite the end of war in 1953, the two countries never rejoined again. The Soviet Union and the United States competed for power and political domination of the entire world. The US sent its military to Vietnam and Korea to avoid the spreading of communism. At the same time, the Soviet Union used its powers to maintain its regimes in Eastern Europe. The Cold War resulted from the suspicion that was created by differences in the shape that was created by the Second world war. Poland was the first place to have the distrust. Moscow wanted a government that was controlled by the influence of Soviet. On the other hand, Washington demanded a government that was more representative and independent of the Western Model. All these arose from the different interpretations of the Conference that had taken place in February 1945. In the conference, the governments had been promised free and fair elections in Poland.

Relationships deteriorated from the time the Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs let out his intentions to support firmly Polish self-determination (Pickering, Chester, and Casimir, 7). The military forces from Soviet were the ones that replaced and occupied the whole of Eastern and Central Europe. The activities and efforts of the communist parties were supported by the military power of Moscow in Eastern Europe. The powers were also used in crushing the democratic parties that existed at the time. The communist parties expanded at a rapid rate in Moscow and had influence in all the countries that surrounded the region. In 1948, the communist parties were influencing all the countries in the region. The communist parties and leaders held a significant position in originating the cold world war ((origin, 2). Because of the fear that the communist from Soviet would attack the United States that President Kennedy had, he sent warships in Cuba to surround the city. He expected the Soviet to remove the missiles from Cuba. Soviet removed its missiles from Cuba after six days.

Public statements defined the beginning of the cold war. In 1946, Starlin gave a declaration that it was not possible to maintain international peace with the then capitalist development in the economy of the world. This made Winston Churchill give a public speech in Fulton declaring that the United States and Britain had to come together and work against the threat of the Soviet. On August 6, 1945, the US destroyed Hiroshima and half of its population by dropping an atomic bomb (Sutter, n.p). This made Japan declare war, and Soviet reaffirmed that it was to enter the war against Japan.  The following day saw another bomb dropped on Nagasaki. Russians were also intimated before joining the Jana in the war when they realized the Britain and U.S had more atomic power than them. The former offered to Russia a plan to share the nuclear power which Russia declined considering it an unfair deal. This marked the beginning of the Cold War.

Effects of Cold War on U. S. foreign policy

The history of the foreign policy of America from the time world war II ended shows how the United States made use of its superior capability in the economy to promote its security and political interest (Waltz, 16). The lack of significant threats to the security of the United States. A larger latitude in making choices of foreign policy. For instance, United States acted after Yugoslavia failed not because of its security but because of the need to maintain its powers in Europe. The foreign policy was generated by the pressure of the internal pressure as well as its national ambition rather than from external security pressures (Waltz, 29). Moreover, during the cold war, the presidents of the US applied force as they responded to domestic imperatives compared to the international ones (Moore and David 376). The United States foreign policy towards the Middle East has been in a strategic position despite the many disagreements. The conception of the policy has been as a result of the widely-shared world order. This conception of world order is adapted to certain importance changes of the entire world.

How attitudes towards communism have changed since the end of the cold war

Communism is a set of systems of both political and social organization that influenced the world in much of the century. Communism wanted to overthrow capitalism through the use of worker’s revolution. They aimed at establishing a system where the property was to be owned by the entire community and not by individuals. There was not supposed to be classes in the society. All people were to believe in the same level. All people would enjoy equal economic and social status. The communist regimes consisted of governments that were authoritative. They were less concerned about the people’s needs.  (Moore and David 378). They wanted to do away with capitalism. Capitalism is a set of systems where business firms and individuals involve themselves in production and distribution of goods and services. Its origin was European. It had been in place until 19th century where communism was introduced.

Early in the Cold War, people in the U.S used to speak with alarm the effects that were caused by monolithic communism. This was coming from the coming together of China and the Soviet Union. However, this was disintegrated by the bloc disintegration (Waltz, 19). The Cold War escalated as result of antagonist values that existed between the United States. The U.S values represented democracy and capitalism while the Soviet Union values represented authoritarianism and communism. Since the two were the major dominant powers of the world, the contention between them remained to be a global conflict (Jacobs and Benjamin, 117). The attitude of Americans towards communism during the cold wars can be best illustrated by the number of military interventions such as Vietnam and Korean war that it sent with the aim of stopping the expansion of communist. The impact of the cultural battles between Russia and U.S on the daily lives of the Americans cannot be underestimated.

The national security agencies would encourage the producers of Hollywood to produce movies that were anticommunist. They wanted to spread to all Americans that the idea of communism was a bad aide that would ruin the nation.  This was just but a propaganda tool.  The agencies urged the producers to change the film scripts and edit the references to remain with only the ones that praised the history of America (Moore and David, 388). Though the movies increased the level of patriotism in the country, they also escalated the suspicion of the activities of communism in America.  The worst happened when the anti-communist sentiments started working against Hollywood during some hearings against communist who were suspected to be in Hollywood.  This led to many lives being ruined and several communists rooted out from Hollywood (Moore and David, 398). They were accused of false evidence against the communists. The result of this was the trickling down of the anticommunist to affect the locals.  The Cold War ended when communism collapsed in the East, and the Soviet Union broke up. This strengthened the values of the Western camp which included the primacy of the law, market economy and political pluralism (Chomsky, 17)

How the first cold war has contributed to the current state of US-Russian relations

The relationship between the US and Russia has been in a transition period of recent.  Since the occurrence of the Ukraine crisis, the ambiguity between their relationship has changed and moved into being systematical adversarial. The fact that power has been diffused from one country had made the relationships between the US and Russia to change (Fleck and Christopher, 188).  The power did not just shift from a given state to another but got diffused into different countries. There lacks a fundamental animosity between the United States and Russia as it was during and after Cold War. The relationships between the Russia and US has shifted for the good of both countries over the years. The animosity which was there between the two has reduced over time (Edmund). By animosity, it means that the United States existence used to a be seen as a grave by the Russia. The existence of Russia was also perceived as a grave by the United States.  The fact that there was no global independence and globalization during the Cold War makes the relationship between the two countries at that time to be completely different with the way it was during the war.

The cold war contributed greatly to the current relationship between the differences between the two countries are of power and influence. The United States has violated the international laws and encroached the territory of Russia. This is as a result of hunger for power which originated at the start of the cold war. During the Cold War, USSR itself was not associated in the real wars (Fleck and Christopher, 191). They were referred to as proxy wars since it was the Soviet allies that fought them. They were competing for having power and influence in their world. Each of them was in a race to become the super power. After the death of Stalin, the relationships between U.S and the Russians underwent through various phases of confrontation and relaxation alternating one after the other. There were also times when they cooperated and others they demented. Then in 1980, President Mikhail Gorbachev, President George Washington, and Boris Yeltsin hailed a final phase of the partnership between Russia and United States (Dudziak, n.p.). This was aimed at addressing the many problems that affected the globe at large.

The Cold War greatly affected the daily lives of the Americans and all the aspects of the society. The antagonism between Russian and the United States affected the American Society both in negative and in positive ways.   They affected the relationship between the two countries in a great way.  The foreign policy of America was greatly influenced by Cold war since America wanted to be the dominant power in the world and hence affected its foreign policy. The two countries massively spent on their militaries since they had a different understanding of the meaning of freedom.  This made cold are to be the defining factor of the most of the second half of the 20th century.  It affected almost every domestic and foreign policy decision made by America.

• Chomsky, Noam. “After the Cold War: US Foreign Policy in the Middle East.” Jewish Quarterly 38.1 (1991): 9-19.
• Dudziak, Mary L. Cold War Civil rights: Race and the image of American democracy. Princeton University Press, 2011.
• Fleck, Robert K., and Christopher Kilby. “Changing aid regimes? US foreign aid from the Cold War to the War on Terror.” Journal of Development Economics 91.2 (2010): 185-197.
• Jacobs, Lawrence R., and Benjamin I. Page. “Who influences US foreign policy?” American Political Science Review 99.01 (2005): 107-123.
• Moore, Will H., and David J. Lanoue. “Domestic politics and US foreign policy: A study of cold war conflict behavior.” Journal of Politics 65.2 (2003): 376-396.
• Pickering, Thomas Reeve, Chester A. Crocker, and Casimir A. Yost. America’s Role in the World: Foreign Policy Choices for the Next President. Institute for the Study of Diplomacy, Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, Georgetown University, 2008.
• Sutter, Robert G. Chinese Foreign Relations: Power and Policy since the Cold War. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2012.
• Waltz, Kenneth N. “Structural Realism after the Cold War.” International Security 25.1 (2000): 5-41.
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Cold War History

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 26, 2023 | Original: October 27, 2009

The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension marked by competition and confrontation between communist nations led by the Soviet Union and Western democracies including the United States. During World War II , the United States and the Soviets fought together as allies against Nazi Germany . However, U.S./Soviet relations were never truly friendly: Americans had long been wary of Soviet communism and Russian leader Joseph Stalin ’s tyrannical rule. The Soviets resented Americans’ refusal to give them a leading role in the international community, as well as America’s delayed entry into World War II, in which millions of Russians died.

These grievances ripened into an overwhelming sense of mutual distrust and enmity that never developed into open warfare (thus the term “cold war”). Soviet expansionism into Eastern Europe fueled many Americans’ fears of a Russian plan to control the world. Meanwhile, the USSR came to resent what they perceived as U.S. officials’ bellicose rhetoric, arms buildup and strident approach to international relations. In such a hostile atmosphere, no single party was entirely to blame for the Cold War; in fact, some historians believe it was inevitable.

Containment

By the time World War II ended, most American officials agreed that the best defense against the Soviet threat was a strategy called “containment.” In his famous “Long Telegram,” the diplomat George Kennan (1904-2005) explained the policy: The Soviet Union, he wrote, was “a political force committed fanatically to the belief that with the U.S. there can be no permanent modus vivendi [agreement between parties that disagree].” As a result, America’s only choice was the “long-term, patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies.”

“It must be the policy of the United States,” he declared before Congress in 1947, “to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation…by outside pressures.” This way of thinking would shape American foreign policy for the next four decades.

Did you know? The term 'cold war' first appeared in a 1945 essay by the English writer George Orwell called 'You and the Atomic Bomb.'

The Cold War: The Atomic Age

The containment strategy also provided the rationale for an unprecedented arms buildup in the United States. In 1950, a National Security Council Report known as NSC–68 had echoed Truman’s recommendation that the country use military force to contain communist expansionism anywhere it seemed to be occurring. To that end, the report called for a four-fold increase in defense spending.

In particular, American officials encouraged the development of atomic weapons like the ones that had ended World War II. Thus began a deadly “ arms race .” In 1949, the Soviets tested an atom bomb of their own. In response, President Truman announced that the United States would build an even more destructive atomic weapon: the hydrogen bomb, or “superbomb.” Stalin followed suit.

As a result, the stakes of the Cold War were perilously high. The first H-bomb test, in the Eniwetok atoll in the Marshall Islands, showed just how fearsome the nuclear age could be. It created a 25-square-mile fireball that vaporized an island, blew a huge hole in the ocean floor and had the power to destroy half of Manhattan. Subsequent American and Soviet tests spewed radioactive waste into the atmosphere.

The ever-present threat of nuclear annihilation had a great impact on American domestic life as well. People built bomb shelters in their backyards. They practiced attack drills in schools and other public places. The 1950s and 1960s saw an epidemic of popular films that horrified moviegoers with depictions of nuclear devastation and mutant creatures. In these and other ways, the Cold War was a constant presence in Americans’ everyday lives.

HISTORY Vault: Nuclear Terror

Now more than ever, terrorist groups are obtaining nuclear weapons. With increasing cases of theft and re-sale at dozens of Russian sites, it's becoming more and more likely for terrorists to succeed.

The Cold War and the Space Race

Space exploration served as another dramatic arena for Cold War competition. On October 4, 1957, a Soviet R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile launched Sputnik (Russian for “traveling companion”), the world’s first artificial satellite and the first man-made object to be placed into the Earth’s orbit. Sputnik’s launch came as a surprise, and not a pleasant one, to most Americans.

In the United States, space was seen as the next frontier, a logical extension of the grand American tradition of exploration, and it was crucial not to lose too much ground to the Soviets. In addition, this demonstration of the overwhelming power of the R-7 missile–seemingly capable of delivering a nuclear warhead into U.S. air space–made gathering intelligence about Soviet military activities particularly urgent.

In 1958, the U.S. launched its own satellite, Explorer I, designed by the U.S. Army under the direction of rocket scientist Wernher von Braun, and what came to be known as the Space Race was underway. That same year, President Dwight Eisenhower signed a public order creating the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), a federal agency dedicated to space exploration, as well as several programs seeking to exploit the military potential of space. Still, the Soviets were one step ahead, launching the first man into space in April 1961.

That May, after Alan Shepard become the first American man in space, President John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) made the bold public claim that the U.S. would land a man on the moon by the end of the decade. His prediction came true on July 20, 1969, when Neil Armstrong of NASA’s Apollo 11 mission , became the first man to set foot on the moon, effectively winning the Space Race for the Americans. 

U.S. astronauts came to be seen as the ultimate American heroes. Soviets, in turn, were pictured as the ultimate villains, with their massive, relentless efforts to surpass America and prove the power of the communist system.

The Cold War and the Red Scare

Meanwhile, beginning in 1947, the House Un-American Activities Committee ( HUAC ) brought the Cold War home in another way. The committee began a series of hearings designed to show that communist subversion in the United States was alive and well.

In Hollywood , HUAC forced hundreds of people who worked in the movie industry to renounce left-wing political beliefs and testify against one another. More than 500 people lost their jobs. Many of these “blacklisted” writers, directors, actors and others were unable to work again for more than a decade. HUAC also accused State Department workers of engaging in subversive activities. Soon, other anticommunist politicians, most notably Senator Joseph McCarthy (1908-1957), expanded this probe to include anyone who worked in the federal government. 

Thousands of federal employees were investigated, fired and even prosecuted. As this anticommunist hysteria spread throughout the 1950s, liberal college professors lost their jobs, people were asked to testify against colleagues and “loyalty oaths” became commonplace.

The Cold War Abroad

The fight against subversion at home mirrored a growing concern with the Soviet threat abroad. In June 1950, the first military action of the Cold War began when the Soviet-backed North Korean People’s Army invaded its pro-Western neighbor to the south. Many American officials feared this was the first step in a communist campaign to take over the world and deemed that nonintervention was not an option. Truman sent the American military into Korea, but the Korean War dragged to a stalemate and ended in 1953.

In 1955, the United States and other members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) made West Germany a member of NATO and permitted it to remilitarize. The Soviets responded with the Warsaw Pact , a mutual defense organization between the Soviet Union, Albania, Poland, Romania, Hungary, East Germany, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria that set up a unified military command under Marshal Ivan S. Konev of the Soviet Union.

Other international disputes followed. In the early 1960s, President Kennedy faced a number of troubling situations in his own hemisphere. The Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961 and the Cuban missile crisis the following year seemed to prove that the real communist threat now lay in the unstable, postcolonial “Third World.” 

Nowhere was this more apparent than in Vietnam , where the collapse of the French colonial regime had led to a struggle between the American-backed nationalist Ngo Dinh Diem in the south and the communist nationalist Ho Chi Minh in the north. Since the 1950s, the United States had been committed to the survival of an anticommunist government in the region, and by the early 1960s it seemed clear to American leaders that if they were to successfully “contain” communist expansionism there, they would have to intervene more actively on Diem’s behalf. However, what was intended to be a brief military action spiraled into a 10-year conflict .

The End of the Cold War and Effects

Almost as soon as he took office, President Richard Nixon (1913-1994) began to implement a new approach to international relations. Instead of viewing the world as a hostile, “bi-polar” place, he suggested, why not use diplomacy instead of military action to create more poles? To that end, he encouraged the United Nations to recognize the communist Chinese government and, after a trip there in 1972, began to establish diplomatic relations with Beijing.

At the same time, he adopted a policy of “détente”—”relaxation”—toward the Soviet Union. In 1972, he and Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev (1906-1982) signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I), which prohibited the manufacture of nuclear missiles by both sides and took a step toward reducing the decades-old threat of nuclear war.

Despite Nixon’s efforts, the Cold War heated up again under President Ronald Reagan (1911-2004). Like many leaders of his generation, Reagan believed that the spread of communism anywhere threatened freedom everywhere. As a result, he worked to provide financial and military aid to anticommunist governments and insurgencies around the world. This policy, particularly as it was applied in the developing world in places like Grenada and El Salvador, was known as the Reagan Doctrine .

Even as Reagan fought communism in Central America, however, the Soviet Union was disintegrating. In response to severe economic problems and growing political ferment in the USSR, Premier Mikhail Gorbachev (1931-2022) took office in 1985 and introduced two policies that redefined Russia’s relationship to the rest of the world: “glasnost,” or political openness, and “ perestroika ,” or economic reform. 

Soviet influence in Eastern Europe waned. In 1989, every other communist state in the region replaced its government with a noncommunist one. In November of that year, the Berlin Wall –the most visible symbol of the decades-long Cold War–was finally destroyed, just over two years after Reagan had challenged the Soviet premier in a speech at Brandenburg Gate in Berlin: “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall.” By 1991, the Soviet Union itself had fallen apart. The Cold War was over.

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100 Cold War Essay Topics

The Cold War significantly influenced even nations that were geographically distant. When tasked with writing about this subject, it’s crucial to aim for quality that will garner an impressive grade. The foundation of a compelling essay lies in its topic. A well-chosen topic can enhance the quality of the essay, while a complex one can make it challenging to craft a coherent piece.

Table of Contents

How to Select the Best Cold War Essay Topic?

Many find it challenging to choose suitable essay topics, either due to inexperience or a lack of creativity. When selecting a topic in this domain, opt for one you feel passionate about. This ensures a smoother writing process and helps in organizing the content coherently.

Topic scope is another crucial factor. Avoid overly broad topics as they might be challenging to cover comprehensively in an essay. Conversely, exceedingly narrow topics can hinder content generation.

Comprehensive List of Cold War Essay Topics

• How the conflict influenced the Vietnam War
• Actions the United States took that made the Soviet Union feel threatened
• The repercussions of the Cold War on North Korean citizens
• Russian policies that alarmed the Americans
• The Cold War’s influence on the Korean War
• The interrelation between the Cold War and the Cuban Revolution
• In-depth insights into the Red Scare
• Strategies that might have prevented the Cold War
• Reasons the Cold War seemed inevitable
• The U.S.’s role in the Cold War
• Berlin’s transformation during the conflict
• Comparing the Cold War to World War II
• The role of communism in the Cold War
• A thorough analysis of events during the conflict
• The interplay of racism during the Cold War
• The Cold War’s importance in global history
• The impact of the Cold War on Latin America
• President Reagan’s contributions to ending the Cold War
• Post-Cold War reconstruction processes
• Key factors leading to the Cold War’s conclusion
• The influence of nuclear power during the Cold War
• Differing ideologies that sparked the Cold War
• Essential events during the Cold War
• African nations’ contributions during the Cold War
• Adverse effects of the Cold War

Appropriate Cold War Decolonization Essay Topics

• European nations’ perspectives on the Cold War
• Causes for the peaceful end to the Cold War
• Minority groups’ roles during the conflict
• The United Nations’ approach to Cold War events
• Shifts in terrorism strategies post-Cold War
• Stalin’s role in escalating the Cold War
• The impact of the Yalta Conference on the Cold War
• Implications of the Cold War for U.S. homeland security
• Political catalysts of the Cold War
• Public sentiments during the Cold War

Geopolitical Impacts

• The Cold War’s influence on the Middle East
• NATO and the Warsaw Pact: A Comparative Analysis
• The Sino-Soviet split and its global ramifications
• The Cold War’s effects on African decolonization
• The role of non-aligned nations during the Cold War

Cultural and Societal Impacts

• The Cold War and its influence on American pop culture
• Soviet propaganda during the Cold War
• The role of sports, especially the Olympics, in the Cold War
• The Cold War’s impact on global literature and film
• Music as a tool of resistance and propaganda during the Cold War

Technology and Espionage

• The Space Race: Competing ideologies beyond Earth
• The role of spies and espionage during the Cold War
• Technological advancements driven by Cold War competition
• The importance of cryptography during the Cold War
• U-2 spy plane incident and its implications

Key Events and Turning Points

• The Cuban Missile Crisis and its global repercussions
• The Berlin Airlift: Symbolism and significance
• Hungarian Uprising of 1956 and global reactions
• The Prague Spring and its suppression
• Detente: Causes and consequences

Nuclear Proliferation and Arms Race

• The Cold War and the birth of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD)
• The role of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
• Nuclear brinkmanship: Cases and consequences
• The arms race: Growth and limitations of nuclear arsenals
• Nuclear disarmament talks and their successes

Economic Dimensions

• The Marshall Plan and its impact on Europe
• Economic struggles in the Soviet Union during the Cold War
• The role of economic sanctions during the Cold War
• Comparative analysis of capitalist and socialist economic models during the Cold War
• Economic espionage and industrial sabotage

End of the Cold War

• The role of Mikhail Gorbachev’s reforms in ending the Cold War
• The significance of the fall of the Berlin Wall
• Economic challenges and the dissolution of the Soviet Union
• The impact of the Cold War’s end on global geopolitics
• The legacy of the Cold War in the 21st century

Cold War’s Legacy

• The Cold War’s lingering effects on global politics
• NATO’s role post-Cold War era
• The Cold War’s influence on contemporary military strategies
• The Cold War’s long-term effects on education systems worldwide
• Post-Cold War challenges in reconciliation and nation-building

Miscellaneous Topics

• The influence of the Cold War on global journalism
• The role of women spies during the Cold War
• Psychological warfare during the Cold War
• The Cold War’s impact on international travel and tourism
• The influence of the Cold War on the formation of the European Union

Diplomacy and Relations

• The role of summits and diplomatic meetings in easing Cold War tensions.
• The relationship between the Cold War and the founding of the United Nations.
• Analysis of U.S.-China relations during the Cold War after Nixon’s visit.

Influence on Developing Countries

• The Cold War’s impact on the non-aligned movement and its leaders.
• Soviet and American interventions in Latin America: A comparative study.
• Proxy wars in Africa: Superpowers’ indirect confrontations.

Media and Perception

• The portrayal of the “enemy” in school textbooks during the Cold War.
• Radio Free Europe vs. Voice of Russia: Battling radio waves.
• Hollywood and Soviet Cinema: How both sides portrayed the Cold War.

Scientific Endeavors and the Cold War

• Antarctica and the Cold War: The significance of the Antarctic Treaty.
• The role of scientific cooperation as a tool for diplomacy during the Cold War.
• The Cold War’s influence on medical research and breakthroughs.

Broader Impacts

• The Cold War’s contribution to the environmental movement.
• The effect of the Cold War on international trade agreements and policies.
• Analysis of the Cold War’s role in the formation and policies of the World Health Organization (WHO).

Cold War Essay Ideas

• Most influential nations during the Cold War
• Reasons the Cold War remains a focal point in history
• Catalysts of the Cold War
• Key figures during the Cold War and their significance
• Concepts that redirected the trajectory of the Cold War
• The Cold War’s relationship with women’s rights
• The impact of the Cold War on children
• Chile’s experience during the Cold War
• The Cold War’s imprint on global politics
• Limitations on nuclear weapons during the Cold War

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Home — Essay Samples — War — Cold War — The cold war between the United States and the Soviet Union

The Cold War Between The United States and The Soviet Union

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The Cold War and the Balance of Power Theory

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Introduction

The end of the Cold War and the fall of the Communist Block have led to a complete change in the balance of power in the international arena. The change was from a bi-polar world (or as some might argue from a multi-polar power exercised by the United States, Europe, Japan and USSR) to a single power with the dominance of the United States becoming the sole political and economic hegemonic power. However, the United States was provided the required balance on hegemony by the European Community, China and Japan. This change in power, in turn, has resulted in a change in the nature of international relations throughout the world. Although some might argue that uni-polar power distribution would lead to a more balanced world, it had a significant impact on the inter-relationship of countries. This study seeks to provide the theoretical basis for the analysis of the characteristics and application of a bipolar system and the balance of power theory through the Cold War period from a political perspective.

Historical Background

During the period between the end of the Second World War (1945) and the acquisition of nuclear capabilities by the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1948, there existed a continuous conflict in the international arena. These conflicts were the repercussions of the competition for power, influence and dominance by two sets of countries opposing each other. On one side were the Soviet Union and its satellite states including North Korea, Vietnam, and the German Democratic Republic and for some time China among other countries. On the other side, there was the greater powers of the West with the United States and its allies and client states, which included Great Britain, Western Germany, South Korea, Israel and others. The competition for power and supremacy was politically termed as the “Cold War”. This name was derived because of the relative ambiguity in the conflict as against any direct military conflict between the superpowers involved.

There were no official clashes between the military powers of the primary participants – the United States and the USSR. Nevertheless, they displayed the conflict by undertaking several actions such as “military coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive foreign aid to allies, proxy wars (as in the case of Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan), espionage, propaganda, a nuclear arms race, and economic and technological competitions, such as the Space Race and the economic development of their allies,” (Scribd.com).

The Soviet Union worked towards creating an Eastern Block with Eastern European countries, which were in its occupation. In this process, USSR annexed some of the countries and continued to maintain other countries as its satellite states. The United States and some other Western states adopted defensive policies in the form of containment of communism, establishing in the process alliances such as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) to support the defensive policies. The countries also shared military resources and encouraged diplomatic and economic cooperation among them.

The weakening of the Soviet government and the failure of communism in the country led to a series of events, which finally witnessed the dissolution of the Soviet Union. This process was a gradual one that continued from January 19, 1990, until December 31, 1991. The dissolution of the USSR enabled many of the constituent countries of the Soviet Socialist Republics to declare their independence. These countries were recognized as separate sovereign states in their own power and constitution. By December 1991 all the official Soviet Unions, ceased to exist with the individual states taking the central government’s role.

This change in the international political arena was something new as compared to the Bi-polar system that existed during the Cold War period, with its main powers being USA and the USSR respectively. This new paradigm gave rise to a new “Unipolar” status quo with United States as the sole dominant power in the spheres of military power, influence, economic and financial strength as well as possessing immense “soft” power. Even with the severe impact of the 2008, financial crisis, which affected the US economy significantly the country, continues to hold the position of power.

Theoretical Tools

The analysis will be based on the state level of analysis, with the examination of whole states as individual actors in the international global system. The emphasis will be studying the political impact of the application of a bipolar system through the Cold War period on different countries. The thesis will follow ideas from the schools of neorealism – for example Kissinger, Robert Kagan among others – an approach characterized by the importance of hegemonies (dominant powers capable of forcing lesser, weaker states/actors to acquiesce = power).

Hegemony is defined as “the holding by one state of a preponderance of power in the international system, so that it can single-handedly dominate the rules and arrangements by which international political and economic relations are conducted” (Phillips, 2000). A “superpower” in a system can be said to be equivalent to a hegemon, which is in accordance with the accepted parlance.

The thesis will also examine the balance of power between various great powers from a realism centric approach and will rely on the theoretical concepts of American power – both hard and soft. As an offshoot from the discussion on “balance of power,” in the global system, the thesis will argue that the system shifted from a bipolar to a unipolar one. The thesis will approach the concept of balance of power under the theory of bandwagoning. The study will focus on the impact of the application of the balance of power theory to the Middle Eastern region, especially, on the country of Egypt. The study will follow a case study approach to study the impact of bipolar system on Egypt.

Studying in-depth the characteristics and application of a bipolar system and the balance of power theory through the Cold War period from a political perspective is the main aim of this study. In achieving this main aim, the study seeks to achieve the following objectives.

• To study the origin, process and effect of Cold War on different regions of the world and the resultant development of bipolar system
• To study in-depth the theory of balance of power and its implications during the Cold War period
• To examine the balance of power between various great powers from a realism-centric approach relying on the theoretical concepts of American power – both hard and soft.
• To study the application of balance of power theory on the Middle Eastern economies especially, to the economy of Egypt

With the changed international political environment after the ending of the Cold War and the cooperation developed among different countries of the world because of economic, cultural and financial globalization, there are changes even in the uni-polaristic position of the United States. With the emerging economies such as China and India, backed by their soft power compete with other world powers. This leads to the development of a multi-polar political situation which makes the study of international politics at the present scenario from the purviews of balance of power theory interesting. The enhanced cooperation among world economies because of financial reforms and economic globalization was expected to take the international relations to a higher echelon. Nevertheless the financial turmoil of 2008 somewhat reversed this trend creating the necessity for a relook at the protectionism even by United States to ensure its economic well-being. This is another reason, that the study of international political situation in the light of balance of power theory becomes meaningful and significant. This study explores the likely impact of the balance of power theory in the present international political context, which throws light on several political and policy implications, that can be assessed based on the historical facts.

Structure of the Dissertation

This dissertation is structured to have five chapters. This chapter introduces the subject matter of the study and lays down the objectives of the study. Second chapter presents a review of the available literature on the balance of power theory and bi-polar system existed during the Cold War. Chapter Three contains different theoretical contributions relating to the evolution of bi-polar system in the international political arena and the implications to different geographical regions. Chapter Four presents a case study of nuclear program of Iran covering the political implications of the bi-polar system and its impact of realist theory on the nuclear program of Iran. Chapter Five presents the concluding remarks on the study and policy implications.

Definition and Characteristics of Balance of Power

The prevalence of or violence in the early 19 th Century led to the coining of the term “balance of power.” Balance of power has been viewed as the stabilizing factor during different periods, especially, when the World War I, World War II and the Cold War began. The purpose of balance of power is to stabilize states from entering into a war. The role of balance of power in international relations was strengthened by the formation of nuclear bombs, which further precipitated the threat of world annihilation. Each of the country, particularly the United States and USSR understood the power of the other countries and therefore would prevent a war. The balance of power assumed prominence during the post-Cold War era. The theory of balance of power has extended its domain into the economic and political sphere from the traditional military and nuclear power.

Power can be defined as the ability to influence the outcomes desired by one and if necessary to influence the behavior of other people to shape the desired outcomes. The ability to shape the outcomes in the desired way usually depends on the possession of certain resources. Based on this premise, power is also defined as possession of relatively large amounts of different elements such as population, territory, natural resources, economic strength, military force and political stability. Waltz (1979) finds the “strength for war” is assumed as the test of a great power. War was the ultimate game in which countries play their cards in international politics. With the evolution and advancement of technology, the sources of power have changed over the centuries. With the proliferation of information and communication technology power has become less tangible and less coercive, particularly among the industrially advanced countries. However, most of the countries have not converted themselves into industrial nations and this has limited the transformation of power to other countries (Chace, and Rizopoulos, 1999).

The realist paradigm, which is a system-level approach that incorporates several distinct theories dominate the traditional literature on the causes of war (Nye, 2004). According to these theories, all the key actors are sovereign states and these states act in a rational way to advance their security, power and wealth in the anarchic system. This anarchic system is characterized by the lack of a legitimate authority to mediate the disputes in between them and enforce the agreements entered among different states. In other words, the objective of anarchy is to define the “socio/political framework in which international relations occur” (Evans and Newnham, 1998, p. 18).

In normal parlance, the term “anarchy” would mean chaos or rampant disorder. However, in the field of international politics, the term is used to denote the situation that there is no central authority, which is capable of making and enforcing rules of behavior on the states comprised in the international system. Levy remarks that this anarchy along with “uncertainties regarding the

present and future intentions of the adversary, induces political leaders to focus on short-term security needs and on their relative position in the system, adopt worst-case thinking, build up their military strength, and utilize coercive threats to advance their interest, influence the adversary, and maintain their reputation.” (Levy, 2003, p. 7)

In the international environment, which is anarchic, national states are afraid of each other. This is because the states have the ability to take actions, which might affect the interest of other nations. Therefore, security of the nations becomes the top priority. Nations often seek to gain better security by increasing their military expenditure budgets. Because of the fact that different nations will always try to equal or surpass the military build-up efforts of other nation, the arms race tend to become a perpetual possibility. Increased dependence on military force makes absolute security almost impossible. Therefore, all the countries are forced to face a “Security Dilemma” (Hertz, 1950).

According to Levy (2003), the distribution of power between two or more states determines the international outcomes or at least such distribution acts as a significant constraint on determining the international outcomes. However, different conceptions of power and nature of systems have led to different theories and predictions about the specific international outcomes. Two structural theories have been developed in the realm of international politics – one is the hegemonic theory and the other the balance of power theory. The purpose of these theories is to “explain, predict, and describe the characteristics of the international system.” These theories also explain the behavior of states. Description of great power behavior is the central focus of these theories of international politics, because of the assumption that great powers of the contemporary system largely rule the international relations.

In international political studies, it is important to understand the meaning of “hegemony.” “Hegemony is a contentious notion in the study of international relations, particularly in the security realm” (Pina, 1987). Hegemony in the international relations represents the ability to provide a collective good, which in turn means providing peaceful interstate relations. A state that has the capability to impose constraints on the use of force by regional states becomes a regional hegemon. Only United States was considered having the power to exercise such hegemony. However, Mares (2001) has a different opinion. He argues, “Though the U.S. is uniquely powerful, it is not a hegemon that provides the collective good of peace among nations of the region in which they have their own interest” (Mares, 2001, p.83). Therefore, the theory of balance of power has more application in the Andean region, where all the states hope to become the hegemon by competing with each other.

The central focus of this paper is to discuss “balance of power” because the balance of power theory states “the avoidance of hegemony is the primary goal of states and that the maintenance of an equilibrium power in the system is an essential means to that end,” (Levy, 2002, p. 254). In addition, “hegemonic theories share realist assumptions but deemphasize the importance of anarchy, while emphasizing system management within a hierarchical order,” (Levy, 2002, p. 355). The balance of power theory emanating from international anarchy, still plays a significant role in international relations.

The balance of power theory assumes that the states are

“Unitary actors, who at minimum seek their own preservation and, at maximum, drive for universal domination. States, or those who act for them, try in more or less sensible ways to use the means available in order to achieve the ends in view,” (Waltz, 1979, p. 118).

The simple explanation of balance of power theory proposes that an international equilibrium in terms of power will exist, when there exists an equal distribution of power among the states. Under this circumstance, peace is more likely to result. The notion of balance of power in its generic form originated from the philosophers of India, China and ancient Greece. Eminent political scholars like Machiavelli and Hobbes developed the theory. Such developments guided the actions of great statesmen, like Cromwell and Bismarck. The work of Hans Morgenthau popularized balance of power theory in the United States.

“Hans Morgenthau believed that “Balance of Power” referred to the reality in which power was shared equally by a group of countries “(Morgenthau, 1973, p. 211 quoted in Benjian, 2001). Traditional realists believe that acquiring power is the mainly primary objective of the international strategy of a state. This assumption holds true, because the policy of a “balance of power” alone can prevent any single state from becoming strong enough to threaten the independence of other nations.

The balance of power has many meanings and interpretations. However, this paper considers balance of power as a situation and as a policy during the continuance of Cold War. As a situation, the balance of power means equilibrium. Donadio and Tibeiletti (1998) state, “it is a purely descriptive term, designed to indicate the character of a situation in which the power relationship between states or groups of states is one of rough or precise equality” (p. 95). Claude (1967) considers balance of power becomes a policy under certain occasions for “promoting the creation or preservation of equilibrium,” (p. 13). Claude (1967) states,

“In a multistate system, the only policy which promises to prevent such behavior (stronger power with the temptation to dominate, to oppress, to conquer) is that of confronting power with a countervailing power; stability, survival, protection of national rights and interest demand that power be neutralized by equivalent power. In these terms balance of power is a policy of prudence.”

The concept of balance of power becomes useful as a tool in explaining the behavior of different states, because the concept is based on the assumption that all the states act in the interest of preserving their own interests. Therefore, in the international arena, there exists many independent actors, seeking to maintain their own interests and at the same time focusing on their security.

Bi-Polar System

The realist scholars are of particular interest in the polarity of international system. The realist scholars maintain that polarity is at the root of the international relations and it decides the fundamental characteristic features of interstate relations. Most of the realists have come to a consensus that the bipolar regime has come to an end. However, the scholars have not agreed the time and the manner in which bipolarity ended in the international political system. Analysts like Mearsheimer are of the opinion that bipolarity came to an end, when the Soviet Union executed its military and political move back from the region of Eastern Europe (Mearsheimer, 1990). Some other realists are of the opinion that bipolarity ended with the breaking up of the Soviet Union as an independent state. Although originally agreed with Mearsheimer, Waltz argues now that still the bipolar system exists in international arena (Waltz, 1993). These differences in the viewpoints of realists indicate the inability of realism to nurture an “operational measure of polarity.” In the absence of such a measure, the realists will not be able to differentiate causes and effects. While some of the realists argue that the retreat from Eastern Europe or disintegration of the Soviet Union led to the end of bipolarity, others argue that bipolarity came to an end because of the decline of the Soviet Union. However, both of the assertions appear to be problematic in any case.

Those scholars, who contend that withdrawal from Eastern Europe or the disintegration of the Soviet Union has led to the end of bipolarity, find it difficult to explain the cause of these triggering events. According to the viewpoints of the realists states will have to maintain their power relative to the power of other states. Kenneth Waltz remarks that “it is axiomatic that states “try to arrest or reverse their decline”” (Waltz, 1990). “The Soviet Union’s willingness to give up what had been regarded until then as a vital sphere of influence and allow constituent Soviet republics to secede appears to contradict realism’s core assumption that leaders are highly motivated to preserve their states and their states’ power.”

Some of the realists have attempted to attribute the reason for this problem by depicting both the withdrawal from Eastern Europe and disintegration as “unintended and unforeseen” outcomes of the inappropriate policy decisions of Mikhail Gorbachev and Eduard Shevardnadze. Nevertheless, if the Warsaw Pact and Soviet Union could have been preserved by pursuing wiser policies, the international system would have remained bipolar by the sheer definition of the term.

“The argument of unintended consequences in effect divorces polarity from the international distribution of capabilities by which it is supposed to be determined. Moreover, the suggestion that Gorbachev’s policies were ill-considered and counterproductive compels scholars to look outside realism–to ideas, domestic politics, or decision making–to explain Gorbachev’s foreign policy and the resulting transformation of the international system it brought about” (Lebow & Risse-Kappen, 1996).

Realists, who attribute the reason of the breaking up of Warsaw Pact and the Soviet Union for the decline of Soviet Union, do not consider these conceptual problems. However, they are unable to present a theoretical basis supporting their claims. “Without operational definitions of polarity, there are no criteria for establishing the decline of bipolarity independent of its consequences,” (Lebow & Risse-Kappen, 1996).

Regional Powers in International Politics

Power hierarchies represent the system of regional powers in the international politics scene. The vantage point at which the states are located and the pre-selected indicators make the assessment of the power distribution. Although, the status of United States has been considered as the only remaining superpower by the scientific literature and the press, consensus could not be reached on the further characteristics of the international power hierarchy. Consensus could not be reached even with regard to terminology. Terminology like “secondary powers, second-tier states, great powers, intermediate states, middle powers, middle-tier states, regional (great) powers” are in use to denote power hierarchies.

Wight (1978) has differentiated between dominant powers, great powers and minor powers. He has categorized the power hierarchy into “regional great powers and middle powers.” Regional great powers focus their interests on a limited region and in these regions they could act on their own deals. Wight (1978) considers regional powers as the potential candidates to become middle powers in the international political system. Middle powers are categorized as such based on their military power in comparison with great powers.

“Power Transition Theory,” formulated by Organski (1958) is the recent approach to analyze the power hierarchical theories in the international political arena (Tammen et al. 2000; Lemke 2002).

As against realist approach to balance of power theory, Power Transition Theory puts forward a hierarchical international system, in which a great power dominates at the top, with regional and middle powers subordinating. “The hierarchy reflects the distribution of power resources and is based on political and economic resource allocation patterns which serve the dominant power” (Nolte, 2007).

Lemke (2002) developed the “multiple hierarchy model,” based on the Power Transition Theory. In this theory, in the place of one international hierarchy of power, a series of “parallel and superposed” power hierarchies constitute the international political system. The functioning of the subsystems follow the same logic as that of the overall power hierarchy. Regional and sub-regional power systems are under subordination to the global power hierarchy.

“The dominant power in the global hierarchy, but also other great powers, can interfere in the sub-systems, especially if the local status quo is at odds with the global dominant power’s preferences or the global patterns of political and economic resource allocation. Other issues – like the delimitation of boundaries and territorial control in the region/sub-region – can be resolved in the framework of the regional/sub-regional power hierarchy. They are part of the regional/sub-regional status quo,” (Lemke, 2002: 54-55).

The End of Cold War

This section of this report seeks to present a brief discussion on the end of the cold.

War, which was assumed to have begun in 1947. There are peak periods of this conflict with first peak emerging between 1948 and 1954. During this period, acute confrontation was noticed in Central Europe, Korea and the Taiwan straits. The second peak appeared between 1958 and 1963 with renewed confrontations in the region of Central Europe and Taiwan straits in addition to significant crisis in Cuba (Northrop, 1959). Discussion on the ending of the Cold War needs the development of conceptualization of critical structures and processes.

Both realists and non-realists are interested in ascertaining the reasons for the end of the Cold War. In order to find the reasons, both the theorists had to have a clear understanding of the nature of the conflict and the stages through which the Cold War developed. Most of the analysts consider the policies of Michael Gorbachev responsible for ending the Cold War. “This is understandable because his liberalization of the Soviet system, sponsorship of political change in Eastern Europe, and commitment to disarmament were the catalysts of accommodation” (Lebow & Risse-Kappen, 1996).

Theoretical Contributions explaining Transformation from Conflict to Peace

While studying balance of power, it is necessary to understand the factors, which make the world change from bipolarity. While this understanding is one of the most pertinent issues in studying international political system a number of different perspectives and theoretical explanations has been evolved addressing this issue. This chapter seeks to present arguments of some of schools of thought focusing on international political realm and explore their boundaries and contributions in explaining the ending of the cold war and arrive at a balance of power.

As observed in the earlier chapter, realists and neo-realists use a major explanatory variable represented by the concept of the power of nation state. There are various explanations addressing the desire of nation states to pursue power. Despite these explanations, the concept of the power of nation state and the resultant balance of power among different states are critical factors in maintaining peace among nations.

We observed that Mogenthau (1993), the most popular modern realist, considers international politics as a struggle for power among nation states. His political realism looks at all political phenomena as the efforts to keep, increase, or demonstrate power. According to him, power is the control over man. Based on this premise, political power can be construed as mutual relations of control among those people who hold public authority and between the latter and the public at large. National power on the other hand is represented by stable and unstable or changing elements. These elements cover phenomena such as “geography, natural resources, industrial capacity, military preparedness, population, national character, national morale, quality of a nation’s diplomacy, and quality of government.” The difference in his contention as compared to the viewpoints of other neo-realists is that, Mogenthau (1993) states that no change has taken place in the struggle for power from time immemorial, which is a basic human nature. Therefore, considering this ‘rational’ feature of human nature, the main cause for peace is a restraint on power by power. This concept is described as the “balance of power”.

In the concluding part of his work, the Politics of Nations , Mogenthau (1993) argues that transformation of the state system into a world state is the only way to ensure a permanent peace (Morgenthau, 1993, 333-347). Nevertheless, one cannot disregard the fact that he based his underlying idea on the world state argument on Hobbes’ Leviathan state. Leviathan state controls the “war of every man against every man” by power. However, Morgenthau has not offered any explanation as to how the power of hegemony could be overcome in the realm of rational human being, where no changes have taken place during past thousands of years.

Morgenthau stresses the importance of diplomacy for transforming and creating the conditions essential for the emergence of a world society and the formation of a world state merging the threat of force (Morgenthau, 517-519). However, this argument appears to contradict his key assumption about human nature and the nature of nation states in pursuing their own interests. Thus there appears no reason for a ‘rational’ super power to disregard their national interest in pursuing a world state.

Structural-realist analysis put forth by Waltz highlights the anarchic or disorderly nature of international system contributing to international conflict and war as against the argument of Mogenthau based on human nature. Based on his analysis of the approaches focusing on human nature and internal structure of states as a potential reason for the evolution of conflict and war, Waltz argues that the main cause for war and conflict to arise is the lack of authority to prevent sovereign states from using force to achieve their ends (Waltz, 1954). He categorizes the concepts based on human nature and internal constitutions of nation states as reductionist approaches. He argues that such theories attribute the cause of system level as a factor influencing the interaction among the states. The problem associated with the concepts based on human nature is that both different and similar states have been found to produce similar or different outcome without any distinction. Also, the same causes lead to varying effect and vice versa (Waltz, 1979). While Waltz found the cause of conflict and war to contribute to changes at the system level, his main argument is that power forms the basis for the transformation of system. According to Waltz, the first intention of the states under the order of anarchy is not to maximize power but to keep their position within the system. The difference between the approaches of Morgenthau and Waltz is that Waltz relies more on the balance of power by fewer states as the key to maintain peace among the nations. Waltz finally concludes that bipolarity is the most balanced and stable system that could function under anarchy. In attributing the factors that lead to transformation, Waltz’s approach finds a limitation in explaining the ways to transform anarchy to more stable and peaceful system. Although he supports the idea of the stability of the balance of power by fewer states, he highlights that stability by the balance of power can only be temporary.

Balance of power is most likely to create tensions at all times, as we experienced during Cold war period (Mearsheimer, 2001). Moreover, one cannot rule out the chances of potential conflict and war by those states who are not satisfied with their state quo. According to Mearsheimer (2001) offensive realism is one of extremist views in the matter of transformation to a peaceful system. To Mearsheimer, the inherent fear in the states to survive in the arena of international politics is the original source of pursuing power. This inherent fear is persistent even among the major powers. Such fear leads the states to act aggressively toward each other until such time they could enhance their respective chances of survival. Thus, the world politics represent a state of perennial struggle for advancing their interest and power by the state actors. Therefore, Mearsheimer predicts that the post Cold-War peace may not last long because of the challenges faced by peer competitors who remain dissatisfied with their status quo. He regards continued anarchy as a given structure of international political system. Consequently Mearsheimer does not heed attention to the factors, which could influence the existing anarchic nature of system.

Eventually, it has not been possible for the realists and neo-realists to explain successfully the factors that have the ability to transform Hobbesian international system to a peaceful one. According to Wendt (1999), there does not exist a theory of institutional evolution and the state. Similarly Adler argues that neo-realism suggests that “states must choose to survive or be marked for destruction by powerful systemic constraints drawing on an analogy between organism and states and insisting that material power is the single arbiter of the selection of states” (Adler, 1997). Moreover, only few scholars support the realist theory of hegemonic stability and others cast doubt on its general validity (Keohane, 1984). Therefore, while the concepts of national interest and power as the major factors, which enable explanations for the states’ desire for power in many areas, it is subjected to a limitation in analyzing the politics of international transformation. “They just explain a factor that maintains relatively more stable status under the anarchic system, or they explain the power transformation from one hegemon to another hegomen in the existing system suggesting only temporal peace,” (Yoon).

Most of neo-liberal theorists, base their arguments in international relations on the assumption of individuals centering their self-interest.

“Although their assumption that human being inherently behave based on self interest has shared ground with realist assumption of rational human being, neo-liberalists argue that self-interested individuals and nation states can cooperate through mutual interests and rewards with retaliations in case of their violating mutually agreed rules. Therefore, many of their analysis use rational choice theories” (Yoon).

Creation of institutions is a critical explanatory factor for the analysis of neo-liberal theorists. According to neo-liberal theorists, the world could transform itself to a peaceful era by the influence of institutional factors such as “international institution, law, and the spread of democracy” (Keohane; 1984, Axelord; 1980, Russet and Oneal; 2001). Neo-liberalism also cites the transnational activities such as economic interdependency among states as a factor contributing to the sharing of their mutual interests by nation states. Through the analysis of game situation, Axelord (1980) analyzed game situation and presented his theory that individuals and states can cooperate on consideration of a long-term perspectives. According to Axelord (1980) use “TIT FOR TAT” strategy could be engaged for not being a first detector. Reciprocity for both cooperation and defection is yet another strategy suggested by Axelord (1980).

The theoretical contribution of Axelord (1980) focusing on the evolution of cooperation by adopting long-term perspective provides strong support for the condition of cooperation. However, it appears that his assumption of having equal power among the nation states in the game is vulnerable and cannot be applied to international political system. Based on the factor of uneven share of power and domination of super power in Realpolitik, Axelord’s assumption is represented by the methodological issue of external validity. Keohane, however argues that such an approach has the character of being naïve about power and conflict. Keohane, admits ‘supplicated institutionalists,’ which considers institutions as ‘recognized patterns of practice around which expectations converge’ are more persuasive. Keohane postulates his theory of international regime around the assumption of existing mutual interests. He argues that because international regime provides legitimacy and effectiveness in the process of cooperation to the nation states, it plays a role as an injunction for mutual adjustment among the states. While considering the influence of uneven power among states, Keohane argues that egoistic states attempt to form international regimes based on shared interests. This is because “rational calculation for the benefit, obligation of international law, social pressure, retaliatory action, and device of reputation can prevents each state from violating and not complying to regime rules” (Keohane; 1984 quoted in Yoon). Keohane’s argument appears to be more plausible as compared to the naïve institutional approach, because he incorporates the realist perspectives of uneven power development into his analysis. However, Keohane’s argument is weak in his assumption that there is no hegemonic power and leadership. According to Keohane, it is unlikely that U.S. or any other country could revive hegemonic leadership. The analysis and argument of Keohane can be applied to multi-polar situation, which doesn’t have any hegemony. However it cannot be applied to a situation, where there is the presence of global hegemony.

“Although, he considers the different power of nation states, those differences are not such a big one that Keohane’s prescription like social pressure, retaliatory action, and device of reputation can regulate. But, under the situation of unipolar hegemonic dominance, there are great possibilities that those regulating power of international regime can be threatened by the super power undermining the legitimacy of international regime” (Yoon).

Russet and Oneal (2001) add another factor into the neo-liberalist arguments about power and international political scenario. According to Russet and Oneal (2001), the development of democratic system, strengthening of national economies and economic interdependence among state nations, and the evolution of strong international organization are the three factors that could lead to the changing of anarchic system to uninterrupted peaceful states. They make a distinction between the vicious and virtuous circles. “One extreme form of vicious circle is a Hobbesian anarchic system and less severe form is Lockean system that respects other state’s sovereignty. Virtuous circle is mutually beneficial Kantian system. With Kantian circle, Democracy, economic interdependence, and international organization reinforce each other leading to perpetual peace because of participant’s shared interests, people’s greater control of their foreign policy that might harm their interests, coerce and restraints of international institutions” (Yoon).

Russet and Oneal (2001) argue that virtuous circle have the potential of contributing to the transformation of international system to peaceful system. In the same way as other neo-liberalists, Russet and Oneal (2001) assume the role of self-interested rational individuals; “peace does not depend on people bring transformed into angles, but on constructing a system of incentives whereby even self-seeking devils would well behave so long as they possess understanding” (Kant, 1970 from Russet and Oneal, 2001, 302). Therefore, material incentives to self-interested people form the basis for the argument of Russet and Oneal (2001).

Russet and Oneal’s factors for transformation can be considered more reasonable as compared to earlier previous theories. This is because even for the strongest nation, it might not be an easy affair to wage war against the countries, in the economies of which the economic interests of their own people are dependent. Democratic peace thesis is another concept in the field of international politics, which is well proved. International organization can play a large role in designing and introducing norms and principles leading to peace, by depending on the economic interdependence among nations and democratic peace. However, the situation of those countries, which are neither democratic nor dependent on other nations economically as well as the international organizations that are not interested in participating need to be assessed. The authors suggest that Western countries are interested in extending economic and political assistance to nations, which are willing to improve their political and economic systems (Russet and Oneal, 2001, 303). Although Russet and Oneal argues that it is important for the wealthy nations to help poor countries develop towards a better democracy in a smooth and rapid way, the authors have not provide any concrete ideas in their analysis, which could deter military intervention by powerful countries. Their theory does not contain any factor, which would prevent the invasion from global hegemon, unless they stress international norms and idea.

“If they want to argue spreading democracy and free market economy in peaceful way, then it means that they assume the importance of the role of norms and ideas. The peaceful way of action is a norm that regulates human or national behavior to achieve their object.” In this respect, argument of Russet and Oneal appears to be ambiguous as compared to that of other neo-liberal theorists. Just the way some other neo-liberal theorists stress the part of norms, ideas and leadership (Finnemore, 1993), Russet and Oneal focus on the role of ideas as well as stressing materialistic incentives to individuals and nations, who are self-interested and egoistic. In spite of assuming the factor of individuals and nations, which are self-interested egoistic, Russet and Oneal mix the contribution of idea with the factors of material incentives. This contradiction is made more obvious by their argument of international institutions, with their contentions that the international organizations have a function of shaping norms and welfare of the nation states (Russet and Oneal, 2001, 165).

“Therefore, while neo-liberalists concentrate on institutional efficiency in providing material benefits assuming self-interested egoists, they disregard uneven power relationship for cooperation (Axelord), the emergency of global hegemon (Keohane) or they mix the role of ideas and norms with their basic assumption of egoistic actors.” The combined use of material incentives and idea is seen more as idealist theory rather than a materialist theory by Wendt (Wendt, 1999, 113-138). Similarly, Adler (1977) is of the opinion that the arguments of neo-liberal theorists on transformative factors do not focus much on institutional selection and ideas (Adler, 1997). According to Wendt, neither neo-realist nor neo-liberalist undertook to introduce a factor, which would help to understand the ways in which actors are socially constructed. He argues “neo-realists see the structure of the international system as a distribution of material capabilities because they approach their subject with a materialist lens. Neo-liberals see it as capabilities plus institutions because they have added to the material base an institutional superstructure; and constructivists see it as a distribution of ideas because they have idealist ontology”. (Wendt, 2001, 4) Thus Wendt looks at institution as “manifestations of collective idea, not just material efficiency and incentives,” (Yoon). Therefore it can be stated that ideas are a priori variable in this approach and the institutions represent the distribution of ideas to develop collective identity, and interest by cognitive evolution and social learning. Therefore, Wendt’s approach and Adler’s the theory of cognitive evolution can be integrated to explain transformative politics and we can also integrate the possibility of regional differences for explaining balance of power.

Nuclear Program of Iran

Nuclear program of Iran “is one of the most polarizing issues in one of the world’s most polarized regions.” (The New York Times, 2010) American and European political leaders and observers believe that Iran is planning to build its nuclear weaponry capabilities. However, Iran’s leadership claims that its nuclear program aims at the generation of electricity to conserve the oil resources of the country, which Iran can sell to the foreign countries. Iran’s nuclear program poses a major challenge to international relations. The nuclear program of Iran is under attack by the Western states as a threat for international peace. States have expressed their apprehension that Iran would become another major military power with all its current nuclear weapons and their capabilities. However, the current president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has vehemently argued that the nuclear program of Iran is peaceful and is not meant to augment its military capabilities. Nuclear program of Iran can be explained in the background of political theories of international relationship that covers the choice of people, states and international systems.

Theories of liberalism, realism and radicalism can be applied in explaining the stand of Iran in creating its nuclear capabilities. Realism is an academic theory, which holds that states should devise and implement their foreign policies taking into account their interest than their values. Realism also explains that good sense and experience can be considered as better practical guides for action than using theoretical concepts to decide the courses of action. This paper considers a realist explanation for Iran’s nuclear program and attempts to bring out the weaknesses in a realist approach to Iran’s actions, with respect to its accumulation of nuclear capabilities.

In order to examine the realist view of the nuclear program of Iran, it is important to present a background note on the nuclear program of Iran. Iran started with the proliferation of its nuclear program after a continued war with Iraq from 1980 to 1988. The war with Iraq was devastating for Iran, as the country has lost more than 2.5 million people. The interference of Iranian Revolution affected the position of Iran against Iraq.

After the prolonged war with Iraq, because of its weaker position, Iran re-evaluated its military strengths and weaknesses and decided it has to increase its military capabilities drastically to defend the country successfully. The country could not immediately start making nuclear weapons as the country has signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty entered in the year 1968. “The absence of weapon inspectors in Iraq since December 1988 is undoubtedly a key Iranian security concern. A nuclear-armed Iraq could drive Iran toward withdrawing from the [Non-Proliferation Treaty] and declaring an openly nuclear stance,” (Cirincione, Wolfsthal, & Rajkumar, 2002). Therefore, Iran decided that it would rather achieve more nuclear capabilities for self-defense even antagonizing other countries, if it has to face the attack of Iran.

However, Iran did not proceed seriously with the increase of its nuclear power and it came back to the negotiation table with other countries of the world. With the decrease in the attack from Iraq, after the First Persian Gulf War during 1990, where the United States led international coalition trimmed Iraq. The Gulf War along with the continued dialogues on peaceful nuclear program at the meeting of the members of Non-Proliferation Treaty ensured that Iran goes slow in its creation of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) involving nuclear technology and chemical weapons.

Iran could feel less threatened of its sovereignty and thought nuclear energy could be used for peaceful purposes. The country tried to use the built up nuclear infrastructure for producing power. Roger Howard provides an example of the ways in which Iran contributed to the international peace process. “The absence of weapon inspectors in Iraq since December 1988 is undoubtedly a key Iranian security concern. A nuclear-armed Iraq could drive Iran toward withdrawing from the [Non-Proliferation Treaty] and declaring an openly nuclear stance,” (Cirincione, Wolfsthal, & Rajkumar, 2002). However, it is to be mentioned that Iran decided to cooperate only after increased pressure from the IAEA and other member nations.

The non-cooperation of Iran is evident from the statement of Graham Allison. He states, “Distrust over Iran’s stated nuclear intentions intensified in February 2003, when the IAEA uncovered a pilot centrifuge plant in Natanz, as well as a heavy-water reactor fuel plant in Arak, and neither had been disclosed by Iran as required by its Non- Proliferation Treaty (NPT) obligations,” (Allison, 2005). Many other nuclear sites have been found in Iran and with the presence of all these secret sites, Iran could not claim that its nuclear program is peaceful and all these sites of uranium enrichment clearly shows the intention of Iran to augment its military capabilities.

After the uncovering of the clandestine nuclear programs of the country in 2003, Iran suspended the operation of the program. The country even allowed international inspectors to visit its nuclear installations. It also began negotiations with major powers like Britain, France and Germany for possible retreating on nuclear development. President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad when elected and came to power in August 2005 took a confrontational line and restarted its enrichment programs. After five months, the country announced that it resumed work on turning uranium into a gaseous form, which is the first step in the fuel cycle. Soon after Iran announced the uranium enrichment work, which led to the breaking of talks by UK, France and Germany in connection with the future nuclear programs. “The United Nations Security Council voted in December 2006 to impose sanctions on Iran for failing to heed calls for a suspension. Iranian scientists continued the work of building a series of centrifuges that concentrate uranium by spinning the gas at very high speeds.” (The New York Times, 2010)Thus, the country ignored the demands of the United Nations Security Council to stop the programs.

American officials and international observers are concerned with the progress of Iran in the nuclear field with the acquisition by the country of certain important technologies necessary to make and use any nuclear weapon.. “And in late September 2009, Iran said that its Revolutionary Guards test-fired missiles with sufficient range to strike Israel, parts of Europe and American bases in the Persian Gulf.” (The new York Times, 2010)

Concerns about Iran’s Nuclear Program

The nuclear program of Iran has started almost 50 years back with a research reactor procured by the country in the year 1959. Later the country branched out to the production of nuclear power in the 1970s. The concerns for the United States about the development of nuclear programs by Iran have many dimensions.

First, the nuclear program of Iran is advanced in nature. There is escalation in this anxiety during the last ten years with the increase in the expert knowledge obtained through Bushehr nuclear operations in which Russia’s contribution in terms of technical knowhow is more. The project focuses on ‘laser uranium enrichment technology’. Despite the attempts by the United States for imposing an international embargo on nuclear cooperation with Iran since the year 1980, Iran has crossed a biggest hurdle in developing nuclear weapons with the installation of Bushehr project and the Russian technological support. Although Iran is claiming that its nuclear program is strictly peaceful, it remains highly questionable whether the country has crossed the threshold of uranium enrichment for developing peaceful nuclear programs (Squassoni, 2003).

The second area of concern was the identification by Bush administration of the refocused attention of the three “axis of evil” states – Iraq, Iran and North Korea – on the manufacture of WMD. Some observers are of the view that Iran and North Korea have enlarged their WMD capabilities are worrisome, specifically in the nuclear area. “It is fairly evident that Iran’s uranium centrifuge enrichment capability – a key technology that is difficult to detect and quite efficient for producing highly enriched uranium for simple gun-type assembly nuclear weapons – is more advanced than Iraq’s and, possibly, North Korea’s” (Squassoni, 2003).

Thirdly, the National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCR) was found to be vigorous in revealing the nuclear settings of Iran. NCR has been placed in the list of foreign terrorist organization of the State Department of the US. This organization held several press conferences to reveal the alleged covert nuclear weapon-related sites of Iran.

The inspection by IAEA and the subsequent report identified three major areas of concern with respect to the nuclear programs of Iran. “The IAEA report identified three major areas of concern for implementing nuclear safeguards: Iran ‘s failure to report uranium imported from China in 1991; questions about the centrifuge enrichment program ; and questions about the heavy water program,” (Squassoni, 2003).

Realism and Iran’s Nuclear Program

Sagan & Waltz, (2003) has justified the nuclear proliferation on the realist approach to the international system. According to realist theory, states continue to exist in a state of anarchy. The theory assumes that states do not want to have any government ruling over them and the statesmen and policymakers think and act only in terms of self-interest, which is defined, as power of the state. Political realism thus considers a rational international policy to be good, because rational policy reduces risks and increases benefits. Hans Morgenthau a renowned international relations theorist explains “Realism considers prudence—the weighing of the consequences of alternative political actions—to be the supreme virtue of politics.” (Morgenthau, 1985)

The concept of interest defined in terms of power is the main signpost that helps political realism to steer its way through the realm of international politics. The concept of power facilitates the understanding international politics and the facts behind possessing such power. In the words of Morgenthau (1985)

“It sets politics as an autonomous sphere of action and understanding apart from other spheres, such as economics (understood in terms of interest defined as wealth), ethics, aesthetics, or religion. Without such a concept a theory of politics, international or domestic, would be altogether impossible, for without it we could not distinguish between political and nonpolitical facts, nor could we bring at least a measure of systematic order to the political sphere.” (Morgenthau, 1985)

Realism is one of the theories of international relations. Mingst, (2004) provides a description of realism. “Realism is based on the view of the individual as primarily selfish and power seeking. Individuals are organized into states, each of which acts in a unitary way in pursuit of its own national interest, defined in terms of power,” (Mingst 2004). According to Realists, the countries in the world exist in a chaotic state. However, this does not mean that the states themselves are chaotic but they can interact with each other in the absence of a powerful international system to keep them in order. Realists believe that power and wealth are the only phenomena through which the success of the countries can be measured and when a country possesses more power and wealth the likelihood of that state is invaded by its enemies or other powerful states is negligible.

From the realist’s perspective, the state is the unitary and central actor. While liberals focus on the state but views individuals and international system as influential, realist focus more on state. Realism is of the view that although individuals make up the state, since individuals are selfish in nature, the state becomes duty-bound to enhance its power and wealth. For a Realist, Since the decisions of the state concerning its internal governance and external relations affect the citizens and the way in which the rest of the states of the world sees the country, its unique strength and power does make a difference. With the state becoming the primary actor, it is entrusted with the controlling of power and wealth in the best interests of its citizens.

With respect to the nuclear programs of Iran, Realism would put forth the argument that the country is trying to become stronger by enhancing its nuclear power, even when the nuclear programs support peace. Realists are not in favor of the operation of any international treaty or system, since according to them states live in a state of chaos. When IAEA checks the nuclear installations of Iran and certifies that Iran is using the nuclear programs for peaceful purposes only, then it becomes a victory for Iran. Based on the realist zero-sum model, in this case, if Iran wins then rest of the world nations fail. This becomes true since the nuclear program will elevate the position of the country among other countries. Iran will become a super power not only against those states that do not possess nuclear power but also against those states, which possess nuclear power (as these countries will lost the advantage of their nuclear power against the new nuclear power of Iran). On the other hand, if the IAEA finds that the nuclear programs of Iran are not to meant to promote peace, but to enhance its military strength against other nations, then Iran will pull out of the international system to continue its nuclear programs. In that case, Iran may receive economic sanctions from other major countries of the world.

Realist approach towards Iran’s nuclear program appears to be more meaningful than liberalist approach. Iran seems to be a unitary actor with respect to the creation of its nuclear capabilities. This is evident from the fact that despite the changes in its leadership, the country has not changed its policies on its nuclear programs. The country also seems to be a rational actor, as it has switched its stand in nuclear programs from the creation of WMD to nuclear energy. However, as against the fundamental premise of realist theory, Iran gives up its sovereignty when it allows IAEA to conduct an inspection of its nuclear installations. It cannot be said that such an allowance completely undermines the realist theory.

It may be so that Iran might lose some of its political power when it promises to deviate from its nuclear policies to develop peaceful nuclear programs; nevertheless, the country has in its possession the entire infrastructure to build WMD in the form of nuclear bombs, as stated by the United States Defense Department. Therefore, even though other countries may hear the promises of Iran, the Western Powers especially United States will prepare itself to meet the other side of the promises of Iran in respect of its nuclear capabilities.

Weaknesses of Realist Theories

From the realist point of view, the proliferation of nuclear weapons should be welcomed rather than feared. “Waltz has argued that the controlled spread of nuclear weapons to other societies could have stabilizing effect,” (Linklater, 1995). However, the major concern of United States is that the proliferation of nuclear weapons should not strengthen the terrorist outfits; but the blacklisting of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard by including them in the list of terrorist, US has made the scenario of terrorists having possession of nuclear weapons probable. Therefore, United States would be keen in destroying the nuclear installations of Iran to combat cross-border terrorism. This is not in conformity with a realist approach.

The presumption of realists is that state thinks and acts rationally. If a state thinks and acts rationally it should realize that nuclear war is destructive and no political goal would be achieved by acts of destruction due to which other nation would suffer. If one considers the rhetoric of Ahamedinejad to extinguish Israeli regime, such an act cannot be considered rational from a realist point of view. If at all the Iranian president has to act rationally, he would not decide to wage a war against Israel and its powerful allies. If the current behavior of the Iranian president in inviting Israel for war is considered as rational, then he is doing this to ‘rally his nation around the flag’. Perhaps the president of Iran is provoking United States to start an assault against Iran so that the Iranian leadership can get a support from the public in the event of a war. This model can be seen in Iran even with the famous revolutionary leader Ayotollah Chomeini. He claimed undisputed leadership in the country because of the war of Iran with Iraq during 1980 to 1988. In a realist sense, “war can be rational if both sides have positive expected utilities for fighting-the expected utility of war (expected benefits minus costs) is greater than the expected utility of remaining at peace.” (Viotti & Kauppi, 1999) If one imagines the costs for Iran in case the country is attacked by Israel or the United States, it would be devastating for Iran. Such an eventuality may happen if other countries think that it is in their best interests to relieve Iran of its nuclear capabilities and they have to use force to accomplish this. This is what realists advocate. Although such a decision may be considered as strategic and wise from a realist point of view; the real consequences of the situation are not only frightening but also would cause unimaginable miseries to humanity.

From the realist point of view there is no reason that the religious state of Iran should be assaulted for the development of suspicious nuclear programs, where with the development of nuclear weapons the world would become stable. It is difficult to decide which action is wiser under a realist approach; whether to allow Iran to develop its nuclear capabilities to make the world more stable or to destruct Iran on grounds of balance of power. To this extend the realist argument favoring nuclear programs of Iran remains weak.

Another weakness of realist theory is its assumption regarding balance of power. Realist politics is based on power politics. For the realists, the balance of power is of prime concern and the use of war is considered as the main political instrument. This realist view cannot be aligned with a common understanding of sensibility. In the present day political conflicts that exist in many parts of the world, for example in the Balkan conflict, global balance of power considerations have a very little to role to play. It is to be recognized that this European conflict, which involved the world community was about identity and ethnicity (Nye, 2004). The same position with respect to global power can be found in other conflicts of Chechnya, Kurdistan, Sri Lanka and others. There is no way that realist theories explain these conflicts.

In view of the foregoing discussions, the application of realist approach to the nuclear program of Iran could be viewed as lacking in some material aspects and it is highly debatable from a common understanding of sensibility. Nevertheless, there are certain points in which rise of realism theories fit together with some other points of the definition of wisdom. It must be recognized that the realist theories find their origin on the grounds of the experiences of the World War II and the Cold War, which have sufficiently influenced the viewpoints of realist advocates. For instance, realism may be viewed as appropriate when one considers the fact that at the state level, Iran is worried about its safety amidst the conditions like war with Iraq; a hostile United States; and countries like India and Pakistan developing nuclear weapons. Under such circumstances, Iran needs a stronger support than its standing army to protect its borders from infiltration by other nations. “Realism acknowledges that people and states are selfish and that Iran has vast land area and is rich in oil and gas deposits. A realist would be concerned that with Iran being an easy target” (Gerner, 2005).

Based on the discussions in the previous chapters two important points emerge in respect of the balance of power and bipolarity after the Cold War ended. First there is the role of international organizations in shaping the norms and practices for peace. In the case of Europe and Asia, after their experiences with the two World Wars, they have focused more on the significant role of international organizations in developing peace. On the other hand, the situation in Africa and Middle East was different, which was evident from the discussion on the nuclear programs of Iran. In these regions, the world witnessed most of significant disputes, after the end of Cold War. This implies that time period has a significant impact on the development of social learning and cognitive evolution. It also proves the balance of power theory.

More than six decades have passed after Europe and Asia experienced the impact of World Wars and the countries in these regions have developed their peace initiatives, while Middle East and Africa are the regions, which have forgotten the evils of war and the result is that most of violent conflicts take place in these regions. Considering the time needed for the evolution of shared identities, and interests, one can understand this difference as natural. This research thus finds a different level of cognitive evolution in these two regions through social learning and the experiences of war and conflict.

While analyzing the theory of balance of power and bipolarity in the context of international politics, the research found a different trend of the relationship between international organization and the conflict and war. This finding gives rise to the point that international organizations are not the only form of institution. When one looks at shared ideas and externalization of shared identities as a means of developing a balance of power and thus to arrive at peace, non-governmental organization can play a large role in the endeavor of nations to continue to exist peacefully. This finding reiterates that transformation politics can be greatly aided by a more decisive role of non-governmental organizations. The approach of cognitive evolution to avoid wars implies an enhanced role of non-governmental organizations. This research undertook a review of neo-realist and neo-liberalist assumption of self-interested egoist and it was observed that these theories do not provide any theoretical explanation for using non-governmental organization in transformative politics to bring peace.

As a concluding remark, it can be argued that the evolution of human consciousness has positive role in the transformation of conflict era of international politics to more peaceful era. This transformation calls for achieving the balance of power, through externalization and shared ideas of collective actors, in the process of which the role of international institutions does matter. We can find regional differences in the approaches depending on the level of cognitive evolution. These differences are bound to exist because of differences in encounters with conflict, war and interactions between actors. This research might have implications to the field of international politics in two ways. First, this research attempted to study the theory of balance of power from the perspective of international actors based on a theoretical review of different approaches to the theory. Considering endless conflicts and lack of empirical studies covering these approaches, this research has made a meaningful attempt in explaining the theoretical perspective of the balance of power. Second, this paper attempted to exemplify the expanded role of international organization to non-governmental organization, although there is no certain theoretical support for this approach. Nevertheless, the research attempted to provide as much theoretical evidence as possible for this approach. One major limitation of this study is that it needed to strengthen more theoretical elaboration including extended literature review, which dealt with the different variables in international political economies.

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George Orwell and the origin of the term ‘cold war’

Oxford Dictionaries

• By Katherine Connor Martin
• October 24 th 2015

On 19 October 1945, George Orwell used the term cold war in his essay “ You and the Atom Bomb ,” speculating on the repercussions of the atomic age which had begun two months before when the United States bombed Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. In this article, Orwell considered the social and political implications of “a state which was at once unconquerable and in a permanent state of ‘cold war’ with its neighbors.”

This wasn’t the first time the phrase cold war was used in English (it had been used to describe certain policies of Hitler in 1938), but it seems to have been the first time it was applied to the conditions that arose in the aftermath of World War II. Orwell’s essay speculates on the geopolitical impact of the advent of a powerful weapon so expensive and difficult to produce that it was attainable by only a handful of nations, anticipating “the prospect of two or three monstrous super-states, each possessed of a weapon by which millions of people can be wiped out in a few seconds, dividing the world between them,” and concluding that such a situation is likely “to put an end to large-scale wars at the cost of prolonging indefinitely a ‘ peace that is no peac e’.”

Within years, some of the developments anticipated by Orwell had emerged. The Cold War (often with capital initials) came to refer specifically to the prolonged state of hostility, short of direct armed conflict, which existed between the Soviet bloc and Western powers after the Second World War. The term was popularized by the American journalist Walter Lippman, who made it the title of a series of essays he published in 1947 in response to U.S. diplomat George Kennan’s ‘Mr. X’ article, which had advocated the policy of “ containment .” To judge by debate in the House of Commons the following year (as cited by the Oxford English Dictionary ), this use of the term Cold War was initially regarded as an Americanism: ‘The British Government … should recognize that the ‘cold war’, as the Americans call it, is on in earnest, that the third world war has, in fact, begun.” Soon, though, the term was in general use.

The end of the Cold War was prematurely declared from time to time in the following decades—after the death of Stalin, and then again during the détente of the 1970s—but by the time the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991, the Cold War era was clearly over. American political scientist Francis Fukuyama famously posited that “what we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of postwar history, but the end of history as such,” with the global ascendancy of Western liberal democracy become an inevitability.

A quarter of a century later, tensions between Russia and NATO have now ratcheted up again, particularly in the wake of the Ukrainian crisis of 2014; commentators have begun to speak of a “ New Cold War .” The ideological context has changed, but once again a few great powers with overwhelming military might jockey for global influence while avoiding direct confrontation. Seventy years after the publication of his essay, the dynamics George Orwell discussed in it are still recognizable in international relations today.

A version of this article first appeared on the OxfordWords blog. 

Image Credit: “General Douglas MacArthur, UN Command CiC (seated), observes the naval shelling of Incheon from the USS Mt. McKinley, September 15, 1950.” Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons .

Katherine Connor Martin is Head of US Dictionaries at Oxford University Press.

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Orwell always surprises us. He was and still is a genius.

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