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Types of Batteries and Cells and Their Applications

Different types of batteries and cells & their  applications.

Long back ago, the only way of making portable energy was either steam or fuel. After the invention of the battery, life has become easier than ever. Nowadays, everyone is looking for portable machines to ease their day to day tasks. In that case, batteries are capable of fulfilling the need of producing energy on the go.

No doubt batteries look pretty small and dull but they are surely capable of turning your small little cylinder into your own micro-power plant. The idea of generating portable power is nothing new and even prehistoric human used to produce that using woods and fuels. It is just that batteries are the instant way of power source. You can just hit a button and get the darkroom lighten up in a second or even less than that.

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There are several kinds of batteries present in the market. All such batteries work on the same principle of converting chemical energy into electrical energy. Here in this article, we are going to discuss everything you need to know about the different types of batteries, their working and usage.

Before starting with the working and types of the battery, just have a look over the history of the batteries. Where they came from? And By whom they are discovered.

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Table of Contents

History of Batteries

In 1800, Volta discovered that certain fluid can generate continuous electric power when used as a conductor. This discovery lead to the first voltaic cell called battery. Volta’s invention of battery started a new era of battery experimentation. And, number of scientist tried various experiments to make batteries. But few of them was able to reach to a conclusion. Volta and Daniel were two scientist made cells known as Voltaic and Daniel respectively.

Voltaic Cell: A voltaic cell uses chemical reaction to produce electrical energy. One anode and cathode are made opposite to each other. At anode, oxidation occurs and reduction occurs at cathode. A salt bridge is created in between to complete the circuit. The parts where oxidation and reduction occur are called half cells. An external circuit is used to conduct the flow of electrons.

The voltaic cell invented by Volta was not that much portable and had too many disadvantages as well. After that, Daniel’s cell designed by “John Fredric Daniel” become popular.

Daniel Cell: After the invention of voltaic cell, Daniel cell was popular in earlier centuries as source of electricity. In this cell type, a container divided into two compartments. The gap was made by a membrane permeable to ions. In one of the components, Zinc electrolyte was dipped in a Zinc sulfate solution. In the other compartment, a copper electrode in a copper sulfate solution was dipped. The cell was capable of delivering current until it runs out of Zinc or Copper sulfate.

John Dancer carried forward this experiment and designed the first battery with porous design.

In 1859, the lead acid battery designed by Gaston Plante became popular due to the rechargeable feature of the battery. The simple design of the battery allowed recharging by reversing the flow of current back to the battery. This battery is still used in many places like car batteries, motor vehicles etc.

Further, Leclanche battery was invented by Carl Gessner as dry design which didn’t have any liquid electrolyte.

Let’s have a look at Leclanche cell.

This invention made the use of battery very easy and convenient as the spilling and orientation problem was totally eradicated. Again nickel-cadmium battery was invented which was commonly known as alkaline battery. In 1970’s century most of the lithium batteries were invented to be used in portable devices.

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General Chemistry of Battery:

A battery have three layers the cathode, anode and a separator. The negative layer of the battery is called as anode and the positive layer is called as cathode. When a load is attached with the battery the current starts flowing through the anode to cathode. Similarly, when we connect the battery charger the current starts flowing into the opposite direction i.e. cathode to anode.

Every battery work on a chemical reaction called oxidation-reduction reaction. The reaction take place in between the cathode and the anode via the separator (electrolyte).

In result, one electrode gets negatively charged due to oxidation reaction. And, that negatively charged electrode is called as cathode. The second electrode gets positively charged due to reduction reaction, which is further called as anode. When two different kind of metals are immersed in the same electrolyte solution, one of the electrode will gain electron and other will lose electron.

In result, one of the metals will lose electron and the other metal will gain electron. This difference in electron concentration of two metals cause an electrical potential difference between the metals. This potential difference can be used as source of voltage in any electrical device.

Let’s see how the batteries are categorized…

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Different Types of Batteries

Batteries are commonly used in household devices as well as for industrial applications. Each battery is designed to fulfill a specified purpose and can be used according to the requirement. There are mainly two categories of battery called primary and secondary cells. However, batteries are classified into four broad categories namely primary cell, secondary cell, fuel cell and reserve cell. Below are the everything you need to know about the different types of batteries and their working.

• Primary Cell
• Secondary Cell
• Reserve Cell

Primary Cell (Non-rechargeable Batteries)

Non-rechargeable batteries also known as primary batteries or primary cell. Primary batteries are those which cannot be used again once their stored energy is being used fully. These batteries cannot restore energy by any external source. This is the reason primary cells are also called disposable batteries.

A major factor reducing the lifetime of primary batteries is that they become polarized during use. To extend the battery life by reducing the effect of polarization, chemical depolarization is used i.e. oxidizing the hydrogen to water by adding an oxidizing agent to the cell. Like as, in zinc-carbon cell and Leclanche cell Manganese dioxide is used, and in Bunsen cell and Grove cell nitric acid is used.

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Applications of Primary Cells :

• They can be used in clock and toys
• It can be used in small household devices
• It can be used in personal computers
• It can be used in portable emergency lights and inverters

The non-rechargeable batteries are many types. They are given below

• Zinc-Carbon Battery (aka. ‘Heavy Duty’)

Lithium Cells

• Silver Oxide Cells

Zinc Air Cells

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Zinc-Carbon Battery

Zinc-carbon batteries are first commercial dry batteries which provide very low power and are also known as dry cell. A carbon rod is placed in the battery, which collects the current from the manganese dioxide electrode. It can give a 1.5Volts of DC supply. These types of batteries are used in Flashlight, radios, remote controls, and wall clocks.

Alkaline is also a dry cell battery, it consists of zinc anode and manganese dioxide cathode. The alkaline battery is packed with steel can and the outermost inner region is filled with manganese dioxide. Zinc and the potassium hydroxide electrolyte is filled in the center most region of the battery. Alkaline batteries have higher density then the other batteries. Generally, it is used in Audio players, radios and the torch lights.

Lithium cell batteries are comes in coin or button type design form. It provider higher voltage (3V) value than the zinc, alkaline and manganese batteries. Lithium cells are smaller in size and lighter in weight. The internal resistance of lithium cells are high and they are not rechargeable. The most popular coin cell used in number of electronics application is CR2032 which provides 3V output. Lithium cells have longer life span (around 10 years).

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Silver Oxide Cells :

Silver oxide batteries are low power batteries with high capacity. They are similar in appearance to mercury cells and provides a higher emf of 1.5 volt. The cathode of the battery is made up of silver oxide. The electrolyte present inside the battery is made of potassium or sodium hydroxide. As silver is expensive, this battery has very limited applications.

The excellent features of silver oxide cells are:

• The unique sealing of the battery structure makes the battery highly leak-proof.
• Constant voltage output given by the battery makes it useful to get stable discharge
• The use of antioxidants contributes to the high energy density of the battery.

Applications of silver oxide cells:

• IOT based devices
• Electric watches
• Precision instruments
• Medical devices

A zinc air battery reaches full operating voltages within 5 mins right after un-sealing. These are primary batteries with rechargeable designs. The oxygen content in the air acts as the active mass of the battery. The cathode is a porous body made up of carbon with air access. The output voltage capability of the cell is 1.65 volts. While discharge, a mass of zinc particle forms a porous anode saturated with an electrolyte. The oxygen present in the air reacts with the hydroxyl ion and form zincate. This Zincate forms zinc oxide and water returns to the electrolyte.

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Secondary Cell (Rechargeable Batteries)

Rechargeable batteries are also known as secondary cell. It can be use again and again by plugging them into charge and get multiple uses before the battery needs to be replaced. The initial cost of rechargeable batteries is commonly more than disposable batteries, but the total cost of ownership and environmental impact of these batteries are lower because they can be recharged inexpensively many times before they need to replace it.

Applications of Secondary Cells:

• It can be used in fitness bands, smart watches.
• It can be used in military and submarines
• Cameras and artificial pacemakers

The rechargeable or secondary batteries are mainly of three types:

Lithium Ion (Li-ion)

Nickel metal hydride (ni-mh), nickel cadmium (ni-cd).

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Nickel Cadmium are good to deliver the rated capacity at full discharge rate and has good life cycle at low temperature rate operations.

Difference Between Primary and Secondary Cells:

Specifications:.

Primary cells have high internal resistance, higher capacity and are smaller in designs. While secondary cells have low internal resistance, have reversible chemical reactions and are complex in design.

Primary cells are usually dry cells. That means, they don’t have fluid and are full of paste that allow the movement of ions inside the battery. This is the reason primary cells are spill-resistant. However, secondary cells are either made up of liquid or molten salt.

To give you a better comparison between the primary and secondary cells, their advantages and disadvantages, we have summed up the differences in the below given table:

After going through the above table, I hope you will now be able to figure out the pros and cons of the primary and secondary batteries.

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Reserve cell

The reserve batteries or cell are also known as stand-by battery. The electrolyte remains inactive in solid state until the melting point is reached. As soon as the melting point is reached, ionic conduction begins and battery is activated.

Reserve cells are further classified into three categories:

• Water Activated Batteries
• Heat Activated Batteries
• Electrolyte Activated Batteries
• Gas Activated Batteries

Applications of Reserve Batteries:

• It is used in devices used for sensing time and pressure
• They are largely used in weapon systems
• They are also used in car batteries and other vehicles

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In this class of batteries, active materials are fed from outside source. Fuel cells are capable of producing electrical energy as long as active materials are fed to the electrodes. The proton exchange membrane uses hydrogen and oxygen gas as fuel. The reaction takes place inside the cell and as the product of the reaction water, electricity and heat are produced. The four basic elements of the fuel cells are namely anode, cathode, electrolyte and catalyst .

Advantages of technology used behind the fuel cell:

• The process of converting chemical potential energy directly into electrical energy avoids the “thermal bottleneck”.
• Due to no moving parts in the cell, it is convenient and highly reliable
• Due to the production of hydrogen in environment friendly manner, this is comparatively less harmful for environments as compared to others.

Applications of fuel cell

• This is mainly used in transport like cars, buses and other motor vehicles.
• This is very often used as backup to produce electricity in case of power failure.

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Advantage of Battery over other Power Sources

• Specific Energy Capacity: The energy storage capacity of battery is very less as compared to fossil fuel. However, batteries have the capacity of delivering energy more effectively as compared to thermal engine.
• Power bandwidth: Batteries are capable of handling small and large loads more effectively due to high power bandwidth.
• Responsiveness: Batteries are able to deliver power over short-notice. This means that warm up is not required as in case of combustion engines.
• Environment: The batteries are easy t use and stay reasonably cool. Most of the batteries don’t make noise as in case of other fuel-based engines.
• Installation: Nowadays, the sealed batteries can be operated in almost any position. They are good shock and vibration tolerance.

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Drawbacks of Batteries

• Charge Time: Once the batteries are primary batteries are discharged, it takes hours to get recharged again for use. This is not in case of using fuels which takes a few minutes.
• Operation cost: Price and weight of large batteries make it impractical for the reliable usage and large vehicles.
• Energy storage capacity: AS compared to fossil fuels, the energy storage capacity of batteries is low.

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Choosing the Right Battery According to your Application?

It is quite important to choose the right battery for your application to avoid the damage of your device or application. Below are some of the considerations that should be kept in mind while choosing the right battery for your application.

Primary or secondary: This is the one of the most important factors in choosing the right battery type for your device. You can use the primary battery for occasional use and in disposable devices like toys etc. However, if you are using the device for long stretches of time then secondary or rechargeable batteries are more suitable.

Temperature range: Choosing a right battery with right temperature help you reduce the risk of thermal runaway. Lithium ion batteries can be charged within a narrow temperature range of 20 degree to 45 degree Celsius. Exploding of batteries may happens as a result of overcharging, high temperature charging or short circuit that eventually harm the device or application.

Durability: The durability of the battery largely depends on two factors namely charge life and total life. In addition, the physical factors of battery also contribute to the long life of battery.

Energy Density: The total amount of energy stored in the battery per unit volume is called as the energy density. It defines the stability of the battery that how long it run will till the next recharge

Safety: The battery you are choosing should be according to the operating temperature of it. Sometimes, the battery temperature exceeds and might damage components of the device. Also, if the device temperature exceeds the performance may get reduced.

The other factors include:

• cell chemistry
• transportation
• physical shape and size
• reliability

Electrical vehicle (EV) battery

Electrical vehicle batteries are designed to provide power over a sustained period of time. The factors that makes them different from the other batteries is ignition and lightning. The electrical vehicle batteries are increasing their share in market due to reliability and environment friendly nature.

The most common batteries in modern car are lithium ion and lithium polymer battery. The cells are installed in forms of modules. In other words, one form of battery is installed to make a pack. Let us take an example of BMW electric car, in which a total of 96 cells are installed. The number of cells put into a frame that protect the batteries from external heat and vibration. A combination of cells is called as module.

A number of such modules, a cooling pack and battery management system is combined together to form a pack.

The two main types of Lithium ion batteries used in the electrical vehicles are:

• Meta oxides

In automotive applications like vehicles, lithium-ion batteries are safer in terms of chemical hazard and convenience.

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Construction of EV Batteries

Currently, the electric cars are running on lithium batteries. The normal voltage of a lithium cell is 3.7 volt, but an EV (electrical vehicle) requires 300V. For achieving this voltage and current value lithium cells are combined into series and parallel. The combination of such lithium cells is known as module. The modules comes with a BMS (Battery management system) for their protection. Below is the picture of Nissan Leaf, showing the lithium cell modules created to achieve the required voltage.

Important Instruction to use Electrical Vehicle Batteries

• Don’t let the battery to reach below the cut-off voltage, which is also called as over discharging.
• The maximum efficiency can be achieved only when the current ratings are lower.
• The EV batteries comes in KWH (Kilo watt Hour) rating, which defines that how long the battery vehicle will run.
• There is always a self-discharge rate of the batteries.
• BMS (Battery Management System) helps you to find the amount of charge remaining in to the battery.

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• Batteries MCQs with Explanatory Answers
• Batteries Wiring Connections and Diagrams
• What Happens if a Battery is Connected to the AC Supply?
• What Happens to the Battery with Reverse Polarity Wiring Connection

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Great post! Thanks. JD

Hello. Can you please explain in layman’s terms. what an Electro kinetic cell battery is, and relevant info, as pertaining to such? Thank you

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Engineers Garage

Introduction to batteries and their types

By Ayush Jain

What is a Battery?

A battery is an electrochemical device that can store energy in the form of chemical energy. It translates to electric energy when the battery is connected in a circuit due to the flow of electrons because of the specific placement of chemicals. It was invented by Alessandro Volta, whereas Gaston Plante invented the rechargeable battery.

The battery consists of three elements: the negative side, the positive side, and electrolyte (the chemical which reacts with both sides), as shown in the image below. The electrolyte is used as an electron transportation medium between the anode and cathode.

It works due to electrochemical reactions called oxidation and reduction. In this reaction, electrons flow from one side to another side when the external circuit is connected to the anode and cathode.

General battery diagram.

The battery’s chemical composition can vary for different applications, specifications, sizes, etc., which are explained below in types of batteries.

Battery applications

The battery is used in applications where energy is required to be stored for future purposes. Portable, emergency, and low-power devices generally use batteries. A portable device, such as a mobile laptop, has a battery to use anywhere you want. An emergency device like an inverter, torch, etc., is used when there is no electricity. Low power devices like watches, oximeter, etc., can run for a long time after replacing the battery. The mains supply is not suitable for all situations.

The requirement of a battery depends upon various conditions like how much power is needed or what device portability is. But what about the wall watch? Why is this not connected to a socket?

The wall watch consumes very little power. A 1.2v battery can make it run almost for two years, but this is not the main reason. The watch should be powered up every instant to get the correct time; this can be done by battery. A single hindrance in power will cause a delay in time. That’s why it is designed to work with less power thereby allowing the watch to run for a longer period and making the battery an efficient way to supply power constantly.

Let’s take another example. Generally, a vehicle works on petrol. In a self-start vehicle, the initial ignition of the engine is done by an ignition coil and a motor. The motor is used to reach specific rpm of the engine, and the ignition coil is used as a source of ignition. This vehicle ignition coil draws about four Amps. This current can vary among different manufacturers, and there is lots of space in the vehicle. That’s why to fill the higher current requirement lead-acid battery is perfect for it.

Vehicle ignition.

From the above example, we can say that the use of batteries depends upon condition and application.

Types of Batteries

Based on functionality, there are two types of batteries available in the market.

• Primary Batteries.
• Secondary Batteries.  

Primary Batteries

The batteries made for one-time use only and unable to recharge, are called primary batteries . This type of battery is thrown away after use. It is also known as non-rechargeable batteries . It’s a very simple and convenient source of power for portable devices like a watch, camera, torch, etc. The battery comes in a standard size, as given below.

The standard size of the battery

These batteries are cheap, small, lightweight, and there is no or low maintenance required.

Some common primary batteries

• Alkaline battery

The alkaline battery mainly consists of zinc and manganese dioxide as electrodes. The alkaline electrolyte is used as either potassium or sodium hydroxide. As you can see in the image below, the outer casing is a steel drum, and there is a cap on a drum which is a positive terminal. Inside this drum, the fine-grained manganese dioxide (MnO2) power mixed with coal dust is molted, as shown in the image. This molted mixture is part of the cathode in an alkaline battery. There is another powder filled inside the cathode powder, which is Zinc powder with potassium hydroxide. The Zinc (Zn) powder is part of the anode in an alkaline battery. Both powders are separated by a paper separator. The paper separator is soaked with potassium hydroxide, an electrolyte between the cathode (MnO2) and anode (Zn). The metallic brass pin is inserted along with the center axis of the alkaline battery, which is a negative collector pin. The pin is in touch with the metallic end. There is a plastic cover, which separates the metallic end and the steel drum. The metallic end is the negative terminal of an alkaline battery.

Alkaline Battery

This battery is used where low voltage is required. One single cell can provide 1.5V. This is very cheap, so it can reduce the cost of the product. Every clock which hangs on the wall or remotes that control your TV and AC works on these alkaline batteries.

• Button cell battery

As you can see, the button cell is in the form of a button leading the body to be the cathode, and the anode is insulated at the top of the battery. The body is made of nickel-platted stainless steel – a positive terminal of the coin cell. At the top of the CAN, you can see a negative terminal cap. Both the CAN and the top cap are separated by a gasket made of insulator material. Inside the battery, there are two materials: Lithium metal and manganese dioxide, separated by a separator. The electrolyte used in the battery is lithium salt in an organic solvent.

Button cell (Source)

Button or coin cells can be seen in watches in different sizes. This also comes in the alkaline batteries category because it comprises three substances- lithium as anode and manganese dioxide as a cathode, and alkaline as an electrolyte. These batteries are used to power small devices like watches, pocket calculator RAM, etc.

Secondary Batteries

The battery which is made for reusable purposes by recharging are called secondary batteries . They are also called rechargeable batteries . They have the same electrochemical reaction as alkaline batteries, but the electrochemical reaction can be reversed. This type of battery is used for portable devices like mobile phones, laptops, electric vehicles, etc. Also, a rechargeable battery is used with an inverter which stores power to supply our household devices.

Some common secondary batteries

• Lead-Acid batteries

The lead-acid battery container is made up of hard rubber of a bituminous compound. The container obtains dilute sulfuric acid, which is an electrolyte. The lead plates made of grid form are dipped in the electrolyte. The positive plate of the lead-acid battery is made of lead peroxide(PbO2). This is a dark brown hard, and brittle substance. The negative plate is made of pure lead in soft sponge conditions. A separator separates both electrodes. This separator can be made of cellulose, polyvinyl chloride, organic rubber, and polyolefins. The positive and negative are connected on the top of the battery, which is the outer positive and negative terminal to connect the load or device. There is a filter cap with a small hole in the center. The filter cap provides access for adding electrolytes, and the holes allow gases to be vented to the atmosphere.

Lead Acid Battery ( Source )

These batteries are low cost, reliable, larger, and are heavily weighted.  It is mostly used in heavy-duty applications because it is not portable due to its weight and size. It is used in non-portable applications like solar-panel energy storage, vehicle ignition and lights, backup power, and load leveling in power generation and distribution.  

• Nickel-Cadmium batteries

A Nickel-cadmium battery (Ni-Cd or NiCad battery) is made of nickel oxide hydroxide as cathode and metallic cadmium as an anode. Firstly, a layer of nickel oxide NiO2 is kept around the redox. This layer act as a cathode. Above this cathode layer, a separator of KOH or NaOH is made to provide OH ions. After this layer, the cadmium layer act as an anode of the ni-cd battery. Nickel layer act as a positive electrode and cadmium act as a negative electrode. The arrangement of the layer is rolled in a cylindrical shape in a case. The outer case is made of metal with a sealing plate and safety valve, which allow it to realize gasses out of the container. A cap on the top of the cell is insulated by a gasket, which acts as a positive of the ni-cd battery.

Nickel-Cadmium Battery. ( Source )

These batteries are relatively less in cost, with toxic materials and a high self-discharge rate. It has a higher number of charging and discharging cycles. The energy density is higher than lead-acid batteries. It is smaller, lighter, and available in different sizes like alkaline batteries. It is generally used in low-cost devices like toys, solar light or cordless phones, etc.

• Nickel-Metal Hydride batteries

  Nickel metal hydride battery (NiMH or Ni-MH) is made of Nickel oxide hydroxide as cathode and hydrogen-absorbing alloy as an Anode. The construction of the Ni-MH battery is the same as the Ni-cd battery. The Nickel oxide hydroxide layer and hydrogen-absorbing alloy are rolled with the separator of KOH or NaOH. The outer metal case Act as a negative terminal is connected with hydrogen-absorbing alloy. The cap on the top of the cell acts as a positive terminal and is connected with Nickel oxide hydroxide. An insulating seal ring or gasket separates both negative and positive terminals.

Nickel-Metal Hydride Battery. ( Source )

Compared to Ni-Cd, these are more efficient with higher energy density, less toxic, and lower self-discharge rate. It is relatively expensive when compared to Ni-Cd. It has resistance to over-charging and over-discharging. It isn’t very easy to charge, and some manufacturers provide their specific chargers.

• Lithium-ion batteries

  Lithium-ion batteries have anode made of graphite and cathode made of lithium metal oxide. The lithium salt as an organic solvent is used as an electrolyte. When the battery is connected to the circuit or load, lithium-ion migrates from the negative electrode to the positive electrode.

In the image below, the construction of the li-ion battery is similar to the Ni-Cd and Ni-NH batteries, apart from materials. The lithium metal oxide is coated on aluminum foil which is the positive electrode. The graphite is coated on copper foil which is the negative electrode. Both foils are rolled in a cylindrical shape with a separator between them. The spectator is soaked with electrolyte material which generally is lithium salt as an organic solvent. The outer metal casing is negative, and the top cap is the positive terminal. Both are separated by a gasket, which is made of insulating material.

Lithium-Ion Battery. ( Source )

Lithium-ion batteries are used in mobiles, laptops, and many portable devices. It is also used in the military and aerospace due to its lightweight nature. It has a higher energy density and low self-discharge compared to other types of batteries. It is also available in various sizes. Its single-cell voltage is higher.  These have a significant risk of explosion when it is short-circuited or externally damaged.

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We have all used a cell or battery in our life. Be it in our TV remotes, video games, AC remotes, car batteries or your mobile phone batteries. So, naturally, the use and presence of a battery in our lives are simply undeniable. But have you ever wondered about the technical meaning and application of the batteries? Fret not, here we’ll help you understand all the technicalities associated with batteries.

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What is a battery.

You can get a galvanic cell by combining two different electrodes together. However, you cannot use all the galvanic cells as practical cells or batteries. Usually, we use the term battery for a combination of a few cells that are similar in nature. A practical battery must have the following characteristics:

• It must be light in weight and compact in size.
• The cell or a battery must be able to give a constant voltage. Moreover, the voltage of the battery or the cell must not vary during the use.

Types of Batteries

The batteries or the practical cells of the commercial values are mainly of two types. These are:

• Primary cell/battery
• Secondary cell/battery.

Primary Cells

The primary cells produce the electricity by the virtue of a chemical reaction. Here the reaction occurs only in one direction. We can not reverse this phenomenon. As a result, these cells become dead over a period of time. You cannot reuse or recharge a primary cell. Some of the examples of primary cells are Daniell cell, Dry cell, and Mercury cell.

Daniell Cell

Source: Wikimedia

The Daniell cell has a copper vessel which contains a concentrated solution of copper sulphate. A porous pot containing dilute sulphuric acid is placed in the copper vessel containing copper sulphate solution. A zinc rod is dipped into dilute sulphuric acid. Zinc electrode acts as an anode, while the copper container acts as a cathode. The reactions taking place in the cell are:

At anode: Zn(s) →Zn 2 +(aq) + 2e – At cathode: Cu 2+ (aq) + 2e – →Cu(s) Net cell reaction: Zn(s) + Cu 2+ (aq) →Cu(s) + Zn 2+ (aq)

The cell may be represented as,

Zn(s) | Zn 2+ (aq) || Cu 2+ (aq) | Cu(s)

(anode)                        (cathode)

Daniell cell gives an emf of 1.1 V.

A compact form of the LeClanche cell is the dry cell. It comprises of an outer container made of inc, which acts as an anode. The zinc content of the cell is lined from inside with a porous insulating paper. The cathode is a carbon rod having a brass cap.

There is a space between the cathode and the anode which is filled with a mixture of MnO2  along with a thick paste of ammonium chloride, (NH 4 Cl), zinc chloride (ZnCl 2 ), and charcoal. The lining of the porous paper prevents a direct contact between zinc container and the paste. It acts as a salt bridge. The cell is sealed from the top with pitch or wax.

Reactions during discharge

At anode: Zn(s) →Zn 2+ + 2e –

The Zn 2+ ions migrate towards carbon electrode (cathode). The reaction at the cathode is,

At cathode: MnO 2 + NH 4+ + e – → MnO (OH) + NH 3 MnO 2

It acts as a depolarizer. State of manganese is reduced from + 4 to + 3 in cathodic reaction. The ammonia molecules formed at the cathode react with Zn 2+ ions coming from the anode, to form a complex ion Zn(NH 3 ) 4 2+ . The complication of Zn 2+ by NH 3 molecules lowers the concentration of free Zn 2+ and results in an increase in the voltage of the cell. A dry cell has a potential of about 1.5 V.

Are dry cells really dry?

In reality, the dry cells aren’t really dry. They have a wet paste of NH 4 Cl and ZnCl 2 . In reality, a dry cell will function only as long as the paste in the cell is moist. Moreover, you cannot recharge a dry cell. So, naturally, the dry cells do not have an indefinite life. This is because the NH 4 Cl paste is acidic in nature and it goes on corroding the zinc container even when it isn’t in use.

Mercury cell

Mercury cell is recently introduced in the market. It offers a rather more stable voltage. The emf of the Mercury Cell is 1.35 V. Usually, the mercury cell is costlier. This is the reason, why they are used only in sophisticated instruments such as camera, hearing aids, and watches etc. Amalgamated zinc plate coated with a steel top plate acts as anode in Mercury cell.

A paste of Hg, HgO and carbon powder acts as the cathode. It is placed in contact with the outer steel case. The electrolyte is a paste of KOH saturated with Zn(OH) 2 . An inert porous material carries this paste. The two electrodes are separated by an insulation seal of neoprene rubber. The reactions during discharge are,

At anode: Zn(Hg) + 2OH – →Zn (OH) 2  + 2e –

At cathode: HgO + H2O + 2e – →Hg + 2OH –

Overall reaction: Zn(Hg) + HgO(s) →Zn(OH) 2 + Hg(l)

Secondary Cells

On the other hand, the secondary cells are the repeated action cells. These cells can be recharged after every use. Passing electricity through the cells recharge them. As a result, you can use these cells over and over again. Some of the examples of secondary cells are the Lead-acid cell, (or lead storage cell), nickel-cadmium cell etc.

Solved Examples for You

Question: What is the other name given to secondary cells?

Answer: In the secondary cells, the electrical energy is stored in the form of chemical energy. This is the reason, why they are also known as the storage cells or, accumulators.

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10.2 Batteries and Electrolytic Cells

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• Page ID 218435

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In a battery (also known as a galvanic cell), current is produced when electrons flow externally through the circuit from one substance to the another substance because of a difference in potential energy between the two substances in the electrochemical cell. In a battery made of Zn and Cu, the valence electrons in zinc have a substantially higher potential energy than the valence electrons in copper. Thus,  electrons flow spontaneously from zinc to copper(II) ions, forming zinc(II) ions and metallic copper. Just like water flowing spontaneously downhill, which can be made to do work by forcing a waterwheel, the flow of electrons from a higher potential energy to a lower one can also be harnessed to perform work.

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Potential Energy Difference in the Zn/Cu System. The potential energy of a system consisting of metallic \(Zn\) and aqueous Cu 2 + ions is greater than the potential energy of a system consisting of metallic Cu and aqueous \ (Zn^{2+}\) ions. Much of this potential energy difference is because the valence electrons of metallic Zn are higher in energy than the valence electrons of metallic Cu. Because the Zn(s) + Cu 2 + (aq) system is higher in energy by 1.10 V than the Cu(s) + Zn 2 + (aq) system, energy is released when electrons are transferred from Zn to Cu 2 + to form Cu and Zn 2 + .

Because the potential energy of valence electrons differs greatly from one substance to another, the voltage of a battery depends partly on the identity of the reacting substances. If we construct a battery similar to the one in part (a) in Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\) but instead of copper use a strip of cobalt metal and 1 M Co 2 + , the measured voltage is not 1.10 V but 0.51 V. Thus we can conclude that the difference in potential energy between the valence electrons of cobalt and zinc is less than the difference between the valence electrons of copper and zinc by 0.59 V.

The measured potential of a cell also depends strongly on the concentrations of the reacting species and the temperature of the system.

A typical battery contains two solid electrodes , which act as the interfaces between a chemical reaction and the external wires through which electrons will flow. There must always be two electrodes because the electrons must be able to travel over a complete circuit. The electrons leave the chemical reaction at the anode, which is the electrode at which oxidation (the loss of electrons) occurs. The electrons travel from the anode, through wires into the device (light bulb, phone, etc.), and then back through more wires to the cathode, which is the electrode at which reduction (the gain of electrons) occurs. Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) shows a simple battery made from the zinc and copper system described above.

Notice that the electrons carry negative charge through the external wires, but there are no electrons in the battery solution. Inside the battery, ions carry the charge. Anions flow toward the zinc electrode, the electrode at which oxidation occurs. This electrode is called the anode . At the anode, the zinc atoms lose electrons, which leave the battery through the wires. The zinc ions that form enter the solution. The copper cations on the other side of the battery flow towards the other electrode, called the cathode . At the cathode, the copper cations pick up electrons and are reduced to copper metal. The two sides of the battery are kept separate by the porous disk. Only the anions can make it through the disk. If this battery were allowed to run for a long time, the solid zinc anode would become much smaller as zinc atoms were oxidized. At the same time, the copper cathode would get much bigger because copper ions would be getting reduced to form more copper solid on the surface of the cathode.

The lead–acid battery is a common battery used to provide the starting power in virtually every automobile and marine engine on the market. Marine and car batteries typically consist of multiple cells connected in series. The total voltage generated by the battery is the potential per cell (E° cell ) times the number of cells.

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): One Cell of a Lead–Acid Battery. The anodes in each cell of a rechargeable battery are plates or grids of lead containing spongy lead metal, while the cathodes are similar grids containing powdered lead dioxide (PbO 2 ). The electrolyte is an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid. The value of E° for such a cell is about 2 V. Connecting three such cells in series produces a 6 V battery, whereas a typical 12 V car battery contains six cells in series. When treated properly, this type of high-capacity battery can be discharged and recharged many times over.

As shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\), the anode of each cell in a lead storage battery is a plate or grid of spongy lead metal, and the cathode is a similar grid containing powdered lead dioxide (\(PbO_2\)). The electrolyte is usually an approximately 37% solution (by mass) of sulfuric acid in water, with a density of 1.28 g/mL (about 4.5 M \(H_2SO_4\)). Because the redox active species are solids, there is no need to separate the electrodes. The electrode reactions in each cell during discharge are as follows:

• cathode (reduction):

\[PbO_{2(s)} + HSO^−_{4(aq)} + 3H^+_{(aq)} + 2e^− \rightarrow PbSO_{4(s)} + 2H_2O_{(l)} \label{Eq17}\]

with \(E^°_{cathode} = 1.685 \; V\)

• anode (oxidation):

with \(E^°_{anode} = −0.356 \; V\)

\[Pb_{(s)} + PbO_{2(s)} + 2HSO^−_{4(aq)} + 2H^+_{(aq)} \rightarrow 2PbSO_{4(s)} + 2H_2O_{(l)} \label{Eq19}\]

and \(E^°_{cell} = 2.041 \; V\)

Electrolytic Cells

In an electrolytic cell, however, the opposite process, called electrolysis , occurs: an external voltage is applied to drive a nonspontaneous reaction. In this section, we look at how electrolytic cells are constructed and explore one of their many commercial applications.

If we construct an electrochemical cell in which one electrode is copper metal immersed in a 1 M Cu 2 + solution and the other electrode is cadmium metal immersed in a \(\,1\; M\, Cd^{2+}\) solution and then close the circuit, the potential difference between the two compartments will be 0.74 V. The cadmium electrode will begin to dissolve (Cd is oxidized to Cd 2 + ) and is the anode, while metallic copper will be deposited on the copper electrode (Cu 2 + is reduced to Cu), which is the cathode (Figure \(\PageIndex{1a}\)).

Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): An Applied Voltage Can Reverse the Flow of Electrons in a Galvanic Cd/Cu Cell. (a) When compartments that contain a Cd electrode immersed in 1 M Cd 2 + (aq) and a Cu electrode immersed in 1 M Cu 2 + (aq) are connected to create a galvanic cell, Cd(s) is spontaneously oxidized to Cd 2 + (aq) at the anode, and Cu 2 + (aq) is spontaneously reduced to Cu(s) at the cathode. The potential of the galvanic cell is 0.74 V. (b) Applying an external potential greater than 0.74 V in the reverse direction forces electrons to flow from the Cu electrode [which is now the anode, at which metallic Cu(s) is oxidized to Cu 2 + (aq)] and into the Cd electrode [which is now the cathode, at which Cd 2 + (aq) is reduced to Cd(s)]. The anode in an electrolytic cell is positive because electrons are flowing from it, whereas the cathode is negative because electrons are flowing into it.

The overall reaction is as follows:

\[ \ce{Cd (s) + Cu^{2+} (aq) \rightarrow Cd^{2+} (aq) + Cu (s)} \label{20.9.1}\]

with \(E°_{cell} = 0.74\; V\)

This reaction is thermodynamically spontaneous as written (ΔG° < 0):

\[ \begin{align} \Delta G^\circ &=-nFE^\circ_\textrm{cell} \label{20.9.2a} \\[5pt] &=-(\textrm{2 mol e}^-)[\mathrm{96,486\;J/(V\cdot mol)}](\mathrm{0.74\;V}) \\[5pt] &=-\textrm{140 kJ (per mole Cd)} \label{20.9.2b} \end{align}\]

In this direction, the system is acting as a galvanic cell.

In an electrolytic cell, an external voltage is applied to drive a nonspontaneous reaction.

The reverse reaction, the reduction of Cd 2 + by Cu, is thermodynamically nonspontaneous and will occur only with an input of 140 kJ. We can force the reaction to proceed in the reverse direction by applying an electrical potential greater than 0.74 V from an external power supply. The applied voltage forces electrons through the circuit in the reverse direction, converting a galvanic cell to an electrolytic cell. Thus the copper electrode is now the anode (Cu is oxidized), and the cadmium electrode is now the cathode (Cd 2 + is reduced) (Figure \(\PageIndex{1b}\)). The signs of the cathode and the anode have switched to reflect the flow of electrons in the circuit. The half-reactions that occur at the cathode and the anode are as follows:

\[\ce{Cd^{2+}(aq) + 2e^{−} \rightarrow Cd(s)}\label{20.9.3}\]

\[\ce{Cu(s) \rightarrow Cu^{2+}(aq) + 2e^{−}} \label{20.9.4}\]

with \(E^°_{anode} = 0.34 \, V \)

\[\ce{Cd^{2+}(aq) + Cu(s) \rightarrow Cd(s) + Cu^{2+}(aq) } \label{20.9.5}\]

with \(E^°_{cell} = −0.74 \: V\)

Because \( E^°_{cell} < 0\), the overall reaction—the reduction of \(Cd^{2+}\) by \(Cu\)—clearly cannot occur spontaneously and proceeds only when sufficient electrical energy is applied.

In a process called electroplating , a layer of a second metal is deposited on the metal electrode that acts as the cathode during electrolysis. Electroplating is used to enhance the appearance of metal objects and protect them from corrosion. Examples of electroplating include the chromium layer found on many bathroom fixtures or (in earlier days) on the bumpers and hubcaps of cars, as well as the thin layer of precious metal that coats silver-plated dinnerware or jewelry. In all cases, the basic concept is the same. A schematic view of an apparatus for electroplating silverware and a photograph of a commercial electroplating cell are shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{4}\).

Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): Electroplating. (a) Electroplating uses an electrolytic cell in which the object to be plated, such as a fork, is immersed in a solution of the metal to be deposited. The object being plated acts as the cathode, on which the desired metal is deposited in a thin layer, while the anode usually consists of the metal that is being deposited (in this case, silver) that maintains the solution concentration as it dissolves. (b) In this commercial electroplating apparatus, a large number of objects can be plated simultaneously by lowering the rack into the Ag+ solution and applying the correct potential.

The half-reactions in electroplating a fork, for example, with silver are as follows:

• cathode (fork): \[Ag^+_{(aq)} + e− \rightarrow Ag_{(s)}\;\;\; E°_{cathode} = 0.80 V\label{20.9.12}\]
• anode (silver bar): \[Ag_{(s)} \rightarrow Ag^+_{(aq)}\;\;\; E°_{anode} = 0.80 V \label{20.9.13}\]

The overall reaction is the transfer of silver metal from one electrode (a silver bar acting as the anode) to another (a fork acting as the cathode). Because E° cell = 0 V, it takes only a small applied voltage to drive the electroplating process. In practice, various other substances may be added to the plating solution to control its electrical conductivity and regulate the concentration of free metal ions, thus ensuring a smooth, even coating.

FREE K-12 standards-aligned STEM

curriculum for educators everywhere!

Find more at TeachEngineering.org .

• TeachEngineering
• Two-Cell Battery

Hands-on Activity Two-Cell Battery

Grade Level: 4 (3-5)

Time Required: 1 hour

Expendable Cost/Group: US $3.50

Group Size: 3

Activity Dependency: None

Subject Areas: Algebra, Physical Science

NGSS Performance Expectations:

Curriculum in this Unit Units serve as guides to a particular content or subject area. Nested under units are lessons (in purple) and hands-on activities (in blue). Note that not all lessons and activities will exist under a unit, and instead may exist as "standalone" curriculum.

• Static Cling
• Charge It! All About Electrical Attraction and Repulsion
• Build a Charge Detector
• Completing the Circuit
• Will It Conduct?
• Materials Switcheroo: Construct Simple Electrical Switches
• Bulbs & Batteries in a Row
• Light Your Way: Design-Build a Series Circuit Flashlight
• Build a Toy Workshop
• Bulbs & Batteries Side by Side

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Engineering connection, learning objectives, materials list, worksheets and attachments, more curriculum like this, introduction/motivation, vocabulary/definitions, troubleshooting tips, activity extensions, activity scaling, user comments & tips.

For some engineers, designing amazing batteries is their specialty. Electrical engineers continually conduct research to improve the efficiency of rechargeable batteries that are used in laptops, cell phones, digital cameras and electric cars. Some engineers are developing extremely tiny batteries that are smaller than the width of a human hair. These batteries provide power for microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) located in devices for specialized use in the medical and aerospace industries.

After this activity, students should be able to:

• Describe the energy transformations that take place when a battery is connected in a circuit.
• Explain that an electrolyte is needed for a battery to produce current electricity.
• Construct and interpret a graph of current produced by a battery as a function of electrolyte concentration.

Educational Standards Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) , a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g. , by state; within source by type; e.g. , science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc .

Ngss: next generation science standards - science, common core state standards - math.

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International Technology and Engineering Educators Association - Technology

State standards, colorado - math, colorado - science.

Each group needs:

• 2 pieces aluminum foil: 8 in x 12 in (20 cm x 30 cm)
• 2 wide-mouth glass jars (must be able to hold at least 150 ml)
• 2 small paper cups (such as Dixie cups), cut at ¾ in from the cup bottom, or 2 plastic caps from milk jugs
• 3 pieces (one: 12 in [30 cm] and two: 31.5 in [80 cm]) of non-insulated copper wire (gauge AWG 20) (available at most hardware stores); a total of 75 in (200 cm) per group. Or, if you have insulated wire, it will work if you strip the insulation off the ends.
• masking tape
• wire cutters
• marking pens
• Two-Cell Battery Worksheet

For a Battery Testing Station for the entire class to share:

• containers for the electrolyte solutions (must be able to hold at least 150 ml); wide-mouth glass jars work well
• electrolyte solutions (make in advance with water and vinegar, citrus juice [such as lemon] or salt; see Procedure section)
• a few graduated cylinders (10–25 ml) or liquid measuring cups or jars with volumes marked on the side
• 3 pairs of safety glasses or goggles
• 1 DC ammeter (to measure current in amperes) (available at most hardware or electronics shops)
• paper towels

For a Cleaning Station for the entire class to share:

• water and sink, or, if no drain is available, a large empty container to collect the used electrolyte solutions
• (optional) paper towels

(Before starting the activity, ask students to brainstorm.) From where does electricity come? (Possible ideas: A wall outlet, power plant, photovoltaic/solar cells, batteries, etc. If no student mentions a battery, ask them the next question.) Do you think electricity can come from a battery? (Answer: Yes) Have you ever wondered what is inside of a battery? How do engineers decide what liquid or paste to use in this can full of chemicals?

What is inside a battery that helps produce current electricity? (Possible ideas: Chemicals, paste or a bunch of electrons.) Well, inside a battery are two metal plates or posts called electrodes where chemical reactions take place and produce electrons. Also inside is a solution called an electrolyte, which allows charge to move in the solution and balances the movement of electrons. During today's activity, you will create your own two-cell batteries and learn how engineers determine what type of electrolyte is best to use in batteries!

(Show students a battery.) Have you ever looked closely at a battery and seen a small number with the letter "V" next to it? What does the letter represent? (Answer: Volts) During today's activity, you will learn how to determine the number of volts a battery produces.

(Remind students.) Remember what you've learned about atoms...? Atoms are made of smaller parts called protons, neutrons and electrons. The electrons carry a negative electric charge , move from atom to atom, and create current electricity .

How many different applications can you think of that use batteries? (Listen to student ideas.) How do you think that engineers might be involved with batteries? (Listen to student ideas.) Well, engineers design all the types of batteries that we use every day. Some engineers conduct research to improve the efficiency of rechargeable batteries. Other engineers work to improve rechargeable lithium batteries that are used for laptops, digital cameras and electric cars so they last longer and are able to be re-charged for additional cycles. Other engineers also are developing an extremely small battery to power microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). MEMS devices, which are used in medical and aerospace industries, are smaller than the width of a human hair. That's a small battery!

A typical wet-cell battery has two terminals, a liquid electrolyte and two electrodes, called the anode and the cathode.

During this activity, students make their own two-cell batteries with aluminum and copper electrodes immersed in a prepared electrolyte solution. We use two cells connected in series (one after the other) to make this battery because the voltage produced by each cell is so low; connecting the two cells in series doubles the voltage produced.

In each cell, the aluminum foil serves as the anode. The aluminum foil oxidizes, producing aluminum cations (Al 3+ ) that go into the solution and leave the aluminum electrode with excess electrons. These electrons move through the foil in container A, up to the copper wire (which is connected to the ammeter), and through the ammeter to the coiled copper wire in container B.

In each cell, the copper wire is the cathode. Electrons combine with copper cations in the solution and form elemental copper. The same oxidation process takes place at the aluminum anode in container B as was described for container A. Therefore, there is a movement of electrons from the foil in container B through the copper wire to the coiled wire in container A. Again, these electrons combine with the copper cations in the solution in container A. The electrolyte in both cells serves to balance the movement of electrons by providing ions. Each cell produces a voltage of about 2 V, so the total voltage for the battery is about 4 V.

Before the Activity

• Cut two 8 in x 12 in (20 cm x 30 cm) pieces of aluminum foil for each team.
• Cut one 12 in (30 cm) piece and two 31.5 in (80 cm) pieces of wire for each team. Note that insulated wire can be used, as long as it is stripped at the ends.
• Decide which electrolytes to use. (Suggestion: For a class of 27 students working in nine teams of three students each, use three different electrolytes [vinegar, citrus juice, salt] in three different strengths [weak, medium, strong].)
• Prepare the electrolyte solutions, making about 400 mL of each solution. Make sure to label them. The whole class can use the same type of solution at different strengths, or different teams can have different types of solutions at a range of strengths (see examples below):
• Weak solution : 5 ml (~1 teaspoon) of [vinegar or citrus juice or salt] for every 100 ml water
• Medium solution : 15 ml (~1 tablespoon) of [vinegar or citrus juice or salt] for every 100 ml water
• Strong solution : 40 ml (~2.5 tablespoon) of [vinegar or citrus juice or salt] for every 100 ml water

If the number of teams is not a multiple of three (one team using the weak solution, one using the medium solution, and one using the strong solution), prepare more electrolyte solutions for the remaining teams, making them incrementally stronger.

• Prepare a Battery Testing Station for the entire class to use: 3 pairs of goggles, a DC ammeter, graduated cylinders, all the containers of prepared electrolyte and paper towels.
• Set up a Cleaning Station.
• Make copies of the Two-Cell Battery Worksheet , one per team.

With the Students

Have each team construct its two-cell battery at a desk. After all the groups have finished, gather the class around the battery testing station to observe what happens when electrolyte is added to each team's battery.

Constructing the Battery:

• Put a piece of tape on each glass container. Label one container A and the other B.
• Have students roll each piece of foil so the long side of the roll is about 12 in (30 cm). Crumple about 1/4 of one end on each roll.
• Place one aluminum foil roll in each container, placing the crumpled end on the bottom of the container. Carefully flatten the rolled part of the foil against the side of each container.
• Place a paper cup bottom (or milk cap) on top of the crumpled foil in each container; the aluminum foil column should go up and around the side of the paper cup (or milk cap) (see Figure 1).
• Carefully wind one end of the 12 in (30 cm) piece of copper wire around the top of the foil roll in container A. Make a couple winds with the wire to get a good connection. Leave the other end of the wire free.

• Coil about 22-24 in (55-60 cm) of the 31.5 in (80 cm) piece of wire into a ball. Place this ball on top of the paper cup bottom in container B. Make sure the copper wire is not touching the aluminum foil.
• Coil about 22-24 in (55-60 cm) of the second 31.5 in (80 cm) piece of wire into a ball. Place this ball on top of the paper cup bottom in container A. Make sure the copper wire is not touching the aluminum foil.
• Carefully wind the free end of the third piece of copper wire (the 31.5 in wire in container A) around the top of the foil roll in container B. Again, make a couple winds with the wire to get a good connection.

Testing the Battery. Repeat steps 9–15 for each team.

• Have students wear goggles when they test their batteries.
• Connect the free end of the wire from container A to one of the ammeter connections.
• Connect the free end of the wire from container B to the other ammeter connection.
• Obtain an electrolyte solution. Pour about 50 ml of the electrolyte solution into container A and about 50 ml of the same solution into container B. The solution should cover the wire coils in both containers completely; if not, carefully add more of the solution.
• Measure the current produced by the battery using a DC ammeter. Have one student from each team record the electrolyte concentration and current.

• Disconnect the wires from the ammeter.
• Pour the electrolyte solution back into its correct source container.
• After all students have tested their batteries, have teams disassemble their batteries. Have one member of each team take its materials to the Cleaning Station. Students should gently rinse containers A and B with a small amount of water. Pour this water in the sink or into a container provided for this purpose.
• Have teams report the electrolyte concentration and current produced by their batteries on the classroom board.
• In teams, have students complete the Two-Cell Battery Worksheet .
• As a math exercise, using the chart on the Two-Cell Battery Worksheet , have students construct graphs of current as a function of concentration and use the graphs to predict what the current might be at intermediate electrolyte concentrations.

ammeter: An instrument that measures electric current in amperes.

cation: An ion or group of ions having a positive charge and characteristically moving toward the negative electrode in electrolysis.

electrolyte: A material that dissolves in water, producing a solution that conducts electricity.

ion: An atom or a group of atoms that has acquired a net electric charge by gaining or losing one or more electrons.

Pre-Activity Assessment

Brainstorming: In small groups, have students engage in open discussion. Remind students that in brainstorming, no idea or suggestion is "silly." All ideas should be respectfully heard. Encourage wild ideas and discourage criticism of any ideas. Ask the students:

• From where does electricity come? (Possible answers: A wall outlet, power plant, photovoltaic/solar cells, batteries, etc.)
• What is inside batteries that helps produce current electricity? (Possible answers: Chemicals, paste, or a bunch of electrons.)

Activity Embedded Assessment

Question/Answer: Ask students questions and have them raise their hands to respond. Write answers on the board and discuss as a class.

• What causes the needle to move on a DC ammeter? (Answer: Chemical energy in the battery is converted to electrical energy in the copper wire, which causes the needle to move on a DC ammeter.)

Worksheet/Pairs Check: Have one student from each team record on the board the electrolyte concentration and current while using the DC ammeter. Have students work in groups to answer questions on the Two-Cell Battery Worksheet. After student teams finish their worksheets, have them compare answers with a peer group, giving all students time to finish their worksheets.

Post-Activity Assessment

Question/Answer: Ask students questions and have them raise their hands to respond. Write answers on the board and discuss as a class. Ask the students:

• What is the role of the aluminum foil and copper wire in the battery circuit? (Answer: Copper and aluminum are the electrodes in the battery. Chemical reactions take place at the electrodes producing electrons that move through the wires.)
• Was there an ammeter reading for the battery before you added electrolyte? (Answer: No. There is no ammeter reading for the battery until you add the electrolyte.)
• Which electrolyte solution produced the highest current reading? (Note: This depends on which electrolytes you use and on their concentration. Using a strong salt solution should give the highest current. A strong vinegar solution produces the next highest current.)
• Why do we need an electrolyte in a battery? (Answer: The electrolyte allows charge to move in the solution balancing the movement of electrons.)

Safety Issues

• Require students to wear safety goggles at the Battery Testing Station in case any electrolyte splashes.
• Watch that students do not play with the copper wire, so they do not cut themselves or others.

Make sure students do not touch the copper wire and the aluminum foil. If the copper wire and aluminum foil contact each other, it produces a short circuit (which is a low-resistance connection established by accident between two points in an electric circuit, causing the current to flow through the area of low resistance [aluminum to copper wire] and bypass the intended circuit [the solution]). If a short circuit is created the students will not get any current reading (0.00 A) or will not obtain an accurate current reading on the DC ammeter for the solution.

Be sure to prepare enough electrolyte solution. Some containers may need up to 200 mL of solution, depending on their size.

After students have taken their last readings, have them each add a teaspoon of baking soda (a base) to a container with an acidic solution. Have them record what happens to the ammeter reading.

Connect several batteries together in series using wires with alligator clips. How many batteries does it take to light a #40 light bulb?

• For lower grades, conduct the activity as described, but do not complete the worksheet. Instead, have students measure and record the battery current for each electrolyte using a DC ammeter. Then, have them explain which electrolyte concentration produces a battery with the highest current.
• For higher grades, have students measure current using a DC ammeter, complete the worksheet, and create graphs of current as a function of electrolyte concentration. Use the graph to predict the current at intermediate electrolyte concentrations. Ask students to draw conclusions about how the current produced by a battery depends on the concentration of the electrolyte in the battery.

Students learn about current electricity and necessary conditions for the existence of an electric current. Students construct a simple electric circuit and a galvanic cell to help them understand voltage, current and resistance.

Students are introduced to several key concepts of electronic circuits. They learn about some of the physics behind circuits, the key components in a circuit and their pervasiveness in our homes and everyday lives.

Students are introduced to the concept of electricity by identifying it as an unseen, but pervasive and important presence in their lives. They compare conductors and insulators based on their capabilities for electron flow. Then water and electrical systems are compared as an analogy to electrical ...

Making a "Wet Cell" Battery, Grade 9 Lesson Plan, Renewable Energy, The Infinite Power of Texas. Accessed March 2004. Formerly available at http://www.infinitepower.org/pdf/18-Lesson-Plan.pdf

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Supporting program, acknowledgements.

The contents of this digital library curriculum were developed under a grant from the Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education (FIPSE), U.S. Department of Education and National Science Foundation GK-12 grant no. 0338326. However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the Department of Education or National Science Foundation, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government.

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6: Batteries

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Learning Objectives

• In this TLP, it is aimed to consider the basic electrochemical principles involved in the operation, design and use of batteries and the technical criteria relevant for battery selection.
• 6.1: Introduction
• 6.2: Basic principles
• 6.3: Thermodynamics and kinetics
• 6.4: Primary batteries
• 6.5.1: Zinc/carbon batteries
• 6.6.1: Alkaline/manganese oxide batteries
• 6.7: Questions
• 6.8.1: Zinc/silver oxide batteries
• 6.9: Secondary batteries
• 6.11: Lithium batteries
• 6.12: Battery characteristics
• 6.13: The future

• Chemistry Articles
• Battery Types

Types Of Battery - Primary cell & Secondary cell

What is a battery.

A Battery is a device consisting of one or more electrical cells that convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Every battery is basically a galvanic cell where redox reactions take place between two electrodes which act as the source of the chemical energy.

Battery types

Batteries can be broadly divided into two major types.

• Primary Cell / Primary battery
• Secondary Cell / Secondary battery

Based on the application of the battery, they can be classified again. They are:

Household Batteries

These are the types of batteries which are more likely to be known to the common man. They find uses in a wide range of household appliances (such as torches, clocks, and cameras). These batteries can be further classified into two subcategories:

• Rechargeable batteries Nickel Examples: Cadmium batteries, Lithium-Ion
• Non-rechargeable batteries Examples: Silver oxide, Alkaline & carbon zinc

Industrial Batteries

Vehicle batteries, primary cell.

These are batteries where the redox reactions proceed in only one direction. The reactants in these batteries are consumed after a certain period of time, rendering them dead. A primary battery cannot be used once the chemicals inside it are exhausted.

An example of a primary battery is the dry cell – the household battery that commonly used to power TV remotes, clocks, and other devices. In such cells, a zinc container acts as the anode and a carbon rod acts as the cathode. A powdered mixture of manganese dioxide and carbon is placed around the cathode. The space left in between the container and the rod are filled with a moist paste of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride.

The redox reaction that takes place in these cells is:

Zn(s) –> Zn 2+ (aq) + 2e –

2e – + 2 NH 4 + (aq) –> 2 NH 3 (g) + H 2 (g)

2 NH 3 (g) +Zn 2+ (aq) –> [Zn (NH 3 ) 2 ] 2+ (aq)

H 2 (g) + 2 MnO 2 (S) –> Mn 2 O 3 (S) + H 2 O (l)

Thus, the overall cell equation is:

Zn(s) + 2 NH 4 + (aq) + 2 MnO 2 (S) –> [Zn(NH 3 ) 2 ] 2+ (aq) + Mn 2 O 3 (S) + H 2 O (l)

Another example of the primary cell is the mercury cell, where a zinc-mercury amalgam is used as an anode and carbon is used as a cathode. A paste of HgO is used as an electrolyte. These cells are used only in devices that require a relatively low supply of electric current (such as hearing aids and watches).

Secondary Cell

These are batteries that can be recharged after use by passing current through the electrodes in the opposite direction, i.e. from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.

For example, a lead storage battery that is used in automobiles and inverters can be recharged a limited number of times. The lead storage battery consists of a lead anode and the cathode is a lead grid packed with lead dioxide. Sulphuric acid with a concentration of 38% is used as an electrolyte. The oxidation and reduction reactions involved in this process are listed below.

Pb –> Pb 2+ + 2 e –

Pb+ SO 4 2– –> PbSO 4 (electrode) + 2 e –

2 e – + PbO 2 + 4 H + –> Pb 2+ + 2 H 2 O

2 e – + PbO 2 + 4 H + + SO 4 2- –> PbSO 4 (electrode) + 2 H 2 O

In order to recharge these batteries, the charge is transferred in the opposite direction and the reaction is reversed, thus converting PbSO 4 back to Pb and PbO 2 .

Another example of the secondary cell is the nickel-cadmium cell. These cells have high storage capacities and their lifespan is relatively long (compared to other secondary cells). However, they are difficult to manufacture and maintain.

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Types of Battery Cells | Detailed Classification & Comparison

posted on September 21, 2021

Depending on size, form, rechargeability, chemical composition, or any other factor, batteries can be classified into many types. Depending on their rechargeability, the cells are of two types, primary and secondary batteries. And in the case of form, the types are coin, cylindrical, prismatic, and pouch battery.

Types of Battery Cells 

There are some major categories of battery types depending on many factors. However, these major types can also be classified under other factors. In this section, you will learn about these classifications and their uses. To understand and visualize better, you can watch the video from the link below.

Primary Batteries 

Primary batteries are the electrochemical cells where electrochemical reactions can not be reversed. This is why these batteries can not be recharged. Primary batteries can exist in different forms. Depending on the chemical composition, they can be categorized into 8 different types. Let’s see their characteristics below.

Zinc-Carbon 

Zinc-carbon batteries are very common and they don’t cost much. They are usually used in radios, toys, and instruments. You can find this battery type having multiple sizes. 

Magnesium (Mg/MnO2) batteries have a high capacity as well as a very long shelf life. They are usually used in important applications such as military and aircraft radios.

Mercury (Zn/HgO) batteries also offer a very high capacity and longer shelf life. For this reason, they are used for very crucial medical purposes, such as in pacemakers or hearing aids.

Alkaline (Zn/Alkaline/MnO2) batteries are very popular because of their high performance. Though they come with a moderate cost, you can find them in many common applications.

Silver/Zinc 

Silver/Zinc (Zn/Ag2O) batteries are very expensive primary batteries. However, they have the advantages of having the highest capacity and flat discharge. These batteries are usually used for hearing aids, photography, and pagers.

Lithium/Soluble Cathode  

Soluble cathode lithium batteries are used in a wide range of applications due to their broad range of capacity and temperature, good performance, and high energy density.

Lithium/Solid Cathode 

Solid cathode lithium batteries also feature high density, long shelf life, and performance in low temperatures. They are usually used as a replacement for button and cylindrical cells.

Lithium/Solid Electrolyte

The lithium battery of solid electrolytes offers an extremely long shelf life as well as good performance in low temperatures. This is why they are normally used in medical electronics and memory circuits.

Secondary Batteries 

Secondary batteries are the electrochemical cells where electrochemical reactions can be reversed by applying specific voltage. For this reason, these batteries are rechargeable . There are mainly 4 types of secondary battery cells.

Lithium-ion 

Lithium-ion batteries are the most used battery nowadays since more than 50% consumer market has adopted the use of this type of battery. Specifically, smartphones and laptops are mostly dependent on lithium-ion batteries now. 

The advantages of a lithium-ion battery are very high energy density, high specific energy, longer life, slow self-discharge rate, and a broad range of operating temperatures.

Nickel-Cadmium 

Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries are one of the oldest types of batteries featuring a very long life and sturdy product. Other positive sides of this battery type are high discharge rate, a wide range of operating temperatures. The drawbacks are higher cost and the memory effect that affects battery capacity.

Nickel-Metal Hydride

Nickel-Metal battery is a comparatively new type of battery that is exclusively used in satellites or other aerospace applications. This type of battery has higher energy density and higher specific energy. For commercial usage in portable devices, a nickel-metal battery is available as a small cylindrical cell.

Hydride Lead-Acid

Lead-acid batteries are the most used rechargeable batteries used in the automotive industry. They are also used in emergency applications and have been successfully performed for more than a century. 

You can find this battery in different shapes and sizes and at a low cost. The lead-acid battery features a wide voltage range, high electrical efficiency, and requires simple maintenance.

A coin or button cell is a battery that is shaped like a small disk or coin. This type of battery is mainly used in low-powered devices to consume a minimum amount of power and enable the battery to last longer. 

Cylindrical 

Cylindrical batteries are the most common form of both primary and secondary batteries. This shape is advantageous as it provides high safety by minimizing high internal pressure without deforming. 

Prismatic batteries resemble a box of wrapped packages of thin and rectangular shape. This battery saves up space and that’s why they are used in lightweight electric devices such as smartphones and laptops. They can also be large enough to power vehicles.

Pouch or polymer batteries have the same shape as the prismatic cells, but they don’t have any hard exterior package. This type of battery is good for moderate charging and has extremely high efficiency.

Battery Application 

As it’s the age of technology, we are more dependant on battery-powered devices. The scope of battery application is abysmal. Some of the areas of battery energy consumption are portable electric devices, entertainment devices, household applications, etc.

Some of the tools that require a battery are, cameras, phones, laptops, calculators, watches, radios, toys, keyboards, all infrared remote controls, clocks, emergency lights, portable power tools, hearing aids, pacemakers, blood pressure monitors, electric toothbrushes and many more.

How to Choose a Battery

Usually, you don’t have many options when getting any battery you need for a job, because it will only accept a battery with a certain shape and voltage. But the same type of battery can have different characteristics. When choosing a battery, the first two things you need to notice first are its performance and cost. 

However, if you want the perfect battery for any specific job, you need to dig deeper. Look for the features of rechargeability, energy, shelf life, battery life , recharge rate, and battery temperature, and decide which one suits your criteria.

Frequently Asked Questions

• What is the smallest battery?

Nano batteries are the smallest type of battery with 150nm width. They are a hundred times thinner than a human hair. If we can use them commercially, life will become easier. 

• What size battery does a watch take?

In a watch, we need to put a button cell. The size of the button battery can vary with different types of watches. Silver-oxide battery is the most common watch battery with a voltage of 1.5V.

• Is fast charging a battery bad?

The fast charging of a battery doesn’t affect the battery itself. It’s the heat that is bad for the battery’s chemical composition. When charging rapidly, heat will be generated and affect the battery by reducing battery life. Slow charging is more preferable since it doesn’t generate much heat.

Parting Words

Types of battery cells can be so many, but they are all made with chemical compounds. That’s why you need to be cautious when using or disposing of. Do not puncture or throw away the battery. Contact to legitimate recycle authority and hand over the battery when you no longer need it.

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The Chemistry of Batteries

• 🗔 April 28, 2022
• 🖉 Mentyor
• Dissertation Writing

Batteries consist of multiple voltaic cells or one cell connected to form a unit. This unit is called a battery. Each battery contains two metal plates and a chemical that consists of positive and negative ions. The two metal plates form the electrode, and the chemical present in the battery is the electrolyte. A battery converts the chemical energy inside the cell into electrical energy, which helps us power electronic devices. It provides electricity to laptops, mobile phones and even clocks. To understand the chemistry of Batteries further, we will first study the two main types of batteries – 

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Table of Contents

Primary Battery

A type of battery in which the chemical reaction occurs only once. This property limits primary batteries to recharge like other batteries. Flashlights, remote controls, televisions, and smoke detectors use primary batteries. The most common example of a primary battery is the dry cell called the Leclanche cell (Zinc-carbon battery).

Working of primary batteries | Chemistry of Batteries

• Zinc-carbon battery.

There are two components of zinc-carbon batteries: the zinc shell and the carbon rod. It is the first mass-produced battery used as a source of electric supply in appliances.

The zinc shell acts as the anode and functions as a container. And the carbon rod acts as the cathode, surrounded by a layer of powdered manganese dioxide. The space between the cathode and anode consists of ammonium chloride(NH4CL) and zinc chloride(ZnCl2).

The zinc atoms oxidize on the anode and combine with the ammonium ions to form ZNNH304, while manganese dioxide undergoes reduction on the cathode. 

Zn(s) → Zn 2+ (aq) + 2e –

2e – + 2NH 4+ (aq) → 2NH 3 (g) + H 2 (g)

Overall reaction: 

Zn(s) + 2NH 4 +(aq) + 2MnO 2 (s) → [ Zn(NH3) 2 ] 2 +(aq) + Mn 2 O 3 (s) + H 2 0(l)

Because these are oxidation-reduction reactions that occur, they are called half-reactions. The reaction which takes place in the zinc-carbon dry cell produces 1.5V.

The zinc-carbon battery is used in appliances that require low to medium electric supply. 

• Alkaline Battery

Alkaline batteries use zinc at the anode and manganese dioxide at the cathode. The battery uses an alkaline chemical called potassium hydroxide. In the alkaline battery oxidation-reduction reaction, the zinc at the anode releases electrons to form Zinc oxide. These electrons get transferred to the cathode. Hence, manganese dioxide gets reduced. 

Zn(s) + 2OH – (aq) → ZnO(s) +H 2 O(l) + 2e –

2MnO 2 (s) + H2O(l) + 2e – → Mn 2 O 3 (s) + 2OH – (aq) 

Zn(s) + 2MnO 2 (s) → ZnO(s) + MnO 3 (s)

Alkaline batteries have a longer shelf life than the Leclanche batteries, but they provide the same voltage of 1.5V.

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Secondary Battery:

In secondary batteries, the chemical reaction can be reversed and hence these batteries are rechargeable. The electrons discharged in these cells get restored, which helps the batteries recharge again once connected to the electric source. A secondary cell or battery is heavy and complex among all types of batteries. But it is still used in inverters and car batteries due to its cost-efficiency. 

Working of secondary batteries

•  Nickel-cadmium battery

As the name suggests, this battery contains nickel at the cathode and cadmium at the anode. The potassium hydroxide acts as the electrode in nickel-cadmium batteries. While charging, the nickel hydroxide present at the cathode forms nickel oxyhydroxide. And at the anode, cadmium hydroxide is formed from cadmium. 

Cd(s) + 2OH – (aq) → Cd(OH) 2 (s) + 2e –

2NiO(OH)(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2e – → 2Ni(OH) 2 (s) + 2OH – (aq)

Overall reaction:

Cd(s) + 2 NiO(OH)(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2Ni(OH) 2 (s) + Cd(OH) 2 (s)

This battery gives a better performance than other alkaline batteries due to its jelly roll design. The overall voltage from the nickel-cadmium battery ranges from 1.2V to 1.25V. Nickel-cadmium batteries are present in computers and radio components.

• Lithium-ion batteries

While charging, the lithium ions in the batteries get transferred from anode to cathode. The movement of electrons gets reversed when the battery connects to a device. The lithium ions get released from the cathode to the anode. A separator in the lithium-ion battery functions as a block to the free flow of electrons.

Li(s) → Li + + e –

Li + + CoO 2 + e – → LicoO 2 (s)

Li(s) + CoO 2 → LiCoO 2 (s)

Lithium-ion batteries produce around 3.7V. They are present in cameras and tablets. Recently, lithium-ion batteries-are installed in electric cars on a large scale.

Batteries consist of voltaic cells that help in charging a device. Devices that use them include medical devices, vehicles, remote controls and submarines. Electric cars use lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries on a large scale. On the other hand, primary batteries are used- in household appliances. They are non-rechargeable and have an efficiency of less than 2%- due to which secondary batteries are preferable. 

Secondary batteries have a high power density and a high discharge rate in comparison to primary batteries. They can be used, at low temperatures, unlike primary batteries. The initial cost of setting up a secondary battery is high, but it has efficient performance outputs. 

The future use of cells and batteries is rising. Fuel cells use fuel in place of other chemicals in the electrochemical cell. This method is currently three times more efficient than the other methods. 

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FAQS (Frequently Asked Questions)

• Which batteries cannot recharge?

Primary batteries cannot recharge once used because the chemical reaction in primary batteries is not reversible. Primary batteries are present in household appliances like TV, radio, remote control and other electronic devices.

• What are the two types of batteries?

Primary and secondary batteries. Primary batteries are not rechargeable and have low efficiency. Secondary batteries are rechargeable. And are used as car batteries and also in electric vehicles.

• Why are secondary batteries better than primary batteries?

Secondary batteries have higher efficiency and recharge when connected to an electric supply. Most used secondary batteries and lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium batteries. Lithium-ion batteries work on jelly-rod designs. 

• What are the chemicals used in batteries?

Chemicals such as zinc chloride, sodium chloride, potassium nitrate and magnesium hydroxide are present in electrochemical cells or batteries. These chemicals function as electrolytes in the batteries.

[1] Electrochemical Power Sources: Primary and Secondary Batteries , edited by M. Barak

[2] Introduction:  Batteries and Fuel Cells , M. Stanley Whittingham Robert F. Savinell and Thomas Zawodzinski

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Sean Murphy will begin a rehab assignment next week

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There is some good news on the injury front for the Atlanta Braves as a couple of key players are nearing returns. Barring any setbacks, catcher Sean Murphy will begin a rehab assignment next week per MLB.com’s Mark Bowman.

Acuña is just getting a day off. Murphy will begin a rehab assignment next week — Mark Bowman (@mlbbowman) May 15, 2024

Murphy suffered an oblique injury on Opening Day in Philadelphia and has been on the injured list ever since. He has been traveling with the team and has recently been ramping up his activity. Travis d’Arnaud has seen the bulk of playing time in Murphy’s absence with Chadwick Tromp acting as the backup.

Additionally, reliever Pierce Johnson threw live BP prior to Wednesday’s game and could be activated as soon as Friday’s series opener against the San Diego Padres .

Pierce Johnson just threw live BP to Tromp and Short. He’ll likely be activated Friday. — Mark Bowman (@mlbbowman) May 15, 2024

Johnson was placed on the 15-day injured list retroactively to May 1 due to inflammation in his elbow. Brian Snitker said at the time that they didn’t think the injury was serious, but they wanted to give Johnson some time for it to calm down.

Johnson has been a key piece of Atlanta’s bullpen ever since coming over in a trade with the Colorado Rockies at last season’s deadline. He re-signed with the club during the offseason and has made 13 appearances where he has a 3.00 ERA and a 2.80 FIP in 12 innings.

More From Battery Power

• This Day in Braves History: May 16th
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• Ronald Acuña Jr, Austin Riley out of Braves’ lineup Wednesday (UPDATED)

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